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ORDJHOHúLDGXQkQGRE LQHPLQHJDOLWDWHDGRULW
9,,, GLQ 'DF 6$%&' HVWH R SLUDPLG SDWUXODWHU UHJXODW FX ED]D
$%&'vQFDUH6$ $% DDWXQFL
DV VHGHPRQVWUH]HF YROXPXOSLUDPLGHL6$%&'HVWHGXEOXOYROXPXOXLWHWUDHGUXOXL
UHJXODWGHPXFKLHD
EV VHFDOFXOH]HVLQ
['6%6%&]
$GULDQ0 O HVFX

'HPRQVWUD LH D 3UHFXP VH úWLH 6

D °°
9WHWUUHJ ÌQ ∆62& P
2
D D
D D % ° °
°2& 6& DXQ (
&
=

2 D
GH ^2` $& ∩ %' 'LQ WHRUHPD OXL
3LWDJRUD UH]XOW F 62 6& ± 2& $ '
D
D
D $ ⋅K $ ⋅ 62
⇒62 D − ⇒ 62 DWXQFL96$%&' E = $%&'

=
D D D D
⋅D ⋅ &XP9WHWUUHJ ⋅ ⇒96$%&' ⋅9WHWUUHJ

= = =
D
EÌQ∆62%P
62% °2% 62 6% D⇒P
26% P
2%6

°ÌQ∆6%'LVRVFHO6% 6'62vQ O LPH⇒62ELVHFWRDUH⇒P
%6' °⋅
°⇒6'⊥6%
ÌQ∆6%&HFKLODWHUDOP
&6% °&RQVWUXLPvQ6%&GUHDSWD6((∈%&DVWIHO
vQFkWP
&6( °úL&∈%($WXQFLP
%6( °° °úL6(⊥6%'LQ
'6% ∩ 6%& 6% 6' ⊂ '6% 6( ⊂ 6%& 6' ⊥ 6% úL 6( ⊥ 6% UH]XOW F
P
['6%6%&] P
'6(ÌQ∆6&(P
6&( °±P
6&% °±°
° úL P
&6( ° GLQ FRQVWUXF LH ⇒ P
&(6 °± ° ° ° ±
±° °⇒
&(6≡
&6(⇒∆6&(LVRVFHO6& &(⇒&( D$WXQFLvQ∆6%(
P
%6( °6% D%( D⇒6( D GLQWHRUHPDOXL3LWDJRUD
'LQ$'__&($' &( D⇒$'(&SDUDOHORJUDP⇒'( $& D ÌQ∆6'(
6' D6( D '( D ⇒ D = D = D + D = D + D ⇒6( 6'
'(⇒FRQI5HFLSURFHLWHRUHPHLOXL3LWDJRUD⇒P
6'( °
'( D
VLQ
'6( ⇒VLQ
'6(
6( D
= = =

9,,, GLQ 'HWHUPLQD L WRDWH IXQF LLOH I 5 → 5 FX SURSULHWDWHD F
I [ − [ + + I I ≤ D ∀D∈∞∀[∈5
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
6ROX LH9RPDU WDLQL LDOF I [ = [ − − I ∀[∈5 3UHVXSXQHPSULQDE
VXUG F ∃ α ∈ 5 DVWIHO vQFkW I α ≠ α − − I I DWXQFL I α − α + I I ≠ ⇒

⇒ I α − α + − I I > 3HQWUX D = I α − α + + I I LQHJDOLWDWHD GLQ

LSRWH] GHYLQH úL SHQWUX [ α I α − α + + I I ≤ I α − α + + I I


⇔≤ )DOVGHFLDILUPD LD DUHORF

3HQWUX [ = ⇒ I = − − I I ⇒ I I = − − I 5
ÌQ IDFHP [ → I [ ⇒ I I [ = I [ − − I I ∀[∈5
3HQWUX [ = ⇒ I I = I − − I I ⇔ I I = I − 5HOD LD5GHYL
QH − − I = I − ⇒ I = − ⇒ I = − 5HOD LD GHYLQH I [ [ ± ±
± I ± ∀ [ ∈ 5 ÌQ SDUWLFXODU SHQWUX [ = − ⇒ I − = − − I − ⇔ I − = − úL
DWXQFL I [ = [ − + DGLF I [ = [ − ∀[∈5

9,,,GLQ$IOD LQXPHUHOHUHDOH[úL\GDF
[ + \ + [\ − [ − \ + + [ + \ − [\ + [ − \ + =
SURI7UDLDQ3UHGD
6ROX LH [ + \ + [\ − [ − \ + = [ + [\ + \ − [ − \ + = [ + \ − [ +
+ \ + + = [ + \ − + = D + [ + \ − [\ + [ − \ + = [ − [\\

D
+ [ − \ + = [ − \ + [ − \ + + = [ − \ + + = E + ⇒ D +

E
D + ≥ = 

+ E + = 'DU  ⇒ D + + E + ≥ FXHJDOLWDWHD⇔ D = úL

E + ≥ = 

[ + \ − = [ + \ = [ + \ =
E = ⇒ D = E = ⇒  ⇒  ⇒[ ±⇒
[ \ [ \ _  [ − \ = −
⇒
 − + =  − = −

⇒[=− ⇒ − + \ = ⇒ \ = + = ⇒ \ = ⋅ ⇒ \ =

2*GLQQU8QXLWULXQJKL$%&RDUHFDUHvLDVRFLHPXQWULSOHWGHSXQFWH
%/ &0 $1
/01QRWDW3N$%&DVWIHOvQFkW/∈%&0∈$&1∈$%úL = N6
/& 0$ 1%
= =
VHGHPRQVWUH]HF 3N3W$%& 3W3N$%&

%RJGDQ,RQL úL7LWX=YRQDUX%XFXUHúWL
6ROX LH)LH'0∈%&úL(1∈$&DVWIHOvQFkW
$
%' &( %0 &1
= N = W úLQRW P6 01∩'(
'& ($ 0& 1$
= =
1
DN
9RP FRQVLGHUD N W 'LQ UHOD LD RE LQHP %' = (
N +
6
D EN E
'& = &( = ($ = LDU GLQ UHOD LD % ' 0 &
N + N + N +

DW D EW E
RE LQHP %0 = 0& = &1 = 1$ = )RORVLQG UHOD LLOHúL
W + W + W + W +
DW DN D W − N
RE LQHP '0 = %0 − %' ⇒ '0 = )RORVLQGUHOD LLOHúL
W + N + N + W +
− =
EW EN E W − N
RE LQHP 1( = &1 − &( ⇒ 1( = $SOLFkQG WHRUHPD OXL
W + N + N + W +
− =
0HQHODXVSHQWUXWULXQJKLXO0&1úLWUDQVYHUVDOD'6(RE LQHP
'0 (& 61 60 D W − N N + EN N + W + 60
=⇒ = N
'& (1 60 61 N + W + D N + EW − N 61
⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⇒
$SOLFkQGWHRUHPDOXL0HQHODXVSHQWUXWULXQJKLXO'(&úLWUDQVYHUVDOD160RE LQHP
1( 0& 6' 6' EW N + W + D W − N W + 6'
=⇒ = W
1& 0' 6( 6( W + EW − N N + W + D 6(
⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⇒

,;GLQ6 VHGHWHUPLQHIXQF LLOHI5→5FXSURSULHW LOH
D I [ ≤ $ [ ∀[∈[±]±^`XQGH$!HIL[DW
E I [\ + I [ = I [\ − I [ + I [ I [ − \ ∀[\∈5
*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX2QHúWL
6ROX LH )LHIQHLGHQWLFQXO I≡ YHULILF DE 3UHVXSXQHP F I ≠ $YHP
I I = I − I + I I [ ∀[∈5⇒ I [ = N [∈5N∈5'HDLFL N = N + N
⇒ I LGHQWLF QXO 'HFL I = )LH [ ≠ FX I [ = [ → [ ⇒ I [[ = I [[ ⇒
[
⇒ I [ = I [ ∀[∈5)LH[∈5 úL Q ∈1 DVWIHOvQFkW ∈[±]±^` Q ≥ Q
Q
 [  [ $_ [_
$YHP I [ = I  Q  ≤ $ Q 'HFL I [ ≤ Q ∀ Q ≥ Q DGLF I [ = 'HFL I H
 
LGHQWLFQXO $úDGDU I [ = ⇒ [ =
I [  [ − I [ 
)LH [ ≠ úL \ = ⇒ I [ I   = ⇒ I [ = [ ∀[∈5
[ 
 [ 

\ = ⇒ I I [ = I − I [ + I [ ⇒ I [ = I − [ + [ ⇒ I [ = I − [ + [
∀ [ ≥ ⇒ [ = [ + [ + [I − [ ⇒ I − [ = − [ ∀ [ ≥ ⇒ I [ = [ ∀ [ ≤ úL
I [ = −[ + [ = [ [ ≥ 'HFLI 5$úDGDUGDF $≥I 5VDXI≡GDF $I≡

,; GLQ 'DF I J 5 → 5 VXQW IXQF LL ELMHFWLYH FX SURSULHW LOH
J $ I = I $ J úL J $ I = I $ J DWXQFL I $ J = J $ I
SURI$XUHO'RERúDQ/XJRM
6ROX LH J $ I = J $ I $ J $ I = I $ J $ I $ J = I $ J GH XQGH SULQ
ÄVLPSOLILFDUH³ODVWkQJDFX I úLODGUHDSWDFX J RE LQHP J $ I = I $ J $SRL

J $ I = J $ I $ J $ I $ J $ I = I $ J $ J $ I $ J $ I = I $ J GH XQGH SULQ ÄVLPSOLILFD

UH³ODVWkQJDFX I RE LQHP J $ I $ J $ I = I $ J $ J 'HDLFL J $ I $ J $ I = I $ J $ J ⇒
⇒ J $ I $ J $ I = J $ I $ J GH XQGH SULQ ÄVLPSOLILFDUH³ OD VWkQJD FX J RE LQHP

J $ I $ J $ I = I $ J = J $ I úL LDU úL ÄVLPSOLILFkQG³ OD VWkQJD FX J úL OD GUHDSWD FX I
RE LQHP I $ J = J $ I

;GLQ'HWHUPLQD LIXQF LDI1 → 5 + FXSURSULHW LOH

I = úL I + I + + I Q = I Q ⋅ I Q +


6ROX LH Q = ⇒ I = I ⋅ I ⇒ I = Q ⇒II I⋅

⋅ I DGLