Arhimede - 3 4 2003

$5+,0('(V1UPDUWLHDSULOLH
&217(176

• 0DWKHPDWLFDO&DOHQGDUDFDG6RORPRQ0DUFXV
• $QLQHTXDOLW\DQGLWVDSSOLFDWLRQV7XGRUHO/XSX&H]DU/XSX&RQVWDQ D
• &RSDUDOOHOWULDQJOHVSURI9DVLOH&vUWRDMH$OLQD*X X
• 2QDGHQVLW\WKHRUHPLQPHWULFVSDFHVSURI1LFROHWD'U JKLFL6O YHQL
• $PDWKHPDWLFDOQRWHSURI0DULQD9ODG%XFXUHúWL
• ([DPVIRUSURIHVVRUVGHILQLWLYHDQGVHFRQGGHJUHHSURIHVVRUV
SURI'RULQ3RSRYLFLSURI&RVWHO&KLWHúSURI*DEULHOD6WUHLQX&HUFHO
• 0DWKHPDWLFDOFRQWHVWILUVWVWDJH%XFKDUHVW
• 6ROYHGSUREOHPV
• 3URSRVHGSUREOHPV
• 3UHSDULQJWKHPDWKHPDWLFDOROLPS\DGV
• 3URSRVHGSUREOHPVZLWKLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\FKDUDFWHUSURI0DULDQD6LGHULDú
• 3UHFLRXVVWRQHVDQGPRGHUQ$VWURORJ\
• 7KHSUREOHPVROYHUV¶FROXPQ

&2/$%25$725,$,5(9,67(,$5+,0('(

SURI 9DVLOH $OEX 'HM SURI 1LFRODH %LúERDF $OED,XOLD SURI 9LUJLOLXV 'DQ
6LELXSURI1LFROHWD'X %XFXUHúWLSURI'RLQD(QDFKH%XFXUHúWLSURI/X
PLQL D (QDFKH %XFXUHúWL SURI )ORULDQ *KL %XFXUHúWL SURI 0DULDQ *KL
&RQVWDQ DSURI*KHRUJKH*LXUJLX'HMSURI&RUQHO* QHVFX%XFXUHúWLSURI
,RQ,RQL %XFXUHúWLvQY1LFRODH,RUG QHVFX* HúWLSURI9LRULFD,YDQ%XFX
UHúWL SURI ,RQ 0DULQ %XFXUHúWL SURI 0DULXV 0kLQHD * HúWL SURI 0DULXV
2OWHDQX5P9kOFHDSURI$OH[DQGUX3DYHO0DQJDOLDSURI3HWUH,3HWUH%X
FXUHúWL SURI 1LFROHWD 3RSD %XFXUHúWL SURI 0DULQ 3RSHVFX %XFXUHúWL SURI
$LGD3UHGD%XFXUHúWLSURI0DULDQD6LGHULDú%XFXUHúWLSURI&HUDVHOD7HVOHDQ
%XFXUHúWLSURI9LRUHO=ODWH%XFXUHúWL

&$/(1'$50$7(0$7,&

DOF WXLWGHDFDG62/20210$5&86

♦ '($1,'(/$1$ù7(5(
(PDQRLO$UJKLULDGH ±LDQXDULH
1LFRODH&LRU QHVFX ±PDUWLH
0LURQ1LFROHVFX ±DXJXVW
$1.ROPRJRURYPHPEUXGHRQRDUHDO$FDGHPLHL5RPkQH±
%HQLDPLQR6HJUHSULHWHQDOPDWHPDWLFLHQLORUURPkQL±
-RKQYRQ1HXPDQQFXIDPLOLHDYkQGUDPLILFD LLOD7LPLúRDUD±
♦ '($1,'(/$1$ù7(5(
*KHRUJKH L HLFD ±
'LPLWULH3RPSHLX ±
7/HYL&LYLWDSURIHVRUDOXQRUPDULPDWHPDWLFLHQLURPkQL±

♦ GHDQLGHODPRDUWHDOXL*K/D] U
♦ GHDQLGHODPRDUWHDOXL/DJUDQJH
♦ DQLGHODQDúWHUHDOXL1/REDFHYVNL
♦ DQLGHODQDúWHUHDOXL3HWUH6HUJHVFX
♦ GHDQLGHODQDúWHUHDOXL&7,RQHVFX7XOFHD
♦ GH DQL GH OD QDúWHUHD OXL 1LFX %RERF $XUHO &RUQHD &LSULDQ )RLDú
.RVWDNH7HOHPDQ5DGX7KHRGRUHVFX'UDJRú9DLGD
♦ GHDQLGHODPRDUWHDOXL-DFTXHV+DGDPDUG
2,1(*$/,7$7(ì,$3/,&$é,,/($&(6
7(,$

78'25(//838ûL&(=$5/838&RQVWDQ D

$UWLFROXOGHID vúLSURSXQHV DGXF vQID DFLWLWRULORURSUREOHP GDW ODID]D
ORFDO vQ DQXO 'HRDUHFH DFHDVW LQHJDOLWDWH DUH VSHFWUX ODUJ GH DSOLFD LL R
SUH]HQWDPvQFRQWLQXDUHFDSHROHP IXQGDPHQWDO vQUH]ROYDUHDXQRUSUREOHPHGH
JHRPHWULHHOHPHQWDU

/HPD,RQ&XFXUH]HDQXÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFXUP WRD

UHDLQHJDOLWDWH
$ D
VLQ ≤
E + F

E + F − D E + F − D D
'HPRQVWUD LH$YHP FRV $ ⇔
EF E + F E + F
≥ ⇔ ≥ −
$ D
⇔ − VLQ ≥− FDUHHVWHHFKLYDOHQW FXLQHJDOLWDWHDGLQHQXQ
E + F
,DW vQFRQWLQXDUHFkWHYDDSOLFD LL
6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF vQRULFHWULXQJKL$%&DUHORFXUP WRDUHDLQHJDOLWDWH
U D E F

5 D + E E + F F + D
≤
7XGRUHO/XSXúL'XPLWUX$QWRQORFDO
6ROX LH 6FULLQG OHPD GH PDL VXV SUHFXP úL LQHJDOLW LOH RPRORDJH úL vQPXO
$ % & DEF
LQGXOHDYHP VLQ VLQ VLQ ≤ FDUHvQPXO LW FX
D + E E + F F + D

5FRQGXFHODDSOLFD LD
6 VHDUDWHF vQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD
 E F   F D  D E 
 +  ⋅ $+ +  +  ⋅ %+ +  +  ⋅ &+ ≥
 FD DE   DE EF   EF FD 
&H]DU/XSXúL2YLGLX-LDQX
6ROX LH $SOLFkQG $+ = 5 FRV $ úL DQDORDJHOH LQHJDOLWDWHD GHYLQH
∑ E + F FRV $ ≥ 6 'DU LQkQGFRQWGHOHPDGLQHQXQ RE LQHP
D
FRV $ ≥ − FDUHHVWHHFKLYDOHQW FX E + F FRV $ ≥ E + F − D 6FULLQG
E +F
úLDQDORDJHOHúLDGXQkQGXOHYRPRE LQHF D + E + F ≥ 6 FXQRVFXW úLVXE

GHQXPLUHDGHLQHJDOLWDWHDOXL+DGZLJHU
ÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD
$ % &
EF VLQ + FD VLQ + DE VLQ ≤ 5

&H]DU/XSXúL7XGRUHO/XSX
6ROX LH$SOLFkQGOHPDGLQHQXQ LQHJDOLWDWHDGHGHPRQVWUDWGHYLQH

$ D D EF + E FD + F DE ∑ EF ⋅ ∑ D GXS FD
∑ EF VLQ
≤ ∑ EF ⋅ ≤

≤

E + F
UHDSOLFkQGELQHFXQRVFXWDLQHJDOLWDWH D + E + F ≤ 5 RE LQHPHQXQ XO
6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF vQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD

≥
PD PE PF 5
+ +
&ULVWLDQ*UHFX*0
$
FRV
$ D E + F PD ⇔
6ROX LH'LQ VLQ ≤
D $ D $
⇔
≤ ⇔ ≤
E + F

VLQ
VLQ

$
⇔ PD ≤ 5 FRV FDUHHVWHHFKLYDOHQW vQFHOHGLQXUP FXPD≤5FRV$

5
6FULLQGúLDQDORDJHOHúLDGXQkQGXOHYRPRE LQH
PD + FRV $
⇔ ≥

∑P ∑ $SOLFkQG úL LQHJDOLWDWHD
5 + FRV $ 5 + FRV $ + FRV % + FRV &
≥ ≥ ⋅
D

∑ FRV $ ≤ RE LQHPLQHJDOLWDWHDGRULW

6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF vQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD
PD + PE + PF ≤ 5 + U
'RUHO0LKH 507
$
$ D PD FRV $
6ROX LH$YHP VLQ ≤ = FWJ ⇔
D $
⇔ ≤
E + F

VLQ

$
⇔ PD ≤ D ⋅ FWJ 6FULLQGúLDQDORDJHOHúLDGXQkQGXOHYRPRE LQH

$
∑ PD ≤ ∑ D ⋅ FWJ = 5 + U ⇔ LQHJDOLWDWHDGLQHQXQ

ÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD

OD + OE + OF ≥
5

$
EF ⋅ FRV VLQ $ E + F
6ROX LH $YHP OD = = 6FULLQG
E+F $ 5 E + F 5
≥
≥
E + F VLQ

úLDQDORDJHOHúLDGXQkQGXOHREWLQHPHQXQ XO
ÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDYHPLQHJDOLWDWHDXUP WRDUH
$ % % & & $
VLQ VLQ + VLQ VLQ + VLQ VLQ ≤

-0&KLOG$00
6ROX LH$SOLFkQGLQHJDOLWDWHDOXL&DXFK\6FKZDU]YRPRE LQH
$ % $ %  DE 
VLQ VLQ ≤  ∑ VLQ VLQ  ≤  ∑  ≤

∑ 
 E +F F +D ( )( )
  

  D E  
≤  ∑   ≤ XQGHDPDSOLFDWLQHJDOLWDWHDFXQRVFXW
 E + F  
D +F

+


[\ ≤ [ + \

6 VHDUDWHF vQRULFHWULXQJKL$%&DVFX LWXQJKLFvQFDUH,HVWHFHQWUXOFHU
FXOXLvQVFULVúL5UD]DFHUFXOXLFLUFXPVFULVWULXQJKLXOXL$%&DUHORFLQHJDOLWDWH
$,%,&,5
&&DUDJHDHWDSDMXGH HDQ
U
6ROX LH 6H úWLH F $, = úL DQDORDJHOH ÌQV LQkQG FRQW F
$
VLQ

$ U % &
∏ VLQ = 5 YRPRE LQHF $, = 5 VLQ VLQ ⇒ $, + %, + &, =
% &
5 ⋅ ∑ VLQ VLQ ≤ 5 < 5 THG

ÌQFRQWLQXDUHYRPGDDOWHGRX DSOLFD LLSHFDUHOHO V PODvQGHPkQDFLWLWRUX
OXL
ÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFXUP WRDUHDLQHJDOLWDWH
DEFD + EE + FF + D
E + F − DF + D − ED + E − F ≤
D + E E + F F + D
&H]DU/XSX
ÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHDXUP WRDUH

U D E F

5 E + F F + D D + E
+ ≤ + +
&H]DU/XSX
ÌQvQFKHLHUHSXWHPVSXQHF LQHJDOLWDWHDGRPQXOXLSURIHVRU,RQ&XFXUH]HDQX
DUH R DSOLFDELOLWDWH ODUJ vQ FHHD FH SULYHúWH UHOD LLOH FH DX ORF vQWUXQ WULXQJKL vQ
FD]XOQRVWUXDVFX LWXQJKLF2JHQHUDOL]DUHDDFHVWHLOHPHHVWHXUP WRDUHD
ÄÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLF$%&DUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD
$ DW
W − ⋅ VLQ W ≤ W FXW∈VDXW ³
E + FW
$FHDVW JHQHUDOL]DUHDSDU LQHOXL%DOOLHX5 PkQHFDSUREOHP GHVFKLV GDF
HDHVWHDGHY UDW SHQWUXW∈
75,81*+,85,&23$5$/(/(

SURI9$6,/(&Ì572$-(ûL$/,1$*8 8

6FRSXODFHVWHLQRWHLPDWHPDWLFHHVWHDFHODGHDGHILQLWULXQJKLXULOHúLVXSUD
IH HOHFRSDUDOHOHúLGHDSUH]HQWDXQHOHSURSULHW LDOHDFHVWRUD

'HILQL LD 'RX WULXQJKLXUL$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF $$||%%||&&

'HILQL LD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUH$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF

SRWILSR]L LRQDWHvQSODQDVWIHOvQFkW $$ %% &&

/HPD 'DF $%& HVWH XQ WULXQJKL RDUHFDUH úL 0 XQ SXQFW DUELWUDU SH
GUHDSWD%&DWXQFLH[LVW UHOD LD
$0 ⋅ G
σ> $%& @ =

XQGHGHVWHGLVWDQ DGLQWUHSDUDOHOHOHOD$0GXVHSULQ%úL&
'HPRQVWUD LH)LH%′úL&′SURLHF LLOHSXQFWHORU%úL&SHGUHDSWD$0ILJ

$
%′
0 &
%
&′
D

&′ %′
$ $

%′ &′

0 % & % 0
&

E F
)LJXUD

'DF 0 ∈ %& ILJXUDDDYHP
$0 ⋅ %%
$0 ⋅ &&
$0 ⋅ G
σ> $%& @ = σ> $%0 @ + σ> $0& @ =

+ =
LDUGDF 0 ∈ %& ? %& ILJXULOHEúLFDYHP

$0 ⋅ %%
$0 ⋅ &&
$0 ⋅ G
σ> $%& @ = σ> $%0 @ − σ> $0& @ =

− =

/HPD )LH$%&úL$%&GRX WULXQJKLXULFRSODQDUHFRSDUDOHOH'DF vQ O

LPLOHYkUIXULORU$úL$DOHFHORUGRX WULXQJKLXULVXQWQHFRQJUXHQWH
KD ≠ KD DWXQFLH[LVW SXQFWHOH0∈%&úL 0 ∈ %& DVWIHOvQFkW
%0 % 0

%& %&
=
$0 $ 0
úL
σ> $%& @ σ> $ %& @
=
$
'HPRQVWUD LH&D]XULOH$$||%&úL$$||%&
VXQWH[FOXVHGHRDUHFHILHFDUHGLQWUHHOHLPSOLF F E
KD = KD 1RWkQGDWXQFL ^0 ` = $$ ∩ %& úL % 0 D &
^0` = $$ ∩ %& ILJGLQ%%||00||&&
F $
%0 %0
UH]XOW DGLF UHOD LD %
%& %&
=
E
$0 ⋅ G 0
ÌQFRQIRUPLWDWHFXOHPDDYHP σ> $%& @ = )LJXUD
D
$0 ⋅ G $0 $0 &
úL σ> $%& @ = GHFL
σ> $%& @ σ> $%& @
=
DGLF UHOD LD

7HRUHPD 'DF GRX WULXQJKLXUL $%& úL $%& VXQW FRSODQDUH úL
FRSDUDOHOHDWXQFL
E + F − D D + F + D − E E + D + E − F F ≥ 6 + 6
XQGH D E F úL D E F VXQW UHVSHFWLY OXQJLPLOH ODWXULORU FHORU
GRX WULXQJKLXUL 6 = σ> $%& @ úL 6 = σ> $ %& @
'HPRQVWUD LH&D]XO KD ≠ KD LQkQGVHDPDGHOHPDYRPQRWDFX[YDORDUHD

UDSRDUWHORU HJDOHGLQUHOD LD $SOLFkQGWHRUHPD OXL6WHZDUWvQWULXQJKLXO $%&
ILJDYHP
E ⋅ %0 + F ⋅ 0& = $0 ⋅ %& + %0 ⋅ 0& ⋅ %&
GHXQGHvQORFXLQGSH%0úL0&UHVSHFWLYFX [ ⋅ %& úL − [ ⋅ %& RE LQHP
$0 = [E + − [ F − [ − [ D
LQkQGVHDPDúLGHUHOD LDDQDORDJ
$0 = [E + − [F − [ − [ D
GLQSULQULGLFDUHODS WUDWRE LQHPXUP WRDUHDHFXD LHvQ[
 D D   D − E + F D − E + F  F F
 − [ −   [ + − =
6 6   6
−
6  6 6
  
(FXD LDDUHU G FLQLOHUHDOHGDF úLQXPDLGDF
D − E + F − D F D − E + F − DF
+
6 6
+
E + F − D D + F + D − E E + D + E − F F

+ ≥
6 6
'LQDFHDVW LQHJDOLWDWH LQkQGVHDPDGHUHOD LLOH D − E + F − D F = − 6
úL D − E + F − DF = − 6 VHRE LQHLPHGLDWLQHJDOLWDWHD
&D]XO KD = KD 'LQFRQVLGHUHQWHGHVLPHWULHLQHJDOLWDWHDHVWHDGHY UDW
úLvQFD]XULOH KE ≠ KE úL KF ≠ KF 5 PkQHDWXQFLGHVWXGLDWFD]XO KD = KD KE = KE
KF = KF ÌQDFHVWFD]FHOHGRX WULXQJKLXULVXQWFRQJUXHQWHLDULQHJDOLWDWHDHVWH
YHULILFDW FDHJDOLWDWH

7HRUHPD ,QHJDOLWDWHD HVWH DGHY UDW úL vQ FD]XO D GRX WULXQJKLXUL
FRSDUDOHOHQHFRSODQDUH

'HPRQVWUD LH8QSODQSHUSHQGLFX
ODU SH GUHSWHOH SDUDOHOH $$ %%
&& ILJXUD LQWHUVHFWHD] DFHVWH
GUHSWH UHVSHFWLY vQ SXQFWHOH $ %
& 1RWkQG FX D E F OXQJLPLOH
ODWXULORUWULXQJKLXOXL $ %& DYHP
D = D + %% − &&
E = E + && − $$
F = F + $$ − %%
D = D + %% − &&
E = E + && − $ $
F = F + $ $ − %%
6FULHPDFHVWHUHOD LLVXEIRUPD )LJXUD
D = D + [ E = E + \
F = F + ] D = D + [ E = E + \ F = F + ]
XQGH [ + \ + ] = [ + \ + ] = 8WLOL]kQGDFHVWHUHOD LLIRUPXODDULHLXQXLWUL
XQJKLvQIXQF LHGHOXQJLPLOHODWXULORUúLQRWD LD 6 = σ> $ %& @ DYHP
E + F − D D + F + D − E E + D + E − F F =
= 6 + E + F − D [ + [ + F + D − E \ + \ + D + E − F ] + ] +
+ \ + ] − [ [ + ] + [ − \ \ + [ + \ − ] ]
6 = 6 + E + F − D [ + F + D − E \ + D + E − F ]
6 = 6 + E + F − D [ + F + D − E \ + D + E − F ]
'LQDFHVWHWUHLUHOD LLUH]XOW
E + F − D D + F + D − E E + D + E − F F − 6 + 6 =
= \ + ] − [ [ + ] + [ − \ \ + [ + \ − ] ]
0DLGHSDUWHHIHFWXkQGvQORFXLULOH ] = − [ − \ úL ] = − [ − \ RE LQHP
E + F − D D + F + D − E E + D + E − F F − 6 + 6 =
= [\ − \[ ≥
DGLF LQHJDOLWDWHDFHUXW
/ V PvQVHDPDFLWLWRULORUGHPRQVWUDUHDXUP WRUXOXLUH]XOWDWLPSRUWDQW

7HRUHPD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUH$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF

úLQXPDLGDF VHYHULILF LQHJDOLWDWHDGHODWHRUHPD

7HRUHPD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUHFXDFHHDúLDULHVXQWFRSDUDOHOH

'HPRQVWUD LH3HQWUX6 6LQHJDOLWDWHDVHWUDQVIRUP vQFXQRVFXWDLQHJD
OLWDWHDOXL3HGRH
E + F − D D + F + D − E E + D + E − F F ≥ 66
352%/(0(352386(
'RX VXSUDIH H WULXQJKLXODUH $%& úL $%& FX %& %& VXQW
FRSDUDOHOH
,QGLFD LH6HDGXFHLQHJDOLWDWHDODIRUPD E − F − E + F ≥
'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUH$%&úL$%&FX KD = KD VXQWFRSDUDOHOH
,QGLFD LH 6H DGXFH LQHJDOLWDWHD OD IRUPD '% ⋅ '& − '& ⋅ '% ≥
XQGH'úL'VXQWSLFLRDUHOHvQ O LPLORUGLQ$úL$vQFHOHGRX WULXQJKLXULVDXVH
SR]L LRQHD] FHOH GRX VXSUDIH H WULXQJKLXODUH DVWIHO vQFkW GUHSWHOH %& úL %& V
FRLQFLG LDUSXQFWHOH$úL$V ILHGHDFHHDúLSDUWH
6XSUDID D WULXQJKLXODU $%& FX P
$ úL VXSUDID D WULXQJKLXODU
π

$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF úLQXPDLGDF
E F
− − ≤ FRV $
E F
6XSUDID DWULXQJKLXODU $%&úLVXSUDID DWULXQJKLXODU HFKLODWHUDO $%&

FXOXQJLPHDODWXULORUOVXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF úLQXPDLGDF
D + E + F − O ≤ D + E + F − D E − E F − F D
6XSUDID DWULXQJKLXODU $%&úLVXSUDID DWULXQJKLXODU HFKLODWHUDO $%&
D+E+F
FXOXQJLPHDODWXULORU O = VDX O = DEF VXQWFRSDUDOHOH

6XSUDID DWULXQJKLXODU $%&úLVXSUDID DWULXQJKLXODU $%&FX

D = PD E = PE F = PF

VXQWFRSDUDOHOHPDPEPFILLQGOXQJLPLOHPHGLDQHORUWULXQJKLXOXL$%&

$6835$81(,7(25(0('('(16,7$7(
¨163$é,,0(75,&(

SURI1,&2/(7$'5 *+,&,6O YHQLMXG2OW

/DvQFHSXWXOVHFROXOXLDO;;OHDvQWUHDJDHYROX LHDQWHULRDU DDQDOL]HLDSHU
PLVLQWURGXFHUHDúLGH]YROWDUHDSXWHUQLF DWHRULHLVSD LLORUPHWULFHDOHF UHLQR L
XQLIXQGDPHQWDOHDXIRVWIRUPXODWHvQvQ>@GHF WUHPDWHPDWLFLDQXOIUDQFH]
0)UpFKHW&I'LHXGRQQp>@ÄSHQWUXDGHVSULQGHSURSULHW LOHOHJDWHGHRELHFWHOH
VWXGLDWH)UpFKHWDDYXWLGHHDJHQLDO GHDQXVSHFLILFDQHDS UDWQDWXUDDFHVWRUREL
HFWHFLGHDVWXGLDRDQXPLW PXO LPHSHFDUHHVWHGHILQLW RIXQF LHGLVWDQ vQWUH
GRX HOHPHQWHDUELWUDUHFXYDORULQHQHJDWLYHúL YHULILFkQGWUHLGLQWUHSURSULHW LOH
FODVLFHDOHGLVWDQ HLHXFOLGLHQH³
2PXO LPH(VHQXPHúWHVSD LXPHWULFGDF ILHF UHLSHUHFKLGHHOHPHQWH[\∈
∈(LVDDVRFLDWXQQXP UUHDOG[\DVWIHOvQFkWVXQWvQGHSOLQLWHFRQGL LLOH
G[\≥SHQWUXRULFH[\∈(úLG[\ GDF úLQXPDLGDF [ \
G[\ G[\SHQWUXRULFH[\∈(SURSULHWDWHDGHVLPHWULH
G[]≤G[\G\]SHQWUXRULFH[\]∈(LQHJDOLWDWHDWULXQJKLXOXL
)XQF LDG(×(→5VHQXPHúWHPHWULF LDUG[\VHPQLILF GLVWDQ DvQWUH
SXQFWHOH[úL\
([HPSOHL2ULFHPXO LPH(GHSHD[DUHDO 5HVWHXQVSD LXPHWULFvQUDSRUW
FXGLVWDQ DG[\ |[±\|ÌQPRGDQDORJRULFHVXEPXO LPH(DVSD LXOXLHXFOLGLDQ
5QSRDWHILSULYLW FDVSD LXPHWULFvQ]HVWUDWFXÄPHWULFDHXFOLGLDQ ³
G[\ [ − \ + [ − \ + + [Q − \Q
XQGH[ [[«[Q\ \\«\Q
LL&HUFXO6 ^[[∈5 [ + [ `HVWHXQVSD LXPHWULFGLVWDQ DGLQ
WUHGRX SXQFWHILLQGFHDPDLPLF GLQWUHOXQJLPLOHDUFHORUGHWHUPLQDWHGHFHOHGR

X SXQFWHGHSHFHUF
0DMRULWDWHDPXO LPLORUGHIXQF LLvQWkOQLWHvQSUREOHPHOHGHDQDOL] SRWILvQ
]HVWUDWH FX ÄGLVWDQ H³ GHILQLWH vQ FRQFRUGDQ FX SUREOHPHOH VWXGLDWH 'H SLOG
PXO LPHD&>O@DWXWXURUIXQF LLORUFRQWLQXHX>O@→5HVWHXQVSD LXPHWULF
GLVWDQ DGLQWUHIXQF LLOHXúLYILLQGGHILQLW SULQ
GXY PD[ |XW±YW|
W∈> @
ÌQOXFU ULOHOHJDWHGHSUREOHPHOHGHWLS6WXUP/LRXYLOOHVDXvQVWXGLLOHGHWHR
ULDSUREDELOLW LORUHVWHPDLXWLO PHWULFD

GXY  ∫ _ X W − YW _ GW 
 

FDUHGHILQHúWHXQDOWVSD LXIXQF LRQDOGHRVHELWGHLPSRUWDQWQRWDWFX/

'DF ( G HVWH XQ VSD LX PHWULF VH QXPHúWH ELO GHVFKLV GH UD] U ! úL
FHQWUX[∈(PXO LPHD%[U ^[∈(G[[U`1R LQHDFRUHVSXQ] WRDUHGH
ELO vQFKLV % [ UGHUD] U!úLFHQWUX[VHRE LQHvQORFXLQGvQGHILQL LDELOHL
GHVFKLVHVHPQXOÄ³FXÄ≤³2PXO LPH$⊂(HVWHGHVFKLV GDF SHQWUXRULFH[∈
$H[LVW RELO GHVFKLV FHQWUDW vQ[úLFRQ LQXW vQ$2PXO LPH$⊂(HVWHvQFKL
V GDF FRPSOHPHQWDUDVDHVWHGHVFKLV 2PXO LPH$GLQWUXQVSD LXPHWULF(G
VHQXPHúWHGHQV GDF RULFHELO GHVFKLV FHQWUDW vQWUXQSXQFWGLQ(FRQ LQHFHO
SX LQXQSXQFWGLQ$'HSLOG PXO LPHDQXPHUHORUUD LRQDOHHVWHGHQV vQPXO L
PHD5DQXPHUHORUUHDOHLDUPXO LPHDU«UQDSXQFWHORUGHFRRUGRQDWHUD LR
QDOHHVWHGHQV vQVSD LXOHXFOLGLDQQGLPHQVLRQDO
1R LXQLOH IXQGDPHQWDOH GH FRQYHUJHQ FRQWLQXLWDWH HWFVWDELOLWH SHQWUXD[D
UHDO VHWUDQVSXQFRUHVSXQ] WRUvQFRQWH[WXOPDLJHQHUDODOVSD LLORUPHWULFH9RP
UHDPLQWLGRDUGHILQL LLOHúLSURSULHW LOHGHFDUHYRPDYHDQHYRLHvQYHGHUHDHQXQ
ULLúLGHPRQVWU ULLUH]XOWDWXOXLSULQFLSDODODFHVWHLQRWH
)LH(GXQVSD LXPHWULF8QúLU[QGHSXQFWHGLQ(VHQXPHúWHFRQYHUJHQW
F WUHXQSXQFW[∈(GDF SHQWUXRULFHε!H[LVW XQQXP UQDWXUDO1εDVWIHOvQFkW
SHQWUXRULFHQ!1εDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHDG[[Q≤ε'DF (GúL)GVXQWVSD
LLPHWULFHDWXQFLRIXQF LHX(→)VHQXPHúWHFRQWLQX vQSXQFWXO[∈(GDF
SHQWUX RULFH ε ! H[LVW δ ! DVWIHO vQFkW GLQ FRQGL LD G[ [ δ V UH]XOWH
GI[I[ε2IXQF LHFRQWLQX vQRULFHSXQFWGLQ(VHQXPHúWHFRQWLQX SH
(8QDGLQWUHFHOHPDLVLPSOHIXQF LLFRQWLQXHHVWHDSOLFD LDX(→5GHILQLW SULQ
X[ G[[XQGH(GHVWHXQVSD LXPHWULFúL[∈($FHVWOXFUXUH]XOW FX
XúXULQ GLQLQHJDOLWDWHDWULXQJKLXOXL
ùLUXO[QGLQVSD LXOPHWULF(GVHQXPHúWHúLUIXQGDPHQWDOúLU&DXFK\GD
F SHQWUXRULFHε!H[LVW XQQXP UQDWXUDO1εDVWIHOvQFkWSHQWUXRULFHQ≥1εúL
P ≥1ε DUHORF LQHJDOLWDWHDG[Q[P≤ ε )RORVLQGLQHJDOLWDWHDWULXQJKLXOXLGHGX
FHPF RULFH úLUFRQYHUJHQWHVWHXQúLUIXQGDPHQWDO5HFLSURFDDFHVWHLSURSULHW L
QXHVWHDGHY UDW ÌQWUDGHY UILHPXO LPHD( vQ]HVWUDW FXPHWULFDX]XDO

DD[HLUHDOHÌQDFHVWVSD LXPHWULFúLUXO[Q Q≥HVWHXQúLUIXQGDPHQWDO
Q +
FDUHQXHVWHFRQYHUJHQW$FHVWH[HPSOXLPSXQHLQWURGXFHUHDXUP WRDUHLFODVHLP
SRUWDQWHGHVSD LLPHWULFH8QVSD LXPHWULF(GVHQXPHúWHFRPSOHWGDF RULFHúLU
IXQGDPHQWDOGLQ(HVWHFRQYHUJHQWF WUHXQHOHPHQWGLQ(6SD LLOHPHWULFHFRPSOH
WH VXQW FDUDFWHUL]DWH GH XUP WRDUHD SURSULHWDWH D ELOHORU vQFKLVH FXQRVFXW VXE
QXPHOHGHSULQFLSLXOOXL&DQWRUXQVSD LXPHWULFHVWHFRPSOHWGDF úLQXPDLGDF
RULFHúLUGHVFHQGHQWGHELOHvQFKLVHQHYLGHGHGLDPHWUXWLQ]kQGF WUH]HURDUHXQ
SXQFWFRPXQ

2SURSULHWDWHIRDUWHLQWHUHVDQW DVSD LLORUPHWULFHFRPSOHWHFXLPSOLFD LLSUR

IXQGHvQPXOWHGLUHF LLHVWHRWHRUHP GHPRQVWUDW LQGHSHQGHQWvQGH2VJRRG
SHQWUXD[DUHDO úLvQGHF WUH%DLUH>@SHQWUX5QGDF (GHVWHXQVSD LX
PHWULFFRPSOHWúL8QHVWHXQúLUGHPXO LPLGHVFKLVHúLGHQVHvQ(DWXQFLLQWHUVHF
LDORUHVWHGHDVHPHQHDGHQV vQ(ÌQFRQWH[WXOJHQHUDODOVSD LLORUPHWULFHFRP
SOHWHDFHDVW SURSULHWDWHHVWHFXQRVFXW VXEQXPHOHGHOHPDOXL%DLUH2IUXPRDV
DSOLFD LH D DFHVWXL UH]XOWDW D IRVW J VLW vQ GH F WUH %DQDFK FDUH D DU WDW F
ÄPDMRULWDWHD³IXQF LLORUFRQWLQXHX>@→5QXDXGHULYDW ODGUHDSWDvQQLFLXQ
SXQFWÌQWUDGHY UREVHUY PF PXO LPHD&>@GHYLQHXQVSD LXPHWULFFRPSOHW
vQUDSRUWFXGLVWDQ DGHILQLW vQUHOD LD3HQWUXRULFHvQWUHJQ≥OILH)QPXO LPHD
IXQF LLORUX>@→5FXSURSULHWDWHDF H[LVW [FDUHGHSLQGHGHXDVWIHOvQFkW

≤[≤± úL|X[′±X[|≤Q[′±[∀[≤[′≤[
Q + Q +
0XO LPHD )Q HVWH vQFKLV vQ &> @ GHFL FRPSOHPHQWDUD VD 8Q HVWH GHVFKLV ÌQ
SOXVPXO LPHD8QHVWHGHQV $FHDVWDUH]XOW GLQIDSWXOF SHQWUXRULFHX∈&>@
úLSHQWUXRULFH0!úLε!H[LVW RIXQF LHY∈&>@DVWIHOvQFkWGXYε
LDUGHULYDWDODGUHDSWDDOXLYH[LVW vQRULFHSXQFWúLHVWHFHOSX LQ0vQYDORDUHDE
VROXW 3HQWUX DFHDVWD H VXILFLHQW V OX P R FXUE WLS GLQ L GH ILHU VWU X DO F UHL
JUDILFHVWH VLWXDWvQWUR EDQG GH O LPH εvQMXUXO JUDILFXOXL OXL XLDUQXP UXOGH
ÄGLQ L³V ILHVXILFLHQWGHPDUHDVWIHOvQFkWILHFDUHVHJPHQWFHFRPSXQHJUDILFXOV
DLE RSDQW PDLPDUHFD0VDXPDLPLF GHFkW±0&RQIRUPOHPHLOXL%DLUHPXO
LPHD 8 Q ≥8 Q HVWH GHQV vQ &> @ )RORVLQG DFXP GHILQL LD PXO LPLORU )Q
UH]XOW F RULFH IXQF LH X ∈ 8 QX SRDWH DYHD GHULYDW OD GUHDSWD ILQLW vQ QLFL XQ
SXQFWGLQLQWHUYDOXO>@ÌQ9ROWHUUDDGHPRQVWUDWXQUH]XOWDWvQDFHHDúLGL
UHF LH FD DFHOD DO OXL %DLUH úL 2VJRRG 0DL SUHFLV 9ROWHUUD D DU WDW F GDF GRX
IXQF LLGHILQLWHSH5 FX YDORULUHDOH VXQWFRQWLQXH SH VXEPXO LPL GHQVH DOH OXL 5
DWXQFLPXO LPHDSXQFWHORUFRPXQHGHFRQWLQXLWDWHHVWHGHQV vQ5$FHVWUH]XOWDWD
IRVWSXEOLFDW vQ>@LDUGHPRQVWUD LDVDHVWH UHDPLQWLW vQ>@ 6FRSXODFHVWHL QRWH
HVWH GH D SUH]HQWD R JHQHUDOL]DUH D UH]XOWDWXOXL OXL 9ROWHUUD vQ FRQWH[WXO VSD LLORU
PHWULFHFRPSOHWHDU WkQGvQSOXVF PXO LPHDSXQFWHORUFRPXQHGHFRQWLQXLWDWHQX
HVWH QXP UDELO ÌQ SDUWLFXODU R IXQF LH X 5 → 5 QX SRDWH IL FRQWLQX GRDU vQ
SXQFWHOHUD LRQDOH0DLSUHFLVYRPGHPRQVWUDXUP WRUXOUH]XOWDW
7HRUHP )LH(GXQVSD LXPHWULFFRPSOHWúL)GXQVSD LXPHWULF)LH

GRX DSOLFD LLXY(→)1RW PFX&XúL&YPXO LPLOHSXQFWHORU
GHFRQWLQXLWDWHDOHOXLXúLYúLSUHVXSXQHPF DFHVWHPXO LPLVXQW
GHQVHvQ($WXQFL&X∩&YHVWHRPXO LPHGHQV vQ(ÌQSOXVGDF
(QXHVWHRPXO LPHQXP UDELO DWXQFL&X∩&YHVWHQHQXP UDELO

2FRQGL LHVXILFLHQW FDXQVSD LXPHWULFFRPSOHW(GV QXILHQXP UDELOD

VHYHGHDùLORY>@HVWHFDPXO LPHD(V ILHI U SXQFWHL]RODWH5HDPLQWLPF XQ
SXQFW[VHQXPHúWHL]RODWGDF H[LVW RELO FHQWUDW vQ[TFDUHV QXFRQ LQ QLFL
XQ SXQFWDOPXO LPLL(GLIHULWGH[5H]XOWDWXO GH PDLVXVDILUP vQSDUWLFXODUF
GDF PXO LPHDSXQFWHORUGHFRQWLQXLWDWHDOHXQHLIXQF LLX5→5HVWHGHQV vQ5
DWXQFLDFHDVW PXO LPHQXHVWHQXP UDELO *kQGXOQHSRDUW DLFLF WUHIXQF LDOXL
5LHPDQQFDUHHVWHFRQWLQX SHPXO LPHDQXPHUHORULUD LRQDOH
'HPRQVWUD LDWHRUHPHL)LH& ^FF«FQ«`RVXEPXO LPHQXP UDELO DUEL
WUDU DOXL(2EVHUY PF SHQWUXDvQFKHLDGHPRQVWUD LDHVWHVXILFLHQWV DU W PF
%DU∩&X∩&Y?&≠∅
SHQWUXRULFHD∈(úLRULFHU!XQGH%DUVHPQLILF ELODGHVFKLV GLQ(FXFHQWUXO
D úL GHUD] UÌQWUDGHY U GDF HVWH vQGHSOLQLW DWXQFL %DU ∩&X ∩&Y≠ ∅
GHFL&X∩&YHVWHRVXEPXO LPHGHQV DOXL(5HOD LDLPSOLF úLIDSWXOF PXO
LPHD&X∩&YQXHVWHQXP UDELO ÌQWUDGHY USUHVXSXQkQGFRQWUDULXOSXWHPDOH
JH& &X∩&YGHFL%DU∩&X∩&Y?& ∅FHHDFHFRQWUD]LFH3HQWUXD∈
∈(úLU!IL[D LILHD DúLU U'HILQLPLQGXFWLYúLUXULOHDQQ≥!⊂(úL
UQQ≥⊂5FXXUP WRDUHOHSURSULHW L
L % DQUQ⊂%DQUQSHQWUXRULFHQ≥
LLFQ∉%DQUQSHQWUXRULFHQ!
LLLGDF QHVWHLPSDUDWXQFLGX[X\OQSHQWUXRULFH[\∈%DQUQ
LYGDF Q≥HVWHSDUDWXQFLGY[Y\OQSHQWUXRULFH[\∈%DQUQ
$FHVWHúLUXULVXQWFRQVWUXLWHDVWIHODPGHILQLWGHMDDúLU3UHVXSXQHPF DP
GHILQLWDNúLUNSHQWUXRULFHNQ'DF QHVWHLPSDUDOHJHPDQ∈%DQ±UQ±∩
∩&X2EVHUY PF XQDVHPHQHDHOHPHQWH[LVW vQWUXFkWPXO LPHD&XHVWHGHQV vQ
()RORVLQGDFXPFRQWLQXLWDWHDOXLXvQDQH[LVW δ!DVWIHOvQFkWGX[XDQ

GDF G[DQδ$OHJkQGDFXPUQ!DVWIHOvQFkW
Q
 U
UQPLQ δ UQ − − G DQ DQ −  UH]XOW F GDF [\∈%DQUQDWXQFL

 Q 

GX[X\≤GX[XDQGXDQX\
Q
2EVHUY PGHDVHPHQHDF % DQUQ⊂%DQ±UQ±ÌQWUDGHY UGDF G[DQ≤UQ
DWXQFL
G[DQ±≤G[DQGDQDQ±≤UQGDQDQ±UQ±
DGLF [∈%DQ±UQ±'DF QHVWHSDUFRQVWUXLPVLPLODUDQúLUQFXVLQJXUDREVHU
YD LHF vQORFXLPXUHVS&XFXYUHVS&Y'HRDUHFH(HVWHVSD LXFRPSOHWúLUQ
HVWH XQ úLU FRQYHUJHQW OD ]HUR SXWHP DSOLFD SULQFLSLXO OXL &DQWRU $úDGDU H[LVW

E∈ Q ≥ % DQ UQ 0DLPXOWGHRDUHFH % DQ UQ⊂%DQUQGHGXFHPF E∈

∈%DQUQSHQWUXRULFHQ≥
$U W PvQFRQWLQXDUHF IXQF LLOHXúLYVXQWFRQWLQXHvQEDGLF E∈&X∩&Y
3HQWUXε!IL[DWDOHJHPXQvQWUHJLPSDU1DVWIHOvQFkW1ε)RORVLQGLLLUH
]XOW F GDF δU1±GED1DWXQFLGX[XE1HGDF G[Eδ
$FHDVWDSUREHD] FRQWLQXLWDWHDOXLXvQEÌQPRGVLPLODUGHGXFHPF E∈&Y'H
RDUHFHE∈%DQUQúLFQ∉%DQUQSHQWUXRULFHQ≥OUH]XOW F E∉&DGLF UHOD
LDHVWHGHPRQVWUDW &XDFHDVWDGHPRQVWUD LDWHRUHPHLHVWHvQFKHLDW

%LEOLRJUDILH
>@ 5 %DLUH 6XU OHV IRQFWLRQV GH YDULDEOHV UpHOOHV $QQDOL GL 0DW ,,,

>@ - 'LHXGRQQp $EUHJp G¶KLVWRLUH GHV PDWKpPDWLTXHV +HUPDQQ 3DULV

>@ : 'XQKDP $ KLVWRULFDO JHP IURP 9LWR 9ROWHUUD 0DWK 0DJD]LQH

>@ 0)UHFKpW6XUTXHOTXHV SRLQWV GXFDOFXOIRQFWLRQQHO5HQG&LUF0DW
3DOHUPR;;,,
>@ *(ùLORY$QDOL] PDWHPDWLF (GLWXUDùWLLQ LILF úL(QFLFORSHGLF %X
FXUHúWL
>@ 9 9ROWHUUD $OFXQH RVVHUYDVLRQL VXOOH IXQ]LRQL SXQWHJJLDWH GLVFRQWLQXH
*LRUQDOHGL0DWHPDWLFKH
127à0(72',&à

SURI0$5,1$9/$'%XFXUHûWL

7UDW PvQDFHDVW QRW RVHULHGHSURSULHW LDOHúLUXOXLDQ α Q + + α Q SHQ
WUXαQ QQ)LHGHFLD úLDQ Q + Q + DQ − SHQWUXQ≥YRPDU WDF

>DQ@ QXQGH>[@UHSUH]LQW SDUWHDvQWUHDJ DOXL[
DQHVWHVWULFWFUHVF WRUúL OLP DQ ∞
Q →∞
{DQ}Q≥HVWHFRQYHUJHQWXQGH{[}UHSUH]LQW SDUWHDIUDF LRQDU DOXL[
OLP {DQ}
Q →∞
Q + − DQ
OLP
Q →∞ Q + − DQ −

6ROX LH 9RPDU WDF Q≤DQQ∀Q∈1 SULQLQGXF LH3HQWUXQ RE LQHP

≤ 3UHVXSXQHPF Q±≤DQ±QúLDU W PF Q≤DQQ'LQDQ±≥Q±
DGXQkQG Q Q RE LQHP Q Q DQ± ≥ Q Q ± ! Q úL GHFL DQ
Q + Q + DQ − ≥QDQDORJGLQDQ±QRE LQHPQQDQ±QQQQúLGHFL
DQQDGLF DPDU WDWF >DQ@ Q
'LQDQ≥QRE LQHP OLP DQ ∞LDUGLQúLUXOGHLQHJDOLW LQ≤DQQ≤DQQ
Q →∞
GHGXFHPF DQQ≥HVWHVWULFWFUHVF WRU
'LQLQHJDOLWDWHDQ≤DQQRE LQHP≤DQ±QDGLF úLUXO{DQ}HVWHP UJLQLW
$U W PF úLUXO{DQ}Q≥HVWHVWULFWFUHVF WRUDGLF {DQ}±{DQ}!$YHPXUP WRUXOúLUGH
HFKLYDOHQ H{DQ}±{DQ}!⇔DQ±Q±DQQ!⇔ Q + + Q + + DQ !DQ
⇔QQDQ! DQ DQ⇔ DQ DQ±Q±Q±DFHDVWDvQVHDPQ F DQHVWH
− + Q + −
vQWUH U G FLQL úL FXP DQ ! U PkQH V DU W P F DQ 9RP DU WD

− +
DFHVW IDSWSULQ LQGXF LH PDWHPDWLF 3HQWUXQ RE LQHP D < ⇔

− + Q + −
FDUHHVWHDGHY UDW 3UHVXSXQHP DQ − < úLDU WF

− + Q + −
DQ < /DSUHVXSXQHUHDI FXW DGXQ PQQúLDSRLWUHFkQGODUDGLFDO

− + Q + −
RE LQHP DQ < Q + Q + 9RPDU WDF

− + Q + − − + Q + −
Q + Q + 3ULQ ULGLFDUH OD S WUDW úL DGXFHUH OD

<
DFHODúLQXPLWRURE LQHP Q + − + Q + − QFDUHVHRE LQHDGXQkQG
LQHJDOLW LOHHYLGHQWH Q + − QúL Q + − Q$PDU WDWF úL

UXO{DQ}Q≥HVWHVWULFWFUHVF WRU
'LQDQ≥QRE LQHPDQ±≥Q±DGXQ PQQH[WUDJHPUDGLFDOXODSRLVF GHPQ
úL DYHP {DQ} ≥ Q + Q − − Q úL WUHFkQG OD OLPLW OLP {DQ} ≥ GDU {DQ} úL GHFL
Q →∞
OLP {DQ}
Q →∞
Q + − DQ Q + − Q + Q + DQ − Q + − Q + Q + DQ −
=
Q + − DQ − Q + − DQ − Q + − DQ − Q + + DQ
= =

Q + − DQ −
GDUQ≤DQQúLDGXQkQGQDSRLLQYHUVkQG
Q + − DQ − Q + + DQ Q + + DQ
=
Q + − DQ
RE LQHP DGLF úL WUHFkQG OD
Q + Q + + DQ Q + Q + Q + − DQ − Q +
≤ ≤ < ≤
Q + − DQ
OLPLW OLP
Q → ∞ Q + − DQ −
2EVHUYD LH$YkQGúLUXO DQ = D + DQ − SHQWUXD NNN∈1 VDXD

QQ∈1 UHJ VLPSUREOHPHOHSURSXVHGHSURI0DULD0LKH úLSURIXQLYGU
/DXUHQ LX3DQDLWRSROGLQ>@

%LEOLRJUDILH
>@507QU
>@5HYLVWDÄ$UKLPHGH³1U
>@ ,RQ &KL HVFX 3HWUXú $OH[DQGUHVFX 0DULXV 5 GXOHVFX 6RULQ 5 GXOHVFX
$QDOL] PDWHPDWLF &ODVDD;,D&ODVDD;,,D(GLWXUD3DUDOHOD
(;$0(1(/('('(),1,7,9$5(*5$'8/','$&7,&,,ì,&21
&8568/'(7,78/$5,=$5($/&$'5(/25','$&7,&(

ÌQQXP UXODOUHYLVWHLDPSXEOLFDWSURJUDPDRILFLDO SHQWUXSUHJ WL
UHD H[DPHQXOXL GH GHILQLWLYDUH vQ vQY PkQW RE LQHUHD JUDGXOXL GLGDFWLF ,, úL D
FRQFXUVXOGHWLWXODUL]DUHDSURIHVRULORU0HQ LRQ PF WHPHOHPDUFDWHFX UHSUH
]LQW FRQ LQXWXUL REOLJDWRULL SHQWUX JUDGXO GLGDFWLF ,, úL FRQFXUVXO GH WLWXODUL]DUH
7RDWHFHOHODOWHWHPHVXQWFRPXQH
ÌQDFHVWQXP USXEOLF PXQPRGHOGHDVWIHOGHWHVWvQFRQIRUPLWDWHFXDFWXDOH
OHFHULQ HúLFDUHVHYDGRYHGLGHRVHELWGHXWLOFHORUFDUHSUHJ WHVFH[DPHQHOHVXV
PHQ LRQDWH
0RGHOGHWHVWSHQWUXFRQFXUVXOGHWLWXODUL]DUH
SURI'RULQ3RSRYLFLSURI&RVWHO&KLWHúSURI*DEULHOD6WUHLQX&HUFHO

)LH( {«Q}úLNQXP UXOGHWULSOHWH$%&SHQWUXFDUH$∪%∪&
($WXQFL
DN Q±EN Q±FN QGN Q
6HFRQVLGHU IXQF LLOHIJ5→5I[ [[

J[  [ + [ +  +  [ − [ +  $WXQFL
   

DJQXHVWHVXUMHFWLY EJQXHVWHLQMHFWLY FI$J≠J$IGI$J J$I

Q Q + Q + Q
)LH" OLP ⋅ ⋅ $WXQFL
Q →∞ Q − Q + Q + Q −
⋅ ⋅
DE∞F G

1XP UXOVWUXFWXULORUGHJUXSSHRPXO LPHFXHOHPHQWHHVWH
DEFG
&DUHGLQWUHSHUHFKLOHGHJUXSXULVXQWL]RPRUIH
D4 + ⋅úL=>;@E=>;@úL4>;@F=>;@úL=
G4úL4>;@
$ILUPD LDDGHY UDW HVWH
D([LVW JUXSXULILQLWHFHFRQ LQHOHPHQWHGHRUGLQLQILQLW
E1XH[LVW JUXSXULLQILQLWHFXHOHPHQWHGHRUGLQILQLW
F([LVW JUXSXULLQILQLWHvQFDUHRULFHHOHPHQWHVWHGHRUGLQILQLW
G2ULFHJUXSLQILQLWFRQ LQHHOHPHQWHGHRUGLQILQLW≥
G[ 
)LH" OLP Q − ∫  $WXQFL

Q →∞  + [Q

D" E" F" OQG" ∞
)LHIJ∈&>;@I ;±J ;±$WXQFLG IJ FHOPDLPDUHGLYL
]RUFRPXQDOSROLQRDPHORUIúLJHVWH
D;±EFI⋅JG;±
)LHIJ5→5IXQF LLFHDGPLWFDSULPLWLYHSH)UHVSHFWLY*FXSURSULHW L

OHI *JJ )II J $WXQFLIJDUHYD

ORDUHDDEFGH
)LHIXQF LDI5→5FHYHULILF FRQGL LDI[I[ [∀[∈5$WXQFL

DIQXHVWHLQWHJUDELO SHLQWHUYDOXO>@E ∫ I [ G[ =

FIHVWHQHPRQRWRQ GQXH[LVW IXQF LLFXSURSULHWDWHDGLQHQXQ
& & − P &PP
)LHPQ∈1 úL 6 = P − P + + $WXQFL6HVWH
Q + Q + Q + P +
P⋅ Q P⋅ Q P + ⋅ Q + P − ⋅ Q −
D E F G
P + Q + P + Q P + Q + P + Q
Q −

)LHεε«εQ±U G FLQLOHHFXD LHL;Q úL 7 = ∑ $WXQFL
N = − ε N
Q Q − Q + Q−
D7 E7 F7 G7

3URLHF LDSXQFWXOXL$SHSODQXOGHHFXD LH[\] HVWH

D±E±F±G±±

 [ = \ + \



6LVWHPXO  \ = ] + DGPLWHvQ5

 ]

 ] = [ + [


DVROX LLERXQLF VROX LHFVROX LLGVROX LL
6HFRQVLGHU PXO LPHD$ { Q Q |Q∈1Q≥}$WXQFL
D$HVWHQHP UJLQLW ELQI$ FPD[$ GPLQ$
6HFRQVLGHU DE∈5úLIXQF LDFRQWLQX I5→5FHYHULILF UHOD LD
D
ID±[ID[ E∀[∈5'DF , ∫ I W GW DWXQFL

DE
D, D⋅EE, DEF, DEG,

9DORDUHD UHDO D OXL D ∈ 5 SHQWUX FDUH HFXD LD GLIHUHQ LDO \′′ ± \′ \
D⋅>[@[DGPLWHFHOSX LQRVROX LH\>±@→5HVWH
DEF±G
)LHα + *UDGXOPLQLPDOXQXLSROLQRPQHQXOI∈=>;@FHDGPLWHSH
αFDU G FLQ HVWH
DEFG
)LHIXQF LDI>@→5I[ [ + − [ $WXQFL
DIHVWHVWULFWPRQRWRQ EIHVWHVWULFWGHVFUHVF WRDUHSH>@úLVWULFWFUHV
F WRDUHSH>@FIHVWHVWULFWFUHVF WRDUHSH>@úLVWULFWGHVFUHVF WRDUH
SH>@GIHVWHGHULYDELO
ÌQPXO LPHD=×=HFXD LD[[±\\ DUH
DRLQILQLWDWHGHVROX LLEVROX LLFVROX LLGVROX LL
)LHαúLβVROX LLOHHFXD LHL[[ $WXQFLαβDUHYDORDUHD
DEFG
)LH D!IL[DW[Q!∀ Q≥ DVWIHOvQFkW ∑ [Q = D 9DORULOHSHFDUHVHULD
∞
Q =
∑ [Q OHSRDWHOXDVXQW
∞
Q =
DDEDFDDGD@

6HFRQVLGHU SODQHOHGHHFXD LL[\±] [\]±

$WXQFLFRVLQXVXOXQJKLXOXLGLHGUXIRUPDWGHFHOHGRX SODQHHVWHHJDOFX

D E± F G±

Q +
6H FRQVLGHU PXO LPHD $ {[ ∈ 4 | [ ≤ Q ≤ } $WXQFL
Q + Q +
QXP UXOGHHOHPHQWHHVWH
DEFG
D D D
−D D D
)LHG $WXQFLH[LVW DLM∈=DVWIHOvQFkW
− D − D D
− D − D − D
DG EG FG GG
(FXD LDSODQXOXLFDUHWUHFHSULQLQWHUVHF LDSODQHORU[±\±]
[\] úLHVWHSDUDOHOFX2]HVWH
D[±\ E[±\ F[\± G[\±
ÌQWUXQ UHSHU 2 L M N GLQ VSD LX VH FRQVLGHU YHFWRULL X = L − M + N úL
& & & & & & &
Y = L + M + N DWXQFLSURLHF LDOXL X SHGLUHF LDYHFWRUXOXL Y HVWHHJDO FX

& & & & & &

D E F G

1XP UXOGHJHQHUDWRULGLVWLQF LDLJUXSXOXL=HVWH
DEFG
)LHIXQF LLOHIJ>DE@→5$WXQFL
E
D'DF IHVWHLQWHJUDELO úL ∫ I [ G[ DWXQFLI
D
E
E'DF IHVWHLQWHJUDELO úL ∫ I [ G[ !⇒I[≥∀[∈>DE@
D
E
F'DF IHVWHFRQWLQX I≥úL ∫ I [ G[ DWXQFLI
D
G'DF |I|HVWHLQWHJUDELO DWXQFLIHVWHLQWHJUDELO
1XP UXOGHDXWRPRUILVPHDOFRUSXOXL&⋅HVWH
DEFGRLQILQLWDWH
62/8 ,,
FGFGDFFGGEDED
FFEDFFGGEEFG
DFEFF

,1',&$ ,,ù,5 6381685,

Q
N ∑ &QN ⋅ N ⋅ N = + Q = Q 6HDUDW F IHVWHELMHFWLY úLF J I±
N =
Q + Q
< [Q < ⇒ [Q  Q
|*| ⇒*M=VDX*M.
Q − Q −
→

|$XWN| LDU|$XW=| 'HFLQXP UXOGHVWUXFWXULHVWH + = ' 8 Q
Q ≥
HVWH XQ JUXS LQILQLW vQ FDUH RULFH HOHPHQW HVWH GH RUGLQ ILQLW " OLP [ OQ + [ Q −

Q →∞

± ∫ OQ + [ Q G[ ≤ ∫ OQ + [ Q G[ ≤ ∫ [ G[ = → 'HFL" OQ8∩8
Q
Q + Q

8IJ )*⇒I[J[ NH[⇒N IJ H)LHI[I\

⇒[\⇒IHVWHPRQRWRQ ⇒ILQWHJUDELO SH>@)LHJ[ [[J5→5JHVWHEL
MHFWLY JI[ [⇒IJ[ [1RW P[[ W ∫ I W GW = ∫ I [ + [ [ + G [ =

∫ [[ + G[ = 6HLQWHJUHD] vQGRX PRGXUL, ∫ [ Q − [ P G[ )LHJ

Q −
J ′ Q −
[ [ « [ ∏ [ − ε N ⇒ 7 =
Q± Q±
'HFL 7 'RX VROX LL
N = J
úL − − − ∫− D I D − [ + I D + [ G[ = DE vQSULPDLQWHJUD
D
O IDFHPVXEVWLWX LD\ D±[LDUvQDGRXDW D[⇒, DE(FXD LDGDW UHSUH]LQ

 
W XQFHUFGHFHQWUX&  −  úLUD] 5 )LH$%&'S WUDWXOFLUFXPVFULVFHUFXOXL
 
 % − − + 
+ − + 
FDUHDUHODWXULOHSDUDOHOHFXD[DGHFRRUGRQDWH $
 
   
  
− − − 
&  ' + − −  6ROX LLOH VH DIO SH VXSUDID D S WUDWLF
 
 
  
  
$′%′& ′'′ XQGH $′ %′± & ′± ± '′ ± 6H YHULILF GRDU VROX LL
[ + [ + + [Q [[«[Q Q
→ D 5HFLSURFILH[ T⋅[[ T⋅[
− TQ T − T
« [Q T Q [ [ ⋅ T ⋅ → [ ⋅ = D ⇒ [ = D ⋅
− T − T T
⋅ |T|
− T Q T D − E
T ⋅ [ + T ⋅ [ + + T Q ⋅ [ = [ ⋅ T ⋅ [ ⋅ = E 'HFL T =
− T − T D +E


→
Q

$ $ + % % + &&
ϕ G D⋅DD⋅DD⋅DSHQWUX
$ + % +& ⋅ $ + % +&

D ±D3HQWUXD D D D D úLD ±VHRE LQHG 3ODQXO
F XWDWHVWHGHIRUPD[±\±]λ[\] 3HQWUXFDHOV ILHSDUDOHOFX

2] FRHILFLHQWXO OXL ] WUHEXLH V ILH QXO ⇒ ± λ ⇒ λ (FXD LD F XWDW YD IL

[±\ *HQHUDWRULLVXQWQXPHUHvQWUHJLSULPHFXvQ=
I[ [∀[∈5IDEL IDIL⋅IE DE⋅ILIL IL I±
±⇒IL∈{L±L}'HFLIDEL DELVDXIDEL D±ELDGLF I] ]∀]∈&
VDXI] ] ∀]∈&

3URLHFWDUHDXQHLXQLW LGHvQY DUHSUHVXSXQHSDUFXUJHUHDvQWURVXFFHVL
XQHORJLF DXQXLVHWGHvQWUHE ULF UXLDvLFRUHVSXQGHXQVHWGHHOHPHQWHDOHSUR
FHVXOXLGLGDFWLF
$ÌQFHVFRSYRLIDFH" ,GHQWLILFDUHDRELHFWLYXOXLGHUHIHULQ
FRPSHWHQ HORUVSHFLILFH
%&HYRLIDFH" 6HOHFWDUHDFRQ LQXWXOXL
&&XFHYRLIDFH" $QDOL]DUHVXUVHORU
'&XPYRLIDFH" 'HWHUPLQDUHDDFWLYLW LORUGHvQY DUH
(&kWVDUHDOL]DW" 6WDELOLUHDLQVWUXPHQWHORUGHHYDOXDUH
&DUHHVWHFRUHVSRQGHQ DFRUHFW vQWUHFHOHGRX FRORDQH"
D$%&'(
E$%&'(
F$%&'(
G$%&'(
&RPSHWHQ HOHJHQHUDOHVHGHILQHVFSHRELHFWGHVWXGLXúLVHIRUPHD] SHGXUDWD
DvQY PkQWXOXLOLFHDO
EXQXLDQúFRODU
FXQXLVHPHVWUX
GvQY PkQWXOXLREOLJDWRULX
&RPSHWHQ HOHVSHFLILFHVHGHILQHVFSHRELHFWGHVWXGLXúLVHIRUPHD] SHGXUDWD
DvQY PkQWXOXLOLFHDO
EXQXLDQúFRODU
FXQXLVHPHVWUX
GvQY PkQWXOXLREOLJDWRULX
3UHFL]D L RUGLQHD vQ FDUH DSDU vQ SURJUDPD úFRODU SHQWUX FODVHOH 9,;
XUP WRDUHOHFRPSRQHQWH
$&RQ LQXWXUL %1RW GHSUH]HQWDUH
&2ELHFWLYHOHGHUHIHULQ '2ELHFWLYHOHFDGUX
(([HPSOHGHDFWLYLW LGHvQY DUH

D$%&'(
E%$&'(
F%'&($
G%&'($
&HOHWUHLWLSXULGHSURJUDPH00úL0vúLSURSXQIRUPDUHD
DXQRUFRPSHWHQ HJHQHUDOHGLIHULWH
EDFHORUDúLFRPSHWHQ HJHQHUDOHGLIHULWH
FDFHORUDúLFRPSHWHQ HVSHFLILFH
GDFHORUDúLFRPSHWHQ H
7HPDÄ/HFWXULJUDILFH³VHVWXGLD] OD
D0
E00úL0
F00
G0
$OHJHLWHPLLGXDOLGLQWUHXUP WRULLLWHPL
D'DF UH]XOWDWXOHVWH DGHY UDWvQFHUFXLHúWHOLWHUD$vQFD] FRQWUDUvQFHUFX
LHúWHOLWHUD)
[Q±O [±[Q±[Q±«[ $)
EÌQVFULHvQVSD LXOGLQID DILHF UXLQXP UGLQFRORDQD,OLWHUDGLQFRORDQD,,
FDUHLQGLF IRUPXODFRUHFW
, ,,
$ULDGUHSWXQJKLXOXL $/O
3HULPHWUXOGUHSWXQJKLXOXL %DE
0HGLDDULWPHWLF DGRX QXPHUH & DE
0HGLDSURSRU LRQDO DGRX QXPHUH '/⋅O
F6HFRQVLGHU QXP UXOUHDO[ + + − $WXQFL
L[∈1
LL[∈=±1
LLL[∈4?=
LY[∈5?4
$OHJHU VSXQVXOFRUHFW
G&RPSOHWHD] VSD LLOHSXQFWDWHDVWIHOvQFkWDILUPD LLOHV ILHDGHY UDWH
$2ULFHVXEúLUDOXQXLúLUFHDUHOLPLW DUH
%'DF XQúLUFRQ LQHGRX VXEúLUXULFHDXOLPLWHGLIHULWHDWXQFL
&2ULFHúLUPRQRWRQúLP UJLQLWHVWH
$OHJHLWHPLLSHUHFKLGLQWUHXUP WRULLLWHPL
D 'DF UH]XOWDWXOHVWHDGHY UXOvQFHUFXLHúWHOLWHUD$vQFD]FRQWUDUvQFHUFX
LHúWHOLWHUD)
[Q±O [±[Q±[Q±«[ $)


, ,,
L[∈1
LL[∈=±1
LLL[∈4?=
LY[∈5?4
* VHúWHLWHPLLFXDOHJHULPXOWLSOHGLQWUHXUP WRULLLWHPL
D 'DF UH]XOWDWXOHVWHDGHY UXOvQFHUFXLHúWHOLWHUD$vQFD]FRQWUDUvQFHUFX
LHúWHOLWHUD)
[Q±O [±[Q±[Q±«[ $)
, ,,
L[∈1
LL[∈=±1
LLL[∈4?=
LY[∈5?4

$OHJHLWHPLLFXU VSXQVVFXUWGHFRPSOHWDUHGLQWUHXUP WRULLLWHPL

D 'DF UH]XOWDWXOHVWHDGHY UDWvQFHUFXLHúWHOLWHUD$vQFD]FRQWUDUvQFHU
FXLHúWHOLWHUD)
[Q±O [±[Q±[Q±«[ $)
, ,,
L[∈1
LL[∈=±1
LLL[∈4?=
LY[∈5?4

5 VSXQVXULODDEFDEDEFG
&21&8568/'(0$7(0$7,&à
%XFXUHíWLHWDSDORFDOá
&/$6$$9,,$
D 6 VHDUDWHF GDF [HVWHXQQXP UUHDODVWIHOvQFkW[úL[VXQWQXPHUHUD L
RQDOHDWXQFL[HVWHQXP UUD LRQDO
0LUFHD)LDQX
D +

E 6 VHDUDWHF ∉=∀DE∈=|E|≥
E − E
'DQLHOD&KLWHú


)LH[= − − ± úL

\=± ± −

D &DOFXOD LPHGLDDULWPHWLF DQXPHUHORU[úL\

E 'HPRQVWUD LF [ \

3HWUH6LPLRQ
ÌQWULXQJKLXO $%&VH FRQVLGHU ELVHFWRDUHD%( XQGH( ∈$& XQ SXQFW3 ∈
∈%(úLSXQFWXO1DVWIHOvQFkW&3∩$%={1}6 VHDUDWHF GDF
3& 3(
− =DWXQFLWULXQJKLXO$%&HVWHLVRVFHO
31 3%
7UDLDQ3UHGD5HYLVWD$UKLPHGH
3HODWXUD>$&@DWULXQJKLXOXLHFKLODWHUDO$%&VHLDXSXQFWHOH(úL)DVWIHOvQFkW
$&
$( =() =)&= úLSXQFWXO'SHODWXUD>%&@DVWIHOvQFkW%' =&'6 VH

DUDWHF P
%('P
%)'°
(OHIWHULH3HWUHVFX
6ROX LLúLEDUHPGHFRUHFWDUH
D'DF [ DILUPD LDHVWHHYLGHQWDGHY UDW S
'DF [≠[∈4⇒[∈4[∈4⇒[∈4'HFL[ [[∈4 S
EE−E=EE−E S
D SHQWUXRULFHD∈=

S
)LQDOL]DUH S
7RWDOS
[+ \  
D =  −  = S
 

E[= « WHUPHQL
⋅ ⋅ ⋅

\= « WHUPHQL
⋅ ⋅ ⋅

'LQ « UH]XOW [\ S
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
[+ \
'HPRQVWUD LD[ \ S

SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOS

$ 'XFHP 34 || $1 $SOLF P WHRUHPD OXL 7KDOHV vQ ∆$&1 úL
&4 (4
4 ∆$(%5HOD LDGDW HVWHHFKLYDOHQW FX ± =
4$ 4$
1 (
⇔&4−(4 4$⇔&( $(⇒%(PHGLDQ úLELVHF
3 WRDUHvQ∆$%&⇒>$%@≡>%&@
% & 7RWDOS
2EVHUYD LH6HSRDWHXWLOL]DWHRUHPDOXL0HQHODXV
$ %&
)LH'′∈>%&@DVWIHOvQFkW%'′= úL{+} $'′∩%)

( {*}=%)∩('∆%+'′∆%)&⇒
%'′+≡
%)&⇒
S
)
⇒P
%+'′=P
&=°
* ')||%(⇒P
(%)≡P
%)'úL
+
P
%*'=P
%('P
%)'
% '′ ' & 'DUP
%+.=P
%*'P
. °⇒
P
%('P
%)'° S
SGLQRILFLX
. 7RWDOS
2EVHUYD LH$SOLFkQGWHRUHPDFRVLQXVXOXLSXWHPDU WDF *(!()*)!()⇒vQ∆*()
()HVWHODWXUDFHDPDLPLF ⇒P
(*)°
&/$6$$9,,,$
[ + [ + + −
'DF $={[|[∈5úL
[− [ + −
∈=}úL%={[|[∈5úL ∈
∈=}GHPRQVWUD LF $∩%≠∅

3HWUH6LPLRQ
D$U WD LF D E F ≥DEF SHQWUXDEF∈5

E)LHDEF!QXPHUHUHDOHFXD⋅E⋅F=6 VHDUDWHF
E + F F + D D + E
≥DEF
D E F
0LUFHD/DVFX*D]HWD0DWHPDWLF
)LH $%&' úL $%() URPEXUL VLWXDWH vQ SODQH SHUSHQGLFXODUH 'DF P
%$' =
P
)$%=°DIOD L
DGLVWDQ DGLQWUHGUHSWHOH$%úL)'vQIXQF LHGHD=$%
EGLVWDQ DGLQWUHGUHSWHOH)'úL%(
9DVLOLFD'LOLPR 1L
8QKHSWDJRQLQVFULSWLELODUHWUHLXQJKLXULGHP VXU °6 VHDUDWHF KHSWD
JRQXODUHGRX ODWXULHJDOH
*D]HWD0DWHPDWLF

6ROX LLúLEDUHPGHFRUHFWDUH
[ + + S
)LH[∈$∩%⇒[∈$úL[∈%'LQ[∈$⇒ =S∈=⇒[= S
[− S −
S + + S −
'HRDUHFH[∈%UH]XOW ∈=⇒S=−
S + + S −
− −
'HFL[= = ∈$∩%úLDVWIHO$∩%≠∅ S
−
SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOS
DD−EE−FF−D≥∀DEF∈5 S
D + E + F D + E + F D + E + F
E,QHJDOLWDWHDHVWHHFKLYDOHQW FX ≥
D F E
D + E + F  
≥DEF'LQDEF≥ ⇒DEF  + +  ≥
D E F
D+E+F   D+E+F
⋅DEF  + +  ≥ ⋅=DEF'LQD⋅E⋅F=⇒
D E F
≥
 
 
⇒DEF≥5H]XOW DEF  + +  ≥DEFDEF≥
D E F
≥DEF S
SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOS
D)LH)3⊥%$úL'3′⊥$%⇒$3=$)⋅FRV°úL )
(
$3′=$'⋅FRV°⇒$3′=$3⇒3=3′⇒%3⊥)3'
&RQVWUXLP34⊥)'FDUHHVWHGLVWDQ DGLQWUH$%úL)'⇒ 0 1
D 4
S % 3
⇒34=
$
E%(&||)$')LH01⊥%(0∈%(01⊥)'1∈)'⇒
⇒01⊥$)'⇒01GLVWDQ DGLQWUHSODQHOH%(&úL)$' & '
01 G()$'1RW PFXKvQ O LPHDGLQ(vQWHWUDHGUXO()$'úLVHGHWHUPLQ FXDMX
D
WRUXOYROXPXOXLWHWUDHGUXOXLK⋅6)$'=6()$⋅'3⇒K= S

$ SGLQRILFLX
$
7RWDOS
3UHVXSXQHPF GLQWUHFHOHWUHLXQJKLXULGH°QXH[LVW GRX
$
$ DO WXUDWH)LHP
$=P
$=P
$=°⇒P
$$
P
$$=°P
$$P
$$=°⇒
$ ⇒P
$$ =°−⋅°=°P
$$P
$$=
$
°FRQWUDGLF LH'HFLSXWHPDOHJHP
$=P
$=
$

°⇒P
$$=P
$$⇒>$$@=>$$@ S
SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOS
&/$6$$,;$
D6 VHGHWHUPLQHSDUWHDvQWUHDJ DQXP UXOXL + + + XQGH

Q UDGLFDOL
Q∈1
E )LH [ \ ∈ 5 DVWIHO vQFkW [ \ ∈ 4 [ \ ∈ 4 [ \ ∈ 4 $WXQFL
[\∈4úL[⋅\∈4
6RULQ5 GXOHVFXúL&RVWHO&KLWHú
6 VH GHWHUPLQH IXQF LD I 5 → 5 SHQWUX FDUH I [ [ ∀ [ ∈ > úL
I[ I[[∀[∈5
/DXUHQ LX3DQDLWRSRO
6HFRQVLGHU SXQFWHOH$%&'FRSODQDUHRULFDUHWUHLQHFRSODQDUHúL+
+RUWRFHQWUHOHWULXQJKLXULORU$%&úLUHVSHFWLY$%'6 VHDUDWHF $%&'VXQW
FRQFLFOLFHGDF úLQXPDLGDF ++ = &'
0DULDQ$QGURQDFKH
)LHWULXQJKLXO$%&SXQFWXO0∈%&úLFHUFXULOH& &,U& &,U
& &,UFHUFXULOHvQVFULVHvQWULXQJKLXULOH$%&$%0UHVSHFWLY$&0 6 VH
DUDWHF
DFHUFXULOH&úL&VXQWWDQJHQWHGDF úLQXPDLGDF 0∈&
E'DF 0∈&DWXQFLH[LVW UHOD LD S⋅ $, = D ⋅ $6 + S − D ⋅ $' XQGH6'
,6 S − D
VXQWPLMORDFHOHVHJPHQWHORU>$0@UHVSHFWLY>%&@,∈6'
,' D
=
9LUJLO1LFXOD
%DUHPGHFRUHFWDUH
D[Q + + + ∀Q∈1 [Q∀Q≥'HPRQVWUD LHSULQLQGXF

LH'HFL>[Q@ ∀Q≥ S
E'DF D⋅E 3HQWUXD E WRWXOHVWHHYLGHQW3HQWUXD≠ E⇒D∈4D∈4
⇒D∈4⇒DE∈4úLD⋅E∈4'DF D⋅E≠$WXQFLDEDE±DE
DED±E∈4'DUDE±DE E∈4⇒D±E∈4⇒D⋅E∈4⇒
⇒D±DEE∈4'DUDE DED±DEE∈4⇒DE∈4 S
SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOS

[ − [ +
)LHJ[ I[− $YHPJ[ J[∀[∈5úLSULQLQGXF LHJ[Q

J[∀Q∈=∀[∈5'LQ[ >[@^[`UH]XOW F J[ J^[`&XP{[`∈>⇒
[ − [ + [ − [ +
⇒I^[` ^[`'LQI[ J[ J^[`

^[ ` − ^[` + [ − [ + [ − [ + ^[` + [ − [ + ^[`
I^[`− S

+ + =
$ SGLQRILFLX
2 2 7RWDOS
* '
* *
* 1
&
0 % + +
** = *2 + 22 + 2* ⇒ ** = *2 + 22 + 2* ⇒ *2 + 2* =
** − 22
++ = +* + ** + * + = *2 + ** + 2* = ** − 22

** = 01 = ⋅ ⋅ &' = &' ⇒ ** = &' 'HFL ++ = &' − 22

$YHP ++ = &' ⇔ 22 = 2 ⇔2≡2⇔$%&'VXQWFRQFLFOLFH S
$ SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOSXQFWH
D9úL9SXQFWHOHGHWDQJHQ FXGUHDSWD$0DOHFHUFX
6 ULORU&UHVSHFWLY&&HUFXULOH&úL&VXQWWDQJHQWH⇔
,
$9 $9 ⇔ $0 + F − 0% = $0 E ± 0& ⇔

% &
0'′' 0% S±E0& S±F⇔0∈& S
E ⋅ $% + F ⋅ $& $, E+F
E $'′ = XQGH'′HVWHSLFLRUXOELVHFWRDUHLGLQ$ ⇒
E+F $'′ S
=
E ⋅ $% + F ⋅ $& S − D
⇒ S $, = S − D $' = $% + $&

S − F $% + S − E $& S − F $% + S − E $&
$0 = ⇒ D ⋅ $6 = vQORFXLQG VH YHULILF
D
,6 S − D
UHOD LDFHUXW ⇔ D ⋅ ,6 + S − D ,' = 2 ⇔ , ∈ 6' úL S
,' D
=
SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOSXQFWH

&/$6$$;$
D 'DF vQ WHWUDHGUXO UHJXODW $%&' DX ORF FRQGL LLOH $% ⊥ &' úL $& ⊥
⊥%'DWXQFL$'⊥%&
E)LH XQ SDWUXODWHUFRQYH[ $%&' úL 0 PLMORFXOOXL&' 'DF $% %&
$'úL%0HVWHSHUSHQGLFXODUSH$0V VHDUDWHF %&úL$'VXQWSDUDOHOH
/DXUHQ LX3DQDLWRSRO
)LHDEFGQXPHUHFRPSOH[HFXDFHODúLPRGXODVWIHOvQFkWDEF G
6 VHDUDWHF XQXOGLQQXPHUHOHDEFHVWHHJDOFXG
0DUFHO HQD
 Q
D)LHSQ∈1 S!Q6 VHDUDWHF  ∑ S + &QN  = Q + XQGH>[@HVWH

N = 
SDUWHDvQWUHDJ DQXP UXOXLUHDO[
9LUJLO1LFXOD*D]HWD0DWHPDWLF
E)LHPQS∈1 úLDEF∈VDXDEF∈∞$IOD LPLQLPXOH[

SUHVLHL( ORJDEPORJEFQORJFDS

'DQ1HGHLDQX*D]HWD0DWHPDWLF
D )LH 0 1 3 4 YkUIXULOH XQXL SDWUXODWHU FRQYH[ $WXQFL 60134

03⋅14⋅VLQαXQGHαHVWHXQJKLXOGHWHUPLQDWGHGLDJRQDOHOHSDWUXODWHUXOXL

E6 VHDUDWHF vQRULFHWULXQJKL$%&DUHORFUHOD LD

XQGH 6 HVWH DULD WULXQJKLXOXL LDU PD PE PF UH
PE ⋅ PF PF ⋅ PD PD ⋅ PE 6
+ + ≤
SUH]LQW OXQJLPLOHPHGLDQHORUFRUHVSXQ] WRDUHODWXULORUDEF

*K6]|OO|V\*D]HWD0DWHPDWLF
%DUHPGHFRUHFWDUH
D )LH 2 RULJLQHD XQXL UHSHU $WXQFL $% ⊥ &' ⇔ $% ⋅&' = úL $& ⊥ %' ⇔
$& ⋅ %' = 2E LQHP 2% − 2$ ⋅ 2' − 2& = úL 2& − 2$ ⋅ 2' − 2% = 6F ]kQG
DFHVWHUHOD LLRE LQHP 2' ⋅ &% − 2$ ⋅ &% = DGLF $' ⋅ &% = ⇒$'⊥%& S
E)LH %& = Y &' = Y '$ = Y |Y| E|Y| F|Y| G$YHP

%0 = Y + ⋅ Y 0$ = ⋅ Y + Y 'LQ %0 ⋅ 0$ = ⇒Y⋅YY⋅YYF

%$ = Y + Y + Y %$ EG YYY EFGYYYYYY6F
]kQGUHOD LLOHRE LQXWHEG −EG⋅FRVϕ⇒FRVϕ −⇒ϕ πDGLF %& $' S
SGLQRILFLX

6ROX LD,3XWHPSUHVXSXQHI U DUHVWUkQJHJHQHUDOLWDWHDF QXPHUHOHDEFGDXPR

GXOXOGDF DXPRGXOXOU!OHvPS U LPSULQUúLRE LQHPQXPHUHGHPRGXOLDUGDF
U SUREOHPD HVWH EDQDO 7UHFkQG OD FRQMXJDWH vQ HJDOLWDWH D E F G RE LQHP

+ + = VDXGDEEFFD DEF&DOFXO PSURGXVXOG±DG±EG±FúLDYHP
D E F G
G±DG±EG±F G−DEFGDEEFFDG−DEF 5H]XOW D GVDXE
GVDXF G S
SGLQRILFLX
6ROX LD,,ÌQSODQXOFRPSOH[ILH$D%E&F'GSHXQFHUFFXFHQWUXOvQRULJL
QH 2UWRFHQWUXO + DO WULXQJKLXOXL $%& DUH DIL[XO D E F 6\OYHVWHU DGLF +G GHFL
+ ''HFL∆$%&HVWHGUHSWXQJKLFúL' $VDX' %VDX' &

D < S + &QN < + ⋅ &QN ≤ N ≤ Q LQHJDOLWDWHD %HUQRXOOL úL vQVXPkQG RE LQHP
S
Q
Q N Q
Q ∑ S + &QN < Q + + ⋅ ∑ &Q = Q + + < Q + 5H]XOW FRQFOX]LD S
N = S N = S
EORJDEORJEFORJFD∈∞úLSURGXVXO3 ORJDE⋅ORJEF⋅ORJFD 0LQLPXOH[SUHVL
ORJ D E ORJE F ORJF D
HL(DUHORFFkQG = N ⇒ N⋅P⋅Q⋅S⇒ N =
P Q S
= =
PQS
PQ SS SS
'HFL(PLQ S
PQS P PQS S PQS Q
+ +
SGLQRILFLX
DE VLQ &
D6HXWLOL]HD] IRUPXODDULHLXQXLWULXQJKL6 S
$
P ⋅ P ⋅ VLQ α 6
E6%&'( 6= E F ⇒PE⋅PF
VLQ α ' (
6 α
'HFL ∑ VLQ α + VLQ β + VLQ γ úL
PE ⋅ PF % &
=

αβγ π5H]XOW F ∑ S
PE ⋅ PF ⋅ 6 6
≤ ⋅ =
SGLQRILFLX
7RWDOS
&/$6$$;,$
D)LH$RPDWULFHS WUDW GHRUGLQFXHOHPHQWHvQWUHJL'DF HOHPHQWHOH
GLDJRQDOHLSULQFLSDOHDXDFHHDúLSDULWDWHGLIHULW GHSDULWDWHDFHORUODOWHHOHPHQ
WHDWXQFLGHW$≠
'LQXùHUE QHVFX

E)LHDQQ≥XQúLUGHQXPHUHUHDOHVWULFWSR]LWLYHFDUHVDWLVIDFUHOD LD

DQ−DQ DQ∀Q∈1 6 VHFDOFXOH]H/ OLP DQ úWLLQGF DFHDVW OLPLW H[LVW
Q →∞
9DOHQWLQ9RUQLFX
 
D)LH$∈05$   6 VHGHWHUPLQHPDWULFHOH;∈05
 
 
 
SHQWUXFDUH$⋅; ;⋅$
E6 VHUH]ROYHHFXD LD;Q $FX;∈05úLQ∈1
/DXUHQ LX3DQDLWRSRO
Q N
D 6H FRQVLGHU úLUXO DQ ∑ Q ∈ 1 6 VH DUDWH F OLP DQ = úL
N = N Q →∞
Q
OLP ⋅ − DQ = H
Q→∞ Q Q
9LUJLO1LFXOD
E)LH$%&'XQGUHSWXQJKLGHGLPHQVLXQLDELDUU!'HILQLP0UPXO L
PHDSXQFWHORUGLQSODQXOGUHSWXQJKLXOXLVLWXDWHODGLVWDQ ≤UID GHILJXUD$%&'
$U
1RWkQGFX$UDULDPXO LPLLSODQH0UV VHFDOFXOH]H OLP
U →∞ U
&RVWHO&KLWHú
)LH D∈5úLI5→5RIXQF LHSHQWUXFDUHI[⋅I\I[I\
I[\D∀[\∈5
D6 VHGHWHUPLQHD∈5úWLLQGF IXQF LDIHVWHELMHFWLY ÌQDFHVWFD]V VH
FDOFXOH]HI−IúLI
E6 VHGHWHUPLQHIXQF LLOHFRQWLQXHFHYHULILF SXQFWXOD
0DUFHO&KLUL
%DUHPGHFRUHFWDUH
D'DF HOHPHQWHOHGLDJRQDOHLSULQFLSDOHVXQWLPSDUHDWXQFL$ ,PRGGHFLGHW$
HVWH LPSDU ⇒ GHW $ ≠ 'DF HOHPHQWHOH GLDJRQDOHL SULQFLSDOH VXQW SDUH DWXQFL $ DUH
HOHPHQWHOHGLDJRQDOHLSULQFLSDOHLPSDUH⇒GHW$≠⇒GHW$≠ S
E'DF úLUXODUILGLYHUJHQW⇒/ ∞GHRDUHFHDQ!∀Q∈1 'DF úLUXOHVWHFRQ
YHUJHQWDWXQFL/∈57UHFkQGODOLPLW vQUHOD LDGHUHFXUHQ RE LQHP/ 'HFL∃Q∈
∈ 1 DVWIHO vQFkW ∀ Q ≥ Q DYHP DQ 'DU DQ − DQ ± D Q &XP DQ D Q
∀Q≥QQXSXWHPDYHDDQ DQ− DQ GHFLDQ DQ DQ !DQ∀Q≥QGHFLDQQ
QXSRDWHFRQYHUJHOD3ULQXUPDUH/ ∞ S
SGLQRILFLX

D E F  D E F
D)LH;  G H I  'LQ$; ;⋅$UH]XOW ;  F D E  DEF∈5 S
   
J K L 
 
F
 D 
D E F
E'LQ;Q $⇒;Q $; ;⋅$GHFL;  D E 
 
 D 

 E F 
$YHP GHW ;Q GHW $ ⇒ GHW ; D ⇒ D ⇒ ;  E  5H]XOW
 
 
 
 E 
 
;  E  úL;Q 2∀Q≥3HQWUXDDYHD;Q $VLQJXUDSRVLELOLWDWHHVWHQ
 
 
úL; $ S
SGLQRILFLX
Q
N + − Q +
D ⋅ D Q = ∑ = D Q − + Q + − ⋅ − − Q
N = N +

Q + Q+
$úDGDUDQ − − Q DGLF DQ − Q ∀Q∈1 úL OLP DQ = DQ ↑
Q
Q →∞
Q Q Q Q
E Q ⋅ − DQ = ⋅ − D Q = X Q ⋅ YQ XQGHXQ Q
H úL
Q Q Q
⋅ →
Q
Q QQ
− DQ [Q Q
Y Q XQGH [Q − DQ b úL \Q b $SOLF P OHPD 6WRO] FD]
Q \Q Q
=
Q
[Q + − [ Q D − D Q + Q + Q [
= Q → 'HFLYQ Q  → úLEQXQ⋅YQ  Q
H
\ Q + − \ Q Q + − Q Q − \Q Q
=  →
Q +
Q
S
SGLQRILFLX
D3HQWUX[ \DYHP>I[@ I[D&XPIHVWHVXUMHFWLY ∃[∈5DVWIHOvQFkW
I[ −'HFL I [ −D−3HQWUX[ ±[DYHP I [ D ⇒I−[ −
GHFL[ úLI −GHXQGHRE LQHPD 'HFLI [ I[−I[3HQWUX[
I −I&XPI≠±UH]XOW I 3HQWUX[ −I − I−I−⇒
⇒I− −I−úLFXPI−≠⇒I− − S

E )XQF LD J[ I [ HVWH FRQWLQX YHULILFkQG HFXD LD GH WLS &DXFK\
J[⋅J\ J[⋅\∀[\∈5FXJ úLJ úLDUHVROX LDJ[ [αSHQWUX[!
− − [ α [ < − − [ α − [ <
'HFLJ[  [ = GHXQGHI[ − [ = S
 
[ [> [ − [>
 α  α
SGLQRILFLX
&/$6$$;,,$
)LH*⋅XQJUXSúL+RVXEPXO LPHDOXL*QHYLG úLGLIHULW GH*DYkQG
SURSULHWDWHD∀[∈+∀\∈*?+⇒[\∈*?+6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF +HVWHXQ
VXEJUXSDOOXL*
H [ [ −
6 VHFDOFXOH]H ∫ G[ [∈∞
[ [ + H [
)LHI>@→5I[ [H[6 VHFDOFXOH]H
  [ 

OLP Q ∫  I   −  G[

  Q  
Q →∞  
)LH$ ^I∈4>;@|IQ∈=∀Q∈=`6 VHDUDWHF
D$HVWHVXELQHODOOXL4>;@
E=>;@QXHVWHL]RPRUIFX$

%DUHPGHFRUHFWDUH
H∈+S3ULQDEVXUGH∈*?+ILH[∈+UH]XOW [H∈*?+UH]XOW [∈*?+FRQ
WUDGLF LH
∀[∈+⇒[−∈+S3ULQDEVXUGGDF H[LVW [∈+DVWIHOvQFkW[ −∈*?+UH]XOW
[[−∈*?+UH]XOW H∈*?+FRQWUDGLF LH
∀[\∈+⇒[\∈+S3ULQDEVXUGGDF H[LVW [\∈+DVWIHOvQFkW[\∈*?+&XP[−
∈+UH]XOW F [−[\∈*?+UH]XOW \∈*?+FRQWUDGLF LH
H [ [ −  H [ [ −  [ [H [ − H [
∫ G[ = ∫  + G[ − ∫ G[ = G[ −OQ[&
[ [ + H
[
 [ [ + H [ 
[
[ [ [ + H [
 H[ 
′
+  
 [  G[ −OQ[& OQ [ + H &
[
S
∫ H[ [
[+
[

 [   [
[ [ [
I   −  G[ = Q ∫ H Q G[ + Q ∫ H Q − G[ &XP ≤ H UH]XOW

[ H

Q ∫ 
 Q
 Q   Q
 

[ [ H [
[ [
OLP ∫ [ H Q G[ = $YHP ≤ H Q − < SHQWUX RULFH [ ∈ > @ 3ULQ

Q →∞ Q Q Q Q
+ ⋅
H
[
XUPDUH UH]XOW ≤ Q ∫ H − G[ ≤ + ⋅ 7UHFkQG OD OLPLW FRQIRUP SULQFL

Q
Q

[
SLXOXL FOHúWHOXL DYHP OLP Q ∫ H − G[ = $úDGDU úLUXO FRQVLGHUDW HVWH FRQYHU

Q
Q →∞

JHQWúLOLPLWDVDHVWH S

D)LHI⋅J∈$úLQ∈=IJQ IQJQ∈=⇒IJ∈$I⋅JQ IQ⋅JQ
∈=⇒I⋅J∈$I ∈=⇒∈$ S
E3UHVXSXQHPF LQHOHOH$úL=>;@VXQWL]RPRUIH'HFL∃ϕ=>;@→$XQL]RPRUILVP
GHLQHOHϕ 'HRDUHFHϕHVWHVXUMHFWLY ⇒ϕHVWHXQSROLQRPGHJUDGXOϕ; D;
EDE∈4Q≠ S
; ; + ; + N W W + W + N
)LH JN; ∈ 4>;@ GDF W ∈ = ∈ = GHRDUHFH
N + N +
SURGXVXODN−QXPHUHvQWUHJLFRQVHFXWLYHVHGLYLGHFXN'HFLJN−∈$&XPϕHVWH
VXUMHFWLY ⇒∃IN−∈=>;@DVWIHOvQFkWϕIN− JN−IN DN;NDN;N«D;D

DND;ENDND;EN«DD;ED JN−;⇒DN−⋅DN− 6FUL
N −
X
HP D X Y GHFL DN ⋅ XN− ⋅ N YN− HJDOLWDWHD LPSRVLELO SHQWUX RULFH
Y
N∈1XYVXQWIL[DWHúLSXWHPFRQVLGHUDNVXILFLHQWGHPDUHDVWIHOvQFkWNV FRQ L
Q XQQXP USULQSFHQXDSDUHvQGHVFRPSXQHUHDOXLYvQIDFWRULSULPL'HFL=>;@QXHVWH
L]RPRUIFX$
352%/(0(5(=2/9$7(

9GLQQU
$IOD LUHVWXOvPS U LULLQXP UXOXLD ⋅⋅⋅⋅ODQXP UXO
SURI9DVLOLFD'LOLPR 1L
6ROX LHD ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅
'HFLU UHVWXOvPS U LULL

9GLQQU
$GXQDUHD'9,,'9,, 0;,9HVWHDGHY UDW FRQVLGHUkQGQXPHUHOHVFULVHFXFLIUHURPD
QH6 VHvQORFXLDVF OLWHUHOHFXFLIUHDVWIHOvQFkWDGXQDUHDV U PkQ FRUHFW
7LWX=YRQDUX%XFXUHúWL
6ROX LH7UHEXLHV DYHP,≠DVWIHODUUH]XOWD9 3HQWUXDRE LQH,ODFLIUD]HFLORU
GLQ0;,9U PkQHGRDUSRVLELOLWDWHD, úLUH]XOW 9 $GXQDUHDGHYLQH
'
'
0;
$QDOL]kQGYDORULOHSRVLELOHSHQWUX'FDUHQXSRDWHILPDLPDUHGHFkWRE LQHPVROX LLOH

9GLQQU

8QHOHYDUH]ROYDW GLQWUXQQXP UGHSUREOHPH'DF DUPDLILUH]ROYDWvQF SUR

EOHPHDWXQFLQXP UXOSUREOHPHORUUH]ROYDWHDUILGHRULPDLPDUHGHFkWDOFHORUQHUH]RO
YDWH&kWHSUREOHPHúLDSURSXVV UH]ROYH
SURI$OEX9DVLOH'HMMXGH XO&OXM
6ROX LH1RW PFX[QXP UXOGHSUREOHPHSURSXVH2EVHUY PF QXP UXOSUREOHPHORU

QHUH]ROYDWHUHSUH]LQW [ 'HFLSXWHPVFULH [ − [ = ⇔[

9GLQQU
ÌQWULXQJKLXO$%&ELVHFWRDUHD
&LQWHUVHFWHD] SH$%vQ'úLSHvQ O LPHDGLQ$SH
%&vQ((∈&''DF $(≡$'V VHDIOHP
%$&
6ROX LH'LQ$(≡$'⇒∆$('HVWHLVRVFHO $
⇒P
$(' P
$'(GDU
$('≡
&()
RSXVH OD YkUI $YHP P
&() P
& ° ⇒ '
P
$'( P
& ° & ≡ & GLQ LSRWH] ⇒ (

P
&$% °
& %
9,,GLQQU )
)LH0XQSXQFWvQLQWHULRUXOXQXLS WUDW$%&'$WXQFLVHJPHQWHOH0$0%0&0'
VXQWODWXULOHXQXLSDWUXODWHUFRQYH[
SURI0DULDQ'LQF
6ROX LH)LHS WUDWXO$%&'úL0∈,QW$%&'ILH000 ' 0 &
0 SURLHF LLOH OXL 0 SH ODWXULOH S WUDWXOXL $WXQFL 00%0 0
00&0 00'0 00$0 VXQW GUHSWXQJKLXUL GHFL DX GLDJR 0 0
QDOHOHHJDOH5H]XOW F 0$ 000% 000& 00
0' 00
$ 0 %

'HFLVHJPHQWHOH0$0%0&0'VXQWHJDOHFXODWXULOHSDWUXODWHUXOXL0000

9,,GLQQU
)LH $%& XQ WULXQJKL HFKLODWHUDO úL 3 XQ SXQFW vQ LQWHULRUXO V X 6H QRWHD] ^$′`
$3∩%&^%′` %3∩$&^&′` &3∩$%6 VHDUDWHF GDF $$′ %%′
&&′DWXQFL3FRLQFLGHFXFHQWUXOGHVLPHWULHDOWULXQJKLXOXL$%&
0DULXV2OWHDQX5P9kOFHD
& ′$ N % ′& N $′% N
6ROX LH6HQRWHD] = GHRDUHFHGLQWHRUHPDOXL&HYD
& ′% N % ′$ N $′& N
= =
& ′$ % ′& $′%

$$′%%′úL&&′ILLQGFRQFXUHQWHvQ3DYHP = N!N!N!
& ′% % ′$ $′&
⋅ ⋅
)RORVLQG UHOD LD OXL 6WHZDUW vQ FRQGL LLOH GH PDL VXV úL FRQVLGHUkQGOXQJLPHD ODWXULL
N ⋅ N  N ⋅N 
WULXQJKLXOXL$%&HJDO FXDDYHP$$′ D⋅  − %%′ D⋅  − 
 
 N + N   N + N 

N ⋅N  N ⋅ N N ⋅N N ⋅N
&& ′ D ⋅  −  'LQ $$′ %%′ && ′ ⇒ = =

 N + N  N + N N + N N + N

N ⋅ N + N = N N + N  NN − N N + N =
⇒ ⇔ ⇒
N ⋅ N + N = N N + N  N N − N = N − N =

N − N = N − N = NN − N =

⇒,  úL VDX ,,  úL VDX ,,,  úL VDX
  
N − N =
N N − N = N N − N =
 

NN − N =
,9  úL 'LQYDULDQWHOH,,,,,,UH]XOW LPHGLDWN N N

N − N =

N N
'LQ,9⇒N ⇒NN N ⇔ NN = ⇔ N ⋅ N − N = ⇔
N N
⇔ N ⋅ N − N N + N + NN = ⇒N N⇒N NGHFLN N N
! !
'LQúLUH]XOW F vQWRDWHYDULDQWHOHN N N⇒$′%′úL&′VXQWPLMORDFHOH
ODWXULORU⇒3≡*FHQWUXGHJUHXWDWHDOWULXQJKLXOXL$%&TFG

9,,GLQQU
$&
ÌQWULXQJKLXO$%&P
$ ° = %& FP6 VHFDOFXOH]HSHULPHWUXO
$%
úLDULDWULXQJKLXOXL$%&

&
$% = D ⇒$% D$& D
6ROX LH1RW P

$YHP$' '( (% D∆$&( HFKLODWHUDOFX

$& $( &( D&'⊥$%⇒&' D ⋅ = D

73LW
'LQ∆&'%P
' ° ⇒ &''% %&⇒ $ ' ( %
DD ⇔D ⇒$% FP$& FP
$% ⋅ &' ⋅
3 + FP$ FP

= =

,;GLQQU
6 VHFDOFXOH]HVXPD6Q > @ + > @ + > @ + + > Q − @ Q∈1 ?^`úLV VHGH
PRQVWUH]HUH]XOWDWXOJ VLWSULQLQGXF LHPDWHPDWLF
SURI$XUHO'RERúDQ/XJRM
6ROX LH6Q > @ + > @ + + > @ +
+ > @ + > @ + + > @ +

+ > N @ + > N + @ + + > N + − @ +

+ > Q − @ + > Q − + @ + + > Q − @ =
±±N>N±±N@Q±>Q±±Q±@
±±N>N±N@Q±>Q±Q±@
Q − Q − Q − Q −
Q − QQ − Q − Q − Q − Q
∑ N + ∑ N + ∑ N + ∑ N =
N = N = N = N =
Q − QQ − Q − Q
+ = Q − QQ + Q − Q −

+

,;GLQQU
5H]ROYD LHFXD LD > [ @ − ^[ ` + + > [ @ − ^ ` + + > [ @ − ^ ` =
SURI*KL 0DULDQ
6ROX LH1RWH] > [ @ − ^ ` = D [≥úLD≥
D + + D + + D = D + − + D + + − + D = ⇔
D D
⇔ + + D = ⇔
D ++
D + + D + +

 D
D 
⇔ D + +  = ⇔ D =
 D ++
D + + D + + 


'HFLD ⇔ > [ @ − ^ [ ` &XP> [ @∈=úL ^ [ ` ∈>⇒ ^ [ ` ∈>∩=
^`⇒
> [ @ =  [ ∈ >  [ ∈ >
 ⇒[
^ [ ` =  [ = N ∈ =  [ = N
⇒ ⇒
> [ @ =  [ ∈ >  [ ∈ >



  N  < ⇒
   
 [ = N + N ∈ = [ =  N +  
⇒ ⇒ ⇒ ≤ +
^ [ ` =

   


   

≤ ⇒ N =⇒ [ =

⇒≤N
> [ @ =  [ ∈ >  [ ∈ >



 ⇒ ≤  N +  < ⇒
   
 [ = N + N ∈ = [ =  N +  
⇒ ⇒
^ [ ` =
 


   
 
⇒ N =⇒ [ = 6  
 

,;GLQQU

5H]ROYD LvQ5HFXD LD >[@ SDUWHDvQWUHDJ D
> [ @ ⋅ > [ + @
+ =
> [@
> [@ ⋅ > [ + @

QXP UXOXLUHDO[
SURI'DQLHO-LQJD
6ROX LH >[@ ! ⇒ >[@ ≥ ⇒ [ ∈ > ∞ LQkQG FRQW GH IDSWXO F >[ N@
>[@N∀N∈=úLQRWkQG>[@ \ \!\∈=DYHP
\ + \ >
ÌQV \ = \ ⋅ ≤
\ \ \ \ +
+ = ⇒ ≥
\ \ \ + \ + \ \
\ + \ >
$QDORJ \ = \ ⋅ ⋅ ≤
\ + \ \ + \ +
⇒ ≥

'HFL
\ \ + \ + \ + \ \ + \ + \ +
+ ≥ + = − + −
\ \ \ + \

3ULQXUPDUHSHQWUXDDYHDHJDOLWDWH⇒\ ⇒>[@ ⇒[∈>
\ \ + \ \ +
− =
2EVHUYD LH3UREOHPDSRDWHILJHQHUDOL]DW DVWIHO5H]ROYD LvQ5HFXD LD

Q −
+ + úLVROX LDHVWHDVHP Q WRDUH
> [@ ⋅ > [ + Q −@
+ =
> [@
> [@ ⋅> [ + @

Q > [@ ⋅> [ + Q − @
Q Q

,;GLQQU
6 VHGHWHUPLQHI5→5LQMHFWLY FXSURSULHWDWHDF
I[I\I] I[\]∀[\]∈5
3HWUXú$OH[DQGUHVFX
6ROX LH3HQWUX\ ] RE LQHPI[II I[[∈5
1RW PI D$WXQFLI[ID I[ ′
3HQWUX\ −]DYHPI[I−]I] I[∀[∈5
'HDLFLGLQúLGHGXFHPI[I−]I] I[ID[]∈5
'DUIHVWHLQMHFWLY 'LQUH]XOW [I−]I] [ID⇒I−]I] ID
$SOLF PGLQQRXLQMHFWLYLWDWHD⇒I]±] D⇒I] ]D
LQHPFRQWGHvQUHOD LDGLQHQXQ $WXQFL
I[I\I] [I\I]D [\I]D [\]D
$SRLI[\] [\]D'HXQGHD D $úDGDUIXQF LD
F XWDW HVWHI[ [

;,GLQQU
6 VHDUDWHF RULFDUHDUILQXP UXOUDGLFDOLORUDYHPLQHJDOLWDWHD
+ + + + <

'0%DWLQH LX*LXUJLX
6ROX LH )LH [Q + + + + XQGH QXP UXO UDGLFDOLORU HVWH

Q Q ∈ 1 (VWH HYLGHQW F [Q + + + + \Q XQGH QXP UXO

UDGLFDOLORUHVWHQ'HFL[Q\Q \Q− \

+ = \ = =

,;GLQQU
5H]ROYD LHFXD LD [ − [+
[ − − + [ − [ [ + + [ + [ + =

6ROX LH'LQFRQGL LLOHGHH[LVWHQ DUDGLFDOLORUDYHP
 [ − [ + ∈ > ∞ ∩ 1

[ ∈ 1
 + [ − [ ∈ > ∞ ∩ 1 HFKLYDOHQWFX  [ ∈ > ∩ 1 DGLF [∈^`
 

 [ + ∈ > ∞ ∩ 1  [ ∈ > ∞ ∩ 1

9HULILF HFXD LDGRDU[ FRQIRUP − + =

;GLQQU
)LHXQQ≥RSURJUHVLHDULWPHWLF GHUD LHU!FXX!'DF [QQ≥HVWHXQúLUGH
QXPHUHUHDOHVWULFWSR]LWLYHDVWIHOvQFkW[Q [Q⋅[Q∀Q∈1DWXQFL
Q
[ X ⋅ [QU + ⋅ ∏ [NX = [ U ⋅ [QX+ ∀Q∈1

N =
'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX

6ROX LH'HPRQVWU PFHULQ DHFXD LHLSULQPHWRGDLQGXF LHLPDWHPDWLFH
Q ⇒ [X ⋅ [U ⋅ [X = [U ⋅ [X ⇔ [ [ X = [X ⇔ [ ⋅ [ [ FHHD FH DUDW F SHQWUX

Q HQXQ XOHVWHDGHY UDW

3UHVXSXQHPHQXQ XODGHY UDWSHQWUXQúLV OGHPRQVWU PúLSHQWUXQDGLF
Q + Q
[X ⋅ [QU + ⋅ ∏ [NX = [U ⋅ [QX++ ⇔  [X ⋅ [QU + ⋅ ∏ [NX  [QU + ⋅ [QX++ [ ⋅ [QX++ ⋅ [Q+ ⇔





N =  N = 
⇔ [U ⋅ [QX+ ⋅ [QU + ⋅ [QX++ = [U ⋅ [QX++ ⇔ [Q + ⋅ [Q + X ⋅ [QU + ⋅ [QU + [QX+ ⋅ [Q+U ⇔ [QU + ⋅ [QU + = [Q+U

⇔ [QU + ⋅ [QU + ⋅ [QU + = [Q+U ⇔ [Q + ⋅ [Q + U = [QU + ⇔ [ Q + ⋅ [ Q + = [ Q + FHHDFHDUDW F HFXD LD

HVWHDGHY UDW úLSHQWUXQ&RQIRUPSULQFLSLXOXLLQGXF LHLPDWHPDWLFHUH]XOW F HQXQ XO
HVWHDGHY UDWSHQWUXRULFHQ∈1

;GLQQU
'DF ]$]%]&VXQWDIL[HOHYkUIXULORUWULXQJKLXOXL$%&FX|]$| |]%| |]&| 5DWXQFL
|]$]%]%]&]&]$|≤5&kQGDUHORFHJDOLWDWHD"
6ROX LH$IL[HOHPLMORDFHORU$%&DOHODWXULORU%&&$ $
] % + ]& ]& + ] $ ]$ + ]%
$% VXQW UHVSHFWLY $WXQFL
γ β

%
] % + ]& ]& + ] $ ] $ + ]% &
2$ 2% 2&
β
&
γ α
5HOD LDVHVFULH|]$]%|⋅|]%]&|⋅|]&]$|≤5 DGLF
α
%

$
2$⋅2%⋅2&≤5 ∗

'DUvQWULXQJKLXO2$%GUHSWXQJKLFvQ$DYHP2$ 5VLQ
αXQGHα P
2%$vQV αβγ °GHXQGHαβγ °úLα °−
±β−γ °−$$WXQFL2$ 5VLQ°−$ 5FRV$DQDORJ2% 5FRV%úL2&
5
5FRV&5HOD LD∗GHYLQH5FRV$⋅5FRV%⋅5FRV&≤ GHXQGH

FRV$FRV%FRV&≤ DGHY UDW vQRULFHWULXQJKL$%&

;GLQQU
5H]ROYD LHFXD LD[[[ [

6ROX LH[ VROX LH 9RPGHPRQVWUDF HVWHXQLF vPS U

     
[ [ [
LQGFX[HFXD LDGHYLQH   =
     
 +  +
     
[ [ [
1RW PI5→5I[   VWULFWGHVFUHVF WRDUHFDVXP GHIXQF

     
 +  +
LLVWULFWGHVFUHVF WRDUH
'DF [⇒I[!I DGLF HFXD LDQXDUHU G FLQLPDLPLFLFD
'DF [!⇒I[I DGLF HFXD LDQXDUHU G FLQLPDLPDULFD
5 PkQH[ XQLF

;,GLQQU
6 VHDUDWHF IXQF LDI5→5I[ DUFWJ[QXHVWHSROLQRPLDO
6ROX LH3ULQUHGXFHUHODDEVXUGSUHVXSXQHPISROLQRPLDO $WXQFLH[LVW Q∈1 DVWIHO
 
vQFkWIQ[ ∀[∈5'DUI′[ LDU  L −
+ [ [ + L  [ − L [ + L 
=  −
 
I′′[ 
L  [ − L [ + 
−
+
   
I′′′[ 
L  [ − L [ + L  L  [ − L [ + L 
−
+  −
+
Q −  
&RQFKLGHPIQ[ − − − Q − 
Q −
L  [ − L Q
[ + L Q 
− Q − Q −   [ + L Q
LQGXF LH'DU DSRL
L  [ − L [ + L Q  [ − L Q [ + Q
 Q
−  =

[L [ + FRV W + L VLQ W FWJW [⇒W DUFFWJ[VDXW DUFWJ 5H]XOW
[
[ + LQ [ + Q FRV QW + L VLQ QW Q
[

FRV QW + L VLQ QW
−
[ − L Q [ + Q [ + Q
= = = +

Q
$QDORJ = [ + L − Q = [ + FRV QW − L VLQ QW $WXQFL
−
[ + LQ

Q Q
= [ + FRV QW + L VLQ QW − FRV QW + L VLQ QW = [ + L VLQ QW
− −
[ − L [ + L
Q
− Q
− Q − Q −
Q
'HFLIQ[ [ + L VLQ QW DGLF
−
L

− Q − Q − − Q − Q − 
I Q[ VLQ QDUFFWJ [ VDX I Q[ VLQ  QDUFWJ  RULFDUH

Q Q
[
[ + [ +


[∈5 Q∈1 8UPHD] F VLQ  QDUFWJ  = RULFDUH[!GHH[HPSOXFHHDFHHVWHDE

 [
VXUG'HFLSUHVXSXQHUHDHVWHIDOV úLIQXHVWHIXQF LHSROLQRPLDO

;,GLQQU
)LHDE∈ 5 + DVWIHOvQFkWE!DúLDQQ≥XQúLUGHQXPHUHVWULFWSR]LWLYHFXSURSULHWD

DQ + D Q Q
WHDF OLP − E = 6 VHVWXGLH]HFRQYHUJHQ DúLUXOXLEQ ∑ DNS S∈5IL[DW
Q →∞ QD Q N =
*UDEULHO'RVSLQHVFX
DQ + DQ DQ
6ROX LH)LHFQ − E ∀Q≥'HGXFHPF DQ− E − D = Q D ⋅ FQ ⇒
QD Q Q
Q
⇒DQ⋅QE−D−DQQ±E−D QDQE−DFQ⇒ ∑ DL + L E − D DL L − E − D
L =
Q
D + ∑ L D LE − D FL
Q Q
D
∑ L D LE − D FL ⇒ DQ + QE − D = D + ∑ L D LE − D FL ⇒ QQD
L =

Q D Q − E − D
=
L = L =
ùLUXO[Q QDQ−E − DHFUHVF WRUQHP UJLQLWGHFLSXWHPDSOLFDWHRUHPD&HVDUR

6WRO]'LQGHGXFHPF
Q −
D + ∑ L D LE − D FL
DQ Q D QE − D FQ
OLP = OLP D L = = OLP
Q →∞ Q D Q → ∞ Q Q − E − D Q → ∞ Q + Q E − D − Q D Q − E − D
D
QE D D 
S
OLP FQ ⋅ OLP = OLP = 'HFL OLP QD = ⇒ OLP  QD  =

Q → ∞ Q + Q E − D − Q D Q →∞ Q Q →∞ Q
 
Q →∞ D Q →∞ D
 +  − Q
D −E  
 Q
D QS
∀ S∈ 5⇒ OLP = 'HGXFHPF VHULLOH ∑ D QS úL ∑ D DX DFHHDúLQDWXU 'DUVHULD
D
Q → ∞ Q DS

Q ≥ Q ≥

∑ N DS = ∑ N − DS HVWHFRQYHUJHQW SHQWUX−DS!⇒S −
D
úLGLYHUJHQW SHQWUXS≥ −
D
N ≥ N ≥

'HFL•GDF S − EQHFRQYHUJHQW
D

•GDF S≥ − EQHGLYHUJHQW
D

;,,GLQQU
)LHLQHOXO$⋅úL[∈$FXSURSULHWDWHDF H[LVW S∈1 DVWIHOvQFkW[S [S6 VH
DUDWHF ±[[HVWHLUHYHUVLELO
SURI1LFRODH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
6ROX LH)LH\ [±['HPRQVWU PF [±[S $YHP[±[S [S±[SSHQ
WUXF [úL±[FRPXW 'DU[S±[S [S±[±[S± [S±[S±[S− úL
 S −   S − 
GHFL\S $WXQFL ±\S ±\  + ∑ \ N   + ∑ \ N  −\DGLF −\HVWHLQ
 N =   N = 
YHUVDELO &XP−\ −[[UH]XOW FHULQ DGLQHQXQ

;,,GLQQU
)LH LQHOXO $ ⋅ vQ FDUH ≠ úL FX SURSULHWDWHD F H[LVW XQ XQLF HOHPHQW
D∈$DVWIHOvQFkWDD 6 VHDUDWHF
L
LL[ ⇔[ XQGH[∈$
SURI1LFRODH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
6ROX LH)LHID DD
LI−±D −±D−±D −−DDDD DD ID
úLFXPDHXQLFRE LQHP−±D DDGLF −D±D⇔ −D
'DUDD ⇔ −D±D −DD D−DDGLF ±DHVWHLQYHUVDELO
úL−D− DÌQPXO LQGFX−D−RE LQHPD DGLF D $WXQFLGH
YLQH −−úLSULQXUPDUH
LL'DF [ HYLGHQW[ )LH[∈$FX[ $YHPI[
[ [[[ [[ SHQWUXFD

úL[ 'HFLI[ úLGLQXQLFLWDWHDOXLD RE LQHP[ DGLF

[

2/GLQQU
)LHQ∈1 −^`úLPXO LPHD$Q ^]∈&|H[LVW DE∈4DVWIHOvQFkWDE≥úL]
π π
D⋅εQE`XQGHεQ FRV + L VLQ 6 VHDIOHWRDWHQXPHUHOHSSHQWUXFDUHH[LVW P
Q Q
[
LPSDUúL[\∈$SDVWIHOvQFkW[≠\ [ ≠ \ ε S LDU HU G FLQ GHRUGLQXOPDXQLW LL
\
*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX2QHúWL
6ROX LH)LHS∈1 ±^`SHQWUXFDUHH[LVW [\∈$SFXSURSULHWDWHDGLQHQXQ $WXQFL
H[LVW P LPSDU úL D E F G ∈ 4 FX D E ≥ F G ≥ [ DεS E \ FεS G XQGH
P
π π  Dε S + E 
εS FRV + L VLQ ,SRWH]DDILUP F   = ⇒|DεSE| |FεSG|⇒DE
S S  Fε S + G 
 
π
DEFRV = F + G + FG FRV ⇒ FRV FG − DE DE−F−G
2 π π
S S S


3UHVXSXQHP F DE FG ⇒ D + E = F + G ⇒ D E ± DE F G ± FG ⇒
_ D + E _=_ F + G _
D+E ≥  ⇒ D + E = F + G )LHDE FG [DE FG \$WXQFLDEúLFGVXQW

F+G ≥ 

U G FLQLDOHHFXD LHLW−\W[ DGLF ^DE` ^FG`'DF D F⇒E G⇒[ \FRQ
WUDGLF LH
 D
'DF D G ⇒ E F ⇒ \ EεS D ε S  + E  = ε S D ε S + E ε S ⋅ Dε S + E

 εS 
 
\
π D + E − F − G
εS[ ⇒ [ = = \ε S FRQWUDGLF LH 'HFL DE ≠ FG ⇒ FRV = ∈ 4 1X
εS S εFG − DE
PLPvQWUHJDOJHEULFXQQXP UFRPSOH[]SHQWUXFDUHH[LVW QDDQ±∈=DVWIHOvQFkW
]QD]Q±DQ± 6HDUDW LPHGLDWF GDF XQvQWUHJDOJHEULFHUD LRQDODWXQFL
HvQWUHJúLF VXPDDvQWUHJLDOJHEULFLHvQWUHJDOJHEULF
&XPεS ⇒εS± ⇒εvQWUHJDOJHEULFúLFXP ε S − = ⇒ ε vQWUHJDOJHEULF
π π π
⇒ε ε = FRV vQWUHJDOJHEULFúLFXPHUD LRQDO⇒ FRV ∈='DU FRV
S S S
∈>−@
π  
⇒ε FRV ∈ − −  5H]ROYkQGSHUkQGHFXD LLOHGHGXFHPF S∈^`
S  
P
[ [
, S ⇒εS −⇒[\∈5úLFXP   = úLPLPSDU⇒ FRQWUDGLF LH
 \ \
 DL + E 
P
,, S ⇒εS LúL   = ⇒∃N∈^P±`FX

 FL + G 
Nπ Nπ
D = F FRV P + G VLQ P

DL + E Nπ Nπ
= FRV + L VLQ
FL + G P P E = FRV Nπ − F VLQ Nπ
⇒
 P P
Nπ Nπ Nπ Nπ
5H]ROYkQG VLVWHPXO vQ VLQ FRV VH GHGXFH LPHGLDW F VLQ úL FRV ∈ 4
P P P P
πN πN Nπ
)LH] FRV + L VLQ ⇒]P ⇒]úL ] vQWUHJLDOJHEULFL⇒] ] FRV vQWUHJ
P P P
Nπ   Nπ
DOJHEULFúLUD LRQDO⇒ FRV ∈ − −  úLFXPVLQ
P P
∈4⇒
 
 Nπ Nπ  Nπ Nπ D = ± F
⇒∈ VLQ FRV  'DF VLQ ⇒ FRV
P P  P P E = ± G
∈^−`⇒ 


DL + E
3HQWUXD F⇒E −GDOWIHO[ \QXúLGLQ = ⇒E G⇒E G ⇒[ \QX
FL + G
Nπ [
'HFLD −F⇒ FRV −⇒E ±G⇒ = − ⇒−P DEVXUGGHRDUHFHPHLPSDU
P \
Nπ
$QDORJGLQ FRV ⇒−PLP ±DEVXUGGHRDUHFHLP∉5SHQWUXPLPSDU
P
,,, S ⇒ ε S + ε S + = $OHJHP [ εS \ εS − P $WXQFL

 [

 +εS
 −εS − ε S = ε S = 'DF [ \ ⇒ QX 'DF


 \
 
  ε S −
 

ε = \ε S ⇒ + = ε S − ⇒εS εS−⇒εS −QX'HFLS YHULILF
εS εS
,9 S ⇒ ε S − ε S + = $OHJHP[ −εS\ εSP

 [

 = (YLGHQW[≠\'DF [ = \ε S ⇒ −
 − ε S +   − ε S 
$WXQFL    =
 \

 εS   εS  εS
   

εS ⋅ ⇒ = DEVXUG'HFLS YHULILF
εS εS
$úDGDUS∈^`

2/GLQ
6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF GDF [\\]][ XQGH[\]!DWXQFL
[\]
PD[ = &kQGVHUHDOL]HD] PD[LPXO"
+ [ + \ + ]
6ROX LH 'HRDUHFH [ ! \ ! ] ! UH]XOW F H[LVW α β γ ∈   DVWIHO vQFkW
 π
 
[ WJ \ WJ ] WJ α β γ π [\ \] ][ WJ WJ WJ WJ

α β γ α β β γ

[\] [ [ [
WJ WJ $WXQFL =
γ α

= ⋅ ⋅
+ [ + \ + ] + [ + \ + ]
γ [\]
VLQ VLQ VLQ ≤ 5H]XOW PD[ = HJDOLWDWHSHQWUXα β
α β
+ [ + \ + ]

γ GHXQGH[ \ ]
π

$ S − E S − F D − E + FD + E − F D E − F D
2EVHUYD LH 'LQ VLQ
EF DF EF EF
= = = ≤
$ D % D & D
GHGXFHP VLQ ≤ DQDORJ VLQ ≤ VLQ ≤
EF DF DE
$ % &
3ULQvQPXO LUH VLQ VLQ VLQ ≤ HJDOLWDWHvQWULXQJKLXO$%&HFKLODWHUDO

352%/(0(352386(
&/$6(/(,±,9
38QHOHYDFLWLWRFDUWHvQWUHL]LOHYLQHULVkPE W úLGXPLQLF 'XPLQLF
DFLWLWFXGHSDJLQLPDLPXOWGHFkWYLQHULúLVkPE W 6RFRWLQGHODFRQVWDWDWF
DFLWLWGHRULPDLPXOWúLvQF SDJLQLGHFkWYLQHULúLVkPE W $IOD LFkWHSDJLQL
DFLWLWvQILHFDUH]LGDF YLQHULDFLWLWGHRULPDLPXOWHSDJLQLGHFkWVkPE W
vQY7XGRUL D6W QFXOHVFX%U LOD
3'LQFHQXP UWUHEXLHVF ]XWGHRULFkWHSHQWUXDRE LQHXQQXP UPDL
PDUHFXGHRULFkWHID GHGXEOXOOXL"
vQY*UDIX&ULVWLQD%XFXUHúWL
3'DF 'DQDUILUH]ROYDWvQF GHSUREOHPHDUILDYXWGHRULPDLPXOWH
GHFkW$OLQÌPSUHXQ DXUH]ROYDWGHSUREOHPH&kWHSUREOHPHDUH]ROYDWILHFD
UHFRSLO"
vQY6WRLFD(PLOLD&XJLU
38QHOHYODvQWUHEDWSHSURIHVRUXOGHPDWHPDWLF Fk LDQLDUH3URIHVRUXO
LDU VSXQVÄ'DF YRLPDLWU LvQF XQVIHUWGLQFk LDQLDPWU LWúLvQF DQLDWXQFL
YRLDYHDGHDQL$IO Fk LDQLDPHXDFXP³
vQY7XGRUL D6W QFXOHVFX%U LOD
36 VHDIOHWUHLQXPHUHQDWXUDOHúWLLQGF VXPDORUHVWHLDUMXP WDWHD
SULPXOXL QXP U WULSOXO FHOXL GHDO GRLOHD úL DO WUHLOHD PLFúRUDW FX GDX QXPHUH
HJDOH
vQY0DJGDOHQD7ULFLX7kUJRYLúWH
33XQHSDUDQWH]HúLVFULHVHPQHOHGHRSHUD LHSRWULYLWHSHQWUXDRE LQHHJD
OLW LPDWHPDWLFH
D
E
vQY0DULD3DWXOHD* HúWL

3$úH]D LQXPHUHOHGHODODvQFHOHF VX HDOH

WDEHOHLGHPDLMRVRVLQJXU GDW DVWIHOvQFkWVXPDSHOLQLHúLSH
FRORDQ V ILHFHDLQGLFDW
vQY(PLOLD7XGRVH7kUJRYLúWH

&/$6$$9$
96 VHDUDWHF VXPDQXPHUHORUQDWXUDOHFDUHvPS U LWHODGDXFkWXO
QXHVWHS WUDWSHUIHFW
'RPQLFDúL,RQ%XUF 6ODWLQD
96 VHDUDWHF QQXHVWHS WUDWSHUIHFWQ∈1
SURI0DULD0DWURVHQFR
9&DOFXOD L
D±
E±⋅±⋅±
F⋅
SURI0DULXV*KHUJX6ODWLQD
9)LHPXO LPLOH$ {\±[}úL% {[\}'HWHUPL
QD L[\∈1DVWIHOvQFkW$ %
SURI0DULXV*KHUJX6ODWLQD
96HGDXQXPHUHOH
Q −
$ = + + + + úL % = + + + + Q∈1 ?{}
Q Q
D3HQWUXQ FDOFXOD L$%
E$U WD LF $%±Q
SURI*K&ULVWHVFX
96FULH LPXO LPHDGLYL]RULORUOXLQúWLLQGF
Q ±⋅±
SURI&ULVWLQD*RGHDQX
91XPHUHOHQDWXUDOHDEYHULILF HJDOLWDWHDDE 6 VHDUDWH
F DE
SURI&DUPHQ,RQHVFX* HúWL
96 VHGHWHUPLQHXOWLPHOHFLIUHDOHSURGXVXOXL⋅⋅⋅«⋅⋅
SURI,RQ9HOLFHVFXSURI6RULQD9LGHDQX* HúWL
9&RPSDUD LQXPHUHOH úL

SURI(OHQD*DYD

&/$6$$9,$
9,6 VHUHFRQVWLWXLHvQPXO LUHD

×

9,6 VHSUREH]HF

'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX
9,5H]ROYD LvQ1HFXD LDDE±DE
SURI5DGX6W QLF úLSURI,XOLDQ*RJRDú *LXUJLX
9,6 VHFHUFHWH]HGDF H[LVW S WUDWHSHUIHFWHGHIRUPD DEFFED
'RUHO% L DQ
9,'HWHUPLQD LQXP UXOQDWXUDOFDUHDUHWUHLGLYL]RULDF URUVXP HVWH
SURI/LOLDQD5DGD
9,'HWHUPLQD LQXPHUHOHQHQXOH[\]úWLLQGF VXQWLQYHUVSURSRU LRQDOH
[ \ ]
UHVSHFWLYFXúL + =
\ ] [
+
SURI0DULXV*KHUJX
9, 6 VH DUDWH F H[LVW QXPHUH QDWXUDOH FDUH DX XOWLPHOH FLIUH úL
VXQWGLYL]LELOHFX
9, ÌQ WULXQJKLXO GUHSWXQJKLF $%& P
$ ° FRQVWUXLP ELVHFWRDUHD
XQJKLXOXL%FDUHWDLH$&vQ'úLSHUSHQGLFXODUDGLQ$SHDFHVWDWDLH%&vQ(6
VHGHPRQVWUH]HF
D'(⊥%&
E%&⋅$( $&⋅%'
SURI9DVLOH7LQFLX7kUJRYLúWH

&/$6$$9,,$
9,,)LHWULXQJKLXORDUHFDUH$%&0PLMORFXOOXL%&úL2PLMORFXOOXL$0
$3
6 VHJ VHDVF YDORDUHDUDSRUWXOXL
$%
SURI,RDQDúL,XOLDQ0D]LOX8U]LFHQL
9,,)LHQXPHUHOH

D= + +
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
+
E = + + + +


$IOD LFHOPDLPLFQXP U[∈1 SHQWUXFDUH D[ E +  ∈1

 
SURI/LOLDQD7RGHULXF
9,,ÌQWULXQJKLXO$%'&∈>%'@LDUELVHFWRDUHD
$&'HVWHSHUSHQGLFX
ODU SH$'úLvQWkOQHúWHELVHFWRDUHD
$%&vQSXQFWXO(
DùWLLQGF (&||$%úLP
%(& °VWDELOL LQDWXUDSDWUXODWHUXOXL$%&(
EùWLLQGF %' FPFDOFXOD LOXQJLPLOHVHJPHQWHORU>2(@úL>2%@XQGH
{2} %(∩$'
SURI*KHRUJKH&ULVWHVFX
9,,6 VHDUDWHF Q + ∉4Q∈1

SURI00DWURVHQFR
9,,3HED]D>%&@DWULXQJKLXOXL$%&LVRVFHOVHDOHJHXQSXQFWRDUHFDUH
'SULQFDUH VHGXFHSDUDOHOHODODWXULOH FRQJUXHQWHDOHWULXQJKLXOXL6 VHDUDWHF
SHULPHWUXOSDUDOHORJUDPXOXLIRUPDWQXGHSLQGHGHSR]L LDSXQFWXOXL'
SURI$QFD%XLFDQ
9,,)LHSDUDOHORJUDPXO$%&'FX0úL1PLMORDFHOHODWXULORU'&UHVSHF
WLY%&'DF {2} %0∩'1{(} $0∩1'úL{)} %0∩$1DWXQFL
D6 VHDUDWHF ()||%'
$ (2)
E6 VHFDOFXOH]H
$ $%&'
SURI$GULDQ7XUFX* HúWL
&/$6$$9,,,$
9,,,'HWHUPLQD LIXQF LLOHI5→5FXXUP WRDUHOHSURSULHW L
L I[ D[E∀[∈5
LL II[ E[D∀[∈5

LLL I VDXI±

SURI7UDLDQ3UHGD
9,,,6HFRQVLGHU XQSXQFW0vQLQWHULRUXOXQJKLXOXL;2<GHP VXU °
'LQSXQFWXO 0VHGXFSHUSHQGLFXODUHOH0$⊥2;úL0%⊥2<FX$∈>2;% ∈
∈>2<6HFRQVLGHU DSRLSXQFWXO'PLMORFXOVHJPHQWXOXL>20@vQFDUHVHULGLF
SHUSHQGLFXODUD9'SHSODQXOXQJKLXOXL;2<'DF >20@ >9'@ D!V VHFDO
FXOH]HGLVWDQ DGHODSXQFWXO9ODGUHDSWD$%
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
9,,, 'DF D ∈ 5 D ≥ V VH FRPSDUH QXPHUHOH D úL D +

D −
3RWV ILHHJDOH"-XVWLILFD LU VSXQVXO
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
9,,,6HG FXEXO$%&'$′%′&′'′6HFHUHXQJKLXOGLQWUHGUHSWHOH'$′úL%'′
9,,,)LH0134SHQWUXSXQFWHQHFRSODQDUHDVWIHOvQFkW01 03
04 FPúLP
014 °P
034 °úLP
103 °
D'HPRQVWUD LF WULXQJKLXO134HVWHGUHSWXQJKLF
E'HWHUPLQD LSR]L LDXQXLSXQFW5SHPXFKLD03DVWIHOvQFkWSHULPHWUXOWUL
XQJKLXOXL145V ILHPLQLP
SURI&ULVWLQD,FKLP
9,,,6 VHGHWHUPLQHQXPHUHOHSULPH[\]úWLLQGF [\]

LDU[HVWHVROX LDHFXD LHL + +
+ + + + + + + [
+ =
9,,,D5H]ROYD LHFXD LD|[| |[±|
E3HQWUXD≠UH]ROYD LHFXD LD|D[E| |D[F|EF∈5
&ULVWLQD*RGHDQXúL3HWUXú$OH[DQGUHVFX
&/$6$$,;$
,;$U WD LF WULXQJKLXO$%&HVWHHFKLODWHUDOGDF úLQXPDLGDF
FRV $ FRV % FRV &

D E F D E F
+ + = + +
$XUHO'RERúDQ/XJRM
,;)LHI5→5RIXQF LHFXSURSULHW LOH
LH[LVW 7!DVWIHOvQFkWI[7 I[∀[∈5
LL|I[±I\|≤|[±\|∀[\∈>7@

6 VHDUDWHF |I[±I\|≤|[±\|∀[∈5

SURI'DQùWHIDQ0DULQHVFXúLSURI9LRUHO&RUQHD+XQHGRDUD
,;'DF DEFG∈1 V VHGHPRQVWUH]HLQHJDOLWDWHD
D + E + F + G D +E+F + G E F G D
D E F G

≥
'RUHO% L DQ
,;6 VHGHWHUPLQHIXQF LLOHI5→5SHQWUXFDUHI úL
II[I\ [\∀[\∈5
*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX
,;6HFRQVLGHU HFXD LDD[ E|[|F D∈5 EF∈5'HWHUPLQD L

FRQGL LDQHFHVDU úLVXILFLHQW SHQWUXFDHFXD LDV DLE VROX LHXQLF

SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
,;&DOFXOD L > ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ + + ⋅ ⋅ @
SURI'RULQD0LKDHOD%RJGDQ&RQVWDQ D
&/$6$$;$
;6 VHUH]ROYHHFXD LD
 + _ [ − _ 
+ ORJ   = ORJ + [ − [

 
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
;)LHI1 →= DVWIHOvQFkWII úL
Q
∑ I N I N + = I Q ⋅ I Q + I Q + ∀Q∈1
N =
6 VHGHWHUPLQHIQQ∈1
SURI*K3DQWHOLPRQ& O UDúL
;)LH[QQ≥XQúLUGHQXPHUHUHDOHVWULFWSR]LWLYHúLGLVWLQFWH6 VHDUDWH
F [QQ≥HVWHRSURJUHVLHJHRPHWULF GDF úLQXPDLGDF
Q −
[ [ − [
[ − [ ∑ = Q ∀Q≥
N = [ N [ N + [ [Q
1LFRODH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
;6HFRQVLGHU SROLQRDPHOHIJ∈4>;@SHQWUXFDUHJUI JUJ∈
úLI JIL JLI J 6 VHGHWHUPLQHVXPD
U G FLQLORUHFXD LHLSROLQRPLDOHI[
SURI9LUJLO1LFXOD%XFXUHúWL


;$U WD LF GDF ]∈& úL ] − ≥ DWXQFL ] − ≥
]
]
;'DF [\]∈& GLVWLQFWHGRX FkWHGRX DVWIHOvQFkW|[| |\| |]|

úL[\] \]±[[]±\[\±]V VHFDOFXOH]H|[\]|

SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX'U7U6HYHULQ
;D)LH[\]∈∞\≠6 VHDUDWHF [ =]
ORJ ]
ORJ [

E)RORVLQGHYHQWXDOSXQFWXODV VHRUGRQH]HFUHVF WRUQXPHUHOH

D ORJ F
E ORJ D F ORJ E XQGHDEF∈5DEF

SURI,OLH'LDFRQX&OXM1DSRFD
&/$6$$;,$
;,&DOFXOD L
N N +
D DUFWJ E ∑ DUFWJ N
∞ ∞
∑
N = + N + N =

+ N + N +
6RULQ5 GXOHVFX
;,'DF [[VXQWU G FLQLOHHFXD LHL[ [ V VHDUDWHF

[ Q + [ Q
OLP Q =
Q →∞ [ + [ Q

6RULQ5 GXOHVFX
;,'DF $%∈05V VHDUDWHF
GHW>$%%$$%±%$@≥
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
Q^VLQ>OQ Q Q − @`
Q
;,6 VHFDOFXOH]H OLP
Q →∞ OQ Q
&H]DU/XSX&RQVWDQ D

;,6 VHDUDWHF HFXD LD Q [ + − Q [ = Q∈>@Q∈1 DGPLWHR
Q

VLQJXU VROX LH[QúL OLP [Q =
Q →∞ H −
N
π  Q  N + 
;,)LHúLUXO [Q = WJ   ⋅ ∏ 
Q
 6 VHFDOFXOH]H OLP [Q
 Q  N =  N N +  Q →∞
SURI0DULDQ*KL

 
;,)LHD∈  ∞  úLúLUXO[QQ≥FX[!úL[Q [Q + D − D ∀Q∈
 
∈1 6 VHFDOFXOH]H OLP Q[Q

Q →∞
'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX
 D 
;,)LHPDWULFHD$∈05 $ =  E 
 
 F
 
'DF DEF úL D E F ∈ ∞ V VH DUDWH F GHW $ ≤ GHW $ ≥ úL
GHW$ ≥
3HQWUXD E FFDOFXOD L$ QQ∈1 $ HVWHDGMXQFWDPDWULFHL$
1LFRODH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
 \] D[ + \ + ] = P
;,)LHVLVWHPXO  [] [ + E\ + ] = Q vQFDUHDEFPQSVXQWQXPHUH

 [\ [ + \ + F] = S

D
UHDOH6 VHDUDWHF GDF GHWHUPLQDQWXO E HVWHQHQXODFHVWDHVWHRFRQGL LH
F
VXILFLHQW SHQWUXFDVLVWHPXOV DGPLW FHOSX LQRVROX LHUHDO
$ILUPD LDU PkQHYDODELO vQFD]XOXQXLVLVWHPDQDORJFXSDWUXQHFXQRVFXWH"
,&'U JKLFHVFX
&/$6$$;,,$
  [ 

;,,)LHI>@→5I[ [H[&DOFXOD L OLP Q ∫  I   −  G[

  Q  
Q →∞

;,,)LH0PXO LPHDIXQF LLORUSROLQRPLDOHS[GHJUDGXOWUHLFDUHVXQW
QHQHJDWLYHSH>@6HFHUHV VHJ VHDVF FHOPDLPLFQXP UλDVWIHOFD

∫ λ − [ S [G[ ≥ RULFDUHDUILS∈0
$OH[DQGUX/XSDú6LELX
;,,)LHI   →5RIXQF LHGHGRX RULGHULYDELO DVWIHOvQFkW

 π
 
I′′[FRV[≥I′[VLQ[∀[∈   6 VHDUDWHF

 π
 

I + I  
π 
 I [  
π
I  DUFWJ  ≤ G[ ≤

  ∫
FRV [

0LKDLO%HQF]H%UDúRY
;,,)LH*XQJUXSúL+XQVXEJUXSSURSULXDOV X'DF H[LVW D∈*?+
FXSURSULHWDWHDF +D +∪{DD±}HVWHVXEJUXSDOOXL*V VHDUDWHF RUGD
2YLGLXùRQWHD%XFXUHúWL
[
;,,)LHI5→∞RIXQF LHLQWHJUDELO DVWIHOvQFkW OLP ∫ I W GW = ∞
[ →∞
[
6 VHDUDWHF OLP ∫ [ − W I W GW = ∞
[ →∞ [
*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX
[ + OQ [ +
;,, 6 VHFDOFXOH]H ∫ [ G[

+ [ + [ +
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
;,,)LHI34>±@→5FRQWLQXHÌQSOXV
I±SDU
3±SDU úLQHQXO
4±LPSDU
I [ G[ I [ G[
$WXQFL ∫ ∫
3 [ + 4 [ + 3 [ + 4 [ 3 [
=
− −
6RULQ5 GXOHVFXúL3HWUXú$OH[DQGUHVFX
;,,'D LXQH[HPSOXGHXQFRUSFDUHDGPLWHGRX DXWRPRUILVPH
SURI&RVWHO&KLWHú%XFXUHúWL
35(*à7,5($2/,03,$'(/25ì&2/$5(
352%/(0('(*,01$=,8
2* $IOD L WRDWH QXPHUHOH GH IRUPD [\] FDUH DX H[DFW GLYL]RUL vQWUHJL

DVWIHOvQFkW ∈1
[ + \ + ]

2*)LHDEF∈5 DVWIHOvQFkWD E F DEF6 VHDUDWHF H[LVW

[∈5DVWOIHvQFkW

|D[EE[FF[D|!|D[E[FE[F[DF[D[E|

*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX
2*'DF [\]∈∞úLPQS∈1 IL[DWHV VHFDOFXOH]HPLQLPXO
P
 [  \ ]
Q S
H[SUHVLHL ( =   +   +  
 \  ]  [
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
2*ÌQFRO XOGLQVWkQJDMRVDXQXLWDEHOS WUDWLFGH×VHDIO REURVFX
(D SRDWH V UL vQ RULFH F VX DGLDFHQW FX R ODWXU FRPXQ (VWH SRVLELO FD
EURVFX DV WUHDF SULQWRDWHF VX HOHH[DFWRGDWDúLV VHvQWRDUF GHXQGHDSOHFDW"
$GULDQ=DKDULXFHOHY%DF X
352%/(0('(/,&(8
2/)LH$ {}úLP≥$OHJHP$$P⊂$FXFkWH
HOHPHQWHDVWIHOvQFkWRULFDUHGRX DXFHOPXOWHOHPHQWHFRPXQH6 VHDUDWHF
H[LVW SULQWUHVXEPXO LPLOHDOHVHDVWIHOvQFkWUHXQLXQHDORUHVWH$GDUUHXQLXQHD
RULF URUHVWHGLIHULW GH$
*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX2QHúWL
2/6 VHGHWHUPLQHIXQF LLOHI=→=FXSURSULHW LOH
DI[\ I[I\∀[\∈=
 I [ + I \ + 
EI[\   ∀[\∈=
 
XQGH>[@HVWHSDUWHDvQWUHDJ DOXL[
*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX
2/)LHDDDQQXPHUHUHDOHVWULFWSR]LWLYH6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HLQH
JDOLWDWHD
 P P  P P   P P 
 D +  D +  DQ +  ≥ P + Q XQGHPQ∈1
 D  D   D 
&H]DU/XSX&RQVWDQ D
2/'HWHUPLQD LFHOPDLPDUHQXP UQDWXUDOQSHQWUXFDUHH[LVW RPXO
LPH$C{}FXQHOHPHQWHFXSURSULHWDWHDF D∈$⇒D∉$
$GULDQ=DKDULXFHOHY%DF X
2/'DF DEFVXQWQXPHUHUHDOHVWULFWSR]LWLYHúLQHVWHXQQXP UQDWX
D Q + E Q +
UDODWXQFL Q +
E − E Q −F + − EF Q − + F Q F Q − F Q −D + + D Q
+
F Q +
≥ D + E + F
D − D E + + E Q
+ Q Q −

ÌQOHJ WXU FXSUREOHPDGLQ*0QUDXWRU,RQ1HGHOFX

7LWX=YRQDUX%XFXUHúWL
2/)LHWULXQJKLXO$%&vQVFULVvQFHUFXO& &25DVWIHOvQFkWGUHDSWD
$2VHSDU SXQFWHOH%&7DQJHQWDODFHUFXO&vQSXQFWXO7GLDPHWUDORSXVSXQFWXOXL
$WDLHGUHDSWD%&vQSXQFWXO62GUHDSW GFDUHWUHFHSULQ2WDLHGUHSWHOH%$úL&$vQ
SXQFWHOH;UHVSHFWLY<6 VHDUDWHF 2; 2<GDF úLQXPDLGDF 6∈;<
GU9LUJLO1LFXOD%XFXUHúWL
352%/(0(352386(&8&$5$&7(5,17(5
',6&,3/,1$53(1758*,01$=,8

SURI0$5,$1$6,'(5,$ù

8QFRQFLUFXODUGUHSWFRQVWUXLWGLQIROLHGHDOXPLQLXDUHvQ O LPHDGH
FPùWLLQGF VHF LXQHDD[LDO DFRQXOXLHVWHXQWULXQJKLHFKLODWHUDODIOD L
DUD]DúLJHQHUDWRDUHDFRQXOXL
EDULDODWHUDO DULDWRWDO úLYROXPXOFRQXOXL
FGDF VHVXVSHQG FRQXOvQWUXQYDVFHFRQ LQHRVROX LHGH$J12GXS XQ
WLPSSULQFkQW ULUHVHFRQVWDW F PDVDFRUSXOXLDFUHVFXWFXJ&k LDWRPLGH$O
úLGH$JDXSDUWLFLSDWODUHDF LDFKLPLF "
3HQWUXRUDGHPDWHPDWLF XQHOHYFRQVWUXLHúWHRSLUDPLG SDWUXODWHU UHJX
ODW GLQVkUP GHFXSUXFX∅ PPùWLLQGF SLUDPLGDDUHvQ O LPHDGHFPúL
DSRWHPDGHFPFDOFXOD LPDVDSLUDPLGHL6HúWLHF ρ&X JFP
3,(75(/(35(é,2$6(ì,d$6752/2*,$
02'(51ào

=LDUHOHORQGRQH]HDXSXEOLFDWQXGHPXOWXQLQWHUYLXFXXQDVWURORJúLXQFKL
URPDQWIRDUWHF XWDW6SLFXLPGLQDFHVWLQWHUYLX
Ä±ùLQHVWHPDWHOHPDHVWUHQDXúLHOHDYDQWDMHúLGH]DYDQWDMH"
±'HVLJXUWRWXOGHSLQGHGHFXORDUHS UXOXLSHUVRDQHLF UHLDLVHRIHU JLXYDH
UXO1LFLRGDW QXVHYDG UXLDFHHDúLSLDWU XQHLEORQGHúLXQHLEUXQHWH
ÌQVXúLPHWDOXODUHLQIOXHQ GHRDUHFHHVWHEXQFRQGXF WRUGHEXFXULLúLGHQH
FD]XUL%UXQHWHORUOHYRUILRIHULWHELMXWHULLODFDUHV SUHGRPLQHDUJLQWXOF FLDFHVW

PHWDOOHYDGDXQSOXVGHLQVSLUD LHGHIDQWH]LH%UXQHWHOHILLQGGHRELFHLPDLSR]L
WLYHDUJLQWXOOHYDFRPSOHWDFHHDFHOHOLSVHúWHGUDJRVWHDSHQWUXXQLGHDOúLSRH]LH
±ùLEORQGHORU"
± %ORQGHOH VXQW LPSXOVLYH F FL HOH VH DIO VXE LQIOXHQ D OXQLL 6XQW FXP VH
VSXQHÄOXQDWLFH³(OHQXDXQHYRLHV ILHvQGUXPDWHVSUHXQLGHDO/LVHYRUG UXL
ELMXWHULLODFDUHDXUXODUHSRQGHUHDFHDPDLPDUHF FLDXUXOFDOPHD] IDQWH]LLOHúL
H[DJHU ULOH
±$VWDvQSULYLQ DPRQWXULLGDUGHVSUHSLHWUH"
±%ORQGHORUV OLVHRIHUHUXELQHVDXJUDQDWHSLHWUHOHvQ HOHSFLXQLLFDUHDF LR
QHD] FD QLúWH IUkQH DVXSUD LQVWLQFWHORU %UXQHWHOH DX QHYRLH GH DPHWLVW FDUH HVWH
SLDWUD VSHUDQ HL VDX VPDUDOGXO DGXF WRU GH QRURF WRSD]XO HVWH H[FHOHQW SHQWUX
EORQGHFDúLSHUX]HDXDúLVDILUXO
±'DUGLDPDQWXO"
±7RDW OXPHDvOSRDWHSXUWDHVWHSLDWUDHOHJDQ HLI U SURSULHW LIDYRUDELOH
GDUúLI U SHULFROH
58%5,&$5(=2/9,725,/25
'(352%/(0(

%8&85(ù7, /LF WHRUHWLF Ä$OH[DQGUX 9ODKX ³ FOV D 9D 'REUHVFX
0DUDQGHL0RQLFD,RDQD*KHRUJKH$QGUHHD,DFREHVFX)ODYLD,VWUDWH
'DQD1HJRHVFX&ULVWLQD=ODWH1LFROHWDFOVD9,,D2SUHVFX0 G OL
QDùFJHQ1UFOVD9,,D$SRVWROHVFX$OLQ

&Æ038/81*086&(/ MXG $UJHú ùF JHQ Ä6I ,DFRE³ FOV D 9,,D
+RDJKHD 0DULXV +XQ\DGL ,RODQGD 0vU]DF 'LDQD $QGUHHD 6WRLFD
7$/21'(&21&856

5HGDF LD UHYLVWHL Ä$5+,0('(³ RUJDQL]HD] SHULRGLF SHQWUX HOHYLL
UH]ROYLWRULGHSUREOHPHFRQFXUVXULGRWDWHFXXUP WRDUHOHSUHPLL
3UHPLXO,±OHL
3UHPLXO,,±OHL
3UHPLXO,,,±OHLúL
0HQ LXQHFRQVWkQGvQDERQDPHQWHDQXDOH
7DORQXOGHFRQFXUVVHYDWULPLWHvQSOLFXOFXSUREOHPHUH]ROYDWH
&RQFXUVXOXUP WRUVHYDGHVI úXUDSHGDWDGHPDLvQ%XFXUHúWL
1XPHOHFkúWLJ WRULORUYRUILSXEOLFDWHvQQXP UXODOUHYLVWHL

& W OLQDùHUE QRLX(GXDUG7UXúF $OH[DQGUD= UQHVFX,ORQD

'(-MXG&OXM/LFùFJHQ1UFOVD,,,D$OEX7DWLDQDFOVD9D
5XV%RJGDQ
+81('2$5$MXG+XQHGRDUD/LFÄ,DQFXGH+XQHGRDUD³FOVD9,D
$OH[DQGUX*LXUJLXFOVD9,,,D0DUHú$QFDùFKLRSX/LDQD
/8*2-MXG7LPLúùFJHQ1UFOVD9D(IWLPLH'DQLHO,OLQRL
6DPXHO 3RSHVFX 'HQLVD FOV D 9,D (UHPLD 'DQ *KHQFLDQ $GULDQ
*KHQFLDQ'DQLHO+RPHL$QGUHHD,DFREHVFX5R[DQD-XUM)LOLS
3RSHVFX %RJGDQ 6YHWODN $QGUDGD FOV D 9,,,D (IWLPLH 'DQLHO
/ XG FHVFX)ORULQ3HOFHD& OLQ8UVXOHVFX$QGUHHD
3 8/(ù7, MXG 3UDKRYD ùF *HQ FX FODVHOH 99,,, FOV D 9D (QDFKH
$QFD -LSD 0LKDL 3vUYXOHVFX 3DXOD 6WRLDQ ùWHIDQLD =DPILU $QGUD
0DULD
5Æ01,&89Æ/&($MXG9kOFHD&1Ä$O/DKRYDU\³FOVD9D%RWX
$QGUHHD* LQDULX6RULQD'LDQD

1RW 6DXUHPDUFDW3HOFHD& OLQ6HUE QRLX(GXDUG+RDJKHD0DULXV*KH
RUJKH$QGUHHD

180(/(ù,35(180(/((/(98/8, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
ù&2$/$$'5(6$ù&2/,,7(/()21 BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
&/$6$BBBBBBBBB-8'( 8/BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB25$ù8/ BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
7(/()218/(/(98/8,$'5(6$(/(98/8,BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
(/(9$/352)(6258/8, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB

Arhimede - 3 4 2003

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Arhimede - 3 4 2003

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

$5+,0('(V1UPDUWLHDSULOLH

/HPD ,RQ&XFXUH]HDQX ÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFXUP WRD

úLDQDORDJHOHúLDGXQkQGXOHYRPRE LQHF D  + E  + F  ≥  6  FXQRVFXW úLVXE

'HILQL LD 'RX WULXQJKLXUL$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF $$||%%||&&

'HILQL LD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUH$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF

'HPRQVWUD LH)LH%′úL&′SURLHF LLOHSXQFWHORU%úL&SHGUHDSWD$0 ILJ 

LDUGDF 0 ∈ %& ? %& ILJXULOHE úLF DYHP

/HPD )LH$%&úL$%&GRX WULXQJKLXULFRSODQDUHFRSDUDOHOH'DF vQ O

DGLF UHOD LD  

'HPRQVWUD LH&D]XO KD ≠ KD  LQkQGVHDPDGHOHPDYRPQRWDFX[YDORDUHD

 E  + F  − D  D +  F  + D  − E  E +  D  + E  − F  F

7HRUHPD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUH$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF

7HRUHPD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUHFXDFHHDúLDULHVXQWFRSDUDOHOH

FDUHGHILQHúWHXQDOWVSD LXIXQF LRQDOGHRVHELWGHLPSRUWDQWQRWDWFX/  

2SURSULHWDWHIRDUWHLQWHUHVDQW DVSD LLORUPHWULFHFRPSOHWHFXLPSOLFD LLSUR

7HRUHP )LH (G XQVSD LXPHWULFFRPSOHWúL )G XQVSD LXPHWULF)LH

2FRQGL LHVXILFLHQW FDXQVSD LXPHWULFFRPSOHW (G V QXILHQXP UDELO D

E∈ Q ≥  % DQ  UQ 0DLPXOWGHRDUHFH % DQ UQ ⊂% DQUQ GHGXFHPF E∈

WUXαQ QQ)LHGHFLD  úLDQ Q  + Q + DQ − SHQWUXQ≥YRPDU WDF 

6ROX LH  9RPDU WDF Q≤DQQ∀Q∈1 SULQLQGXF LH3HQWUXQ RE LQHP

DFHODúLQXPLWRURE LQHP Q +   −  + Q +   −  QFDUHVHRE LQHDGXQkQG

LQHJDOLW LOHHYLGHQWH Q +   −  QúL Q +   −  Q$PDU WDWF úL

2EVHUYD LH$YkQGúLUXO DQ = D + DQ − SHQWUXD N N N∈1 VDXD

D JQXHVWHVXUMHFWLY E JQXHVWHLQMHFWLY F I$J≠J$IG I$J J$I

D E ∞F  G 

 3URLHF LDSXQFWXOXL$  SHSODQXOGHHFXD LH[\] HVWH

 6HFRQVLGHU SODQHOHGHHFXD LL[\±] [\]± 

Y = L +  M + N DWXQFLSURLHF LDOXL X SHGLUHF LDYHFWRUXOXL Y HVWHHJDO FX

,1',&$ ,,ù,5 6381685,

8IJ )*⇒I [ J [ NH[⇒N I  J  H)LHI [ I \

O IDFHPVXEVWLWX LD\ D±[LDUvQDGRXDW D[⇒, DE(FXD LDGDW UHSUH]LQ

EÌQVFULHvQVSD LXOGLQID DILHF UXLQXP UGLQFRORDQD,OLWHUDGLQFRORDQD,,

$OHJHLWHPLLFXU VSXQVVFXUWGHFRPSOHWDUHGLQWUHXUP WRULLLWHPL

∈=}GHPRQVWUD LF $∩%≠∅

D 6 VHGHWHUPLQHSDUWHDvQWUHDJ DQXP UXOXL  +   +  +   XQGH

SUHVLHL( ORJDE P ORJEF Q ORJFD S

SUH]LQW OXQJLPLOHPHGLDQHORUFRUHVSXQ] WRDUHODWXULORUDEF

6ROX LD,3XWHPSUHVXSXQHI U DUHVWUkQJHJHQHUDOLWDWHDF QXPHUHOHDEFGDXPR

E )LH DQ Q≥XQúLUGHQXPHUHUHDOHVWULFWSR]LWLYHFDUHVDWLVIDFUHOD LD

& ′$ % ′& $′%

N − N  =  N − N  =  NN  − N  = 

> [ @ =   [ ∈ >   [ ∈ > 

> [ @ =   [ ∈ >    [ ∈ >  

2EVHUYD LH3UREOHPDSRDWHILJHQHUDOL]DW DVWIHO5H]ROYD LvQ5HFXD LD

 +   +  +   +   <  

UDGLFDOLORUHVWHQ'HFL[Q\Q \Q−  \ 

'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX

Q HQXQ XOHVWHDGHY UDW

⇔ [QU +  ⋅ [QU +  ⋅ [QU + = [Q+U  ⇔ [Q + ⋅ [Q +  U = [QU +  ⇔ [ Q + ⋅ [ Q +  = [ Q +  FHHDFHDUDW F HFXD LD

6ROX LH[ VROX LH 9RPGHPRQVWUDF HVWHXQLF vPS U

1RW PI5→5I [   VWULFWGHVFUHVF WRDUHFDVXP GHIXQF

ùLUXO[Q QD Q− E − DHFUHVF WRUQHP UJLQLWGHFLSXWHPDSOLFDWHRUHPD&HVDUR

OLP FQ ⋅ OLP = OLP =  'HFL OLP QD =  ⇒ OLP  QD  =  

úL[  'HFLI [ úLGLQXQLFLWDWHDOXLD RE LQHP[ DGLF

,, S ⇒εS LúL   =  ⇒∃N∈^P±`FX

[ WJ  \ WJ  ] WJ  α  β  γ π [\  \]  ][ WJ WJ  WJ WJ 

3$úH]D LQXPHUHOHGHODODvQFHOHF VX HDOH 

E =  +  +  +  +  

9,,6 VHDUDWHF Q +  ∉4Q∈1

LLL I  VDXI ± 

9,,, 'DF D ∈ 5 D ≥  V VH FRPSDUH QXPHUHOH D úL D  +  

6 VHDUDWHF |I [ ±I \ |≤|[±\|∀[∈5

FRQGL LDQHFHVDU úLVXILFLHQW SHQWUXFDHFXD LDV DLE VROX LHXQLF 

$5+,0('(V1UPDUWLHDSULOLH

/HPD,RQ&XFXUH]HDQXÌQRULFHWULXQJKLDVFX LWXQJKLFDUHORFXUP WRD

úLDQDORDJHOHúLDGXQkQGXOHYRPRE LQHF D + E + F ≥ 6 FXQRVFXW úLVXE

'HILQL LD 'RX WULXQJKLXUL$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF $$||%%||&&

'HILQL LD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUH$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF

'HPRQVWUD LH)LH%′úL&′SURLHF LLOHSXQFWHORU%úL&SHGUHDSWD$0ILJ

LDUGDF 0 ∈ %& ? %& ILJXULOHEúLFDYHP

/HPD )LH$%&úL$%&GRX WULXQJKLXULFRSODQDUHFRSDUDOHOH'DF vQ O

DGLF UHOD LD

'HPRQVWUD LH&D]XO KD ≠ KD LQkQGVHDPDGHOHPDYRPQRWDFX[YDORDUHD

E + F − D D + F + D − E E + D + E − F F

7HRUHPD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUH$%&úL$%&VXQWFRSDUDOHOHGDF

7HRUHPD 'RX VXSUDIH HWULXQJKLXODUHFXDFHHDúLDULHVXQWFRSDUDOHOH

FDUHGHILQHúWHXQDOWVSD LXIXQF LRQDOGHRVHELWGHLPSRUWDQWQRWDWFX/

2SURSULHWDWHIRDUWHLQWHUHVDQW DVSD LLORUPHWULFHFRPSOHWHFXLPSOLFD LLSUR

7HRUHP )LH(GXQVSD LXPHWULFFRPSOHWúL)GXQVSD LXPHWULF)LH

2FRQGL LHVXILFLHQW FDXQVSD LXPHWULFFRPSOHW(GV QXILHQXP UDELOD

E∈ Q ≥ % DQ UQ 0DLPXOWGHRDUHFH % DQ UQ⊂%DQUQGHGXFHPF E∈

WUXαQ QQ)LHGHFLD úLDQ Q + Q + DQ − SHQWUXQ≥YRPDU WDF

6ROX LH 9RPDU WDF Q≤DQQ∀Q∈1 SULQLQGXF LH3HQWUXQ RE LQHP

DFHODúLQXPLWRURE LQHP Q + − + Q + − QFDUHVHRE LQHDGXQkQG

LQHJDOLW LOHHYLGHQWH Q + − QúL Q + − Q$PDU WDWF úL

2EVHUYD LH$YkQGúLUXO DQ = D + DQ − SHQWUXD NNN∈1 VDXD

DJQXHVWHVXUMHFWLY EJQXHVWHLQMHFWLY FI$J≠J$IGI$J J$I

DE∞F G

3URLHF LDSXQFWXOXL$SHSODQXOGHHFXD LH[\] HVWH

6HFRQVLGHU SODQHOHGHHFXD LL[\±] [\]±

Y = L + M + N DWXQFLSURLHF LDOXL X SHGLUHF LDYHFWRUXOXL Y HVWHHJDO FX

8IJ )*⇒I[J[ NH[⇒N IJ H)LHI[I\

O IDFHPVXEVWLWX LD\ D±[LDUvQDGRXDW D[⇒, DE(FXD LDGDW UHSUH]LQ

EÌQVFULHvQVSD LXOGLQID DILHF UXLQXP UGLQFRORDQD,OLWHUDGLQFRORDQD,,

$OHJHLWHPLLFXU VSXQVVFXUWGHFRPSOHWDUHGLQWUHXUP WRULLLWHPL

∈=}GHPRQVWUD LF $∩%≠∅

D6 VHGHWHUPLQHSDUWHDvQWUHDJ DQXP UXOXL + + + XQGH

SUHVLHL( ORJDEPORJEFQORJFDS

SUH]LQW OXQJLPLOHPHGLDQHORUFRUHVSXQ] WRDUHODWXULORUDEF

6ROX LD,3XWHPSUHVXSXQHI U DUHVWUkQJHJHQHUDOLWDWHDF QXPHUHOHDEFGDXPR

E)LHDQQ≥XQúLUGHQXPHUHUHDOHVWULFWSR]LWLYHFDUHVDWLVIDFUHOD LD

N − N = N − N = NN − N =

> [ @ =  [ ∈ >  [ ∈ >

> [ @ =  [ ∈ >  [ ∈ >

2EVHUYD LH3UREOHPDSRDWHILJHQHUDOL]DW DVWIHO5H]ROYD LvQ5HFXD LD

+ + + + <

UDGLFDOLORUHVWHQ'HFL[Q\Q \Q− \

'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX

Q HQXQ XOHVWHDGHY UDW

⇔ [QU + ⋅ [QU + ⋅ [QU + = [Q+U ⇔ [Q + ⋅ [Q + U = [QU + ⇔ [ Q + ⋅ [ Q + = [ Q + FHHDFHDUDW F HFXD LD

6ROX LH[ VROX LH 9RPGHPRQVWUDF HVWHXQLF vPS U

1RW PI5→5I[   VWULFWGHVFUHVF WRDUHFDVXP GHIXQF

ùLUXO[Q QDQ−E − DHFUHVF WRUQHP UJLQLWGHFLSXWHPDSOLFDWHRUHPD&HVDUR

OLP FQ ⋅ OLP = OLP = 'HFL OLP QD = ⇒ OLP  QD  =

úL[ 'HFLI[ úLGLQXQLFLWDWHDOXLD RE LQHP[ DGLF

,, S ⇒εS LúL   = ⇒∃N∈^P±`FX

[ WJ \ WJ ] WJ α β γ π [\ \] ][ WJ WJ WJ WJ

3$úH]D LQXPHUHOHGHODODvQFHOHF VX HDOH

E = + + + +

9,,6 VHDUDWHF Q + ∉4Q∈1

LLL I VDXI±

9,,, 'DF D ∈ 5 D ≥ V VH FRPSDUH QXPHUHOH D úL D +

6 VHDUDWHF |I[±I\|≤|[±\|∀[∈5

FRQGL LDQHFHVDU úLVXILFLHQW SHQWUXFDHFXD LDV DLE VROX LHXQLF

úL[\] \]±[[]±\[\±]V VHFDOFXOH]H|[\]|

E)RORVLQGHYHQWXDOSXQFWXODV VHRUGRQH]HFUHVF WRUQXPHUHOH

;,,)LHI   →5RIXQF LHGHGRX RULGHULYDELO DVWIHOvQFkW

I′′[FRV[≥I′[VLQ[∀[∈   6 VHDUDWHF

|D[EE[FF[D|!|D[E[FE[F[DF[D[E|

ÌQOHJ WXU FXSUREOHPDGLQ*0QUDXWRU,RQ1HGHOFX

& W OLQDùHUE QRLX(GXDUG7UXúF $OH[DQGUD= UQHVFX,ORQD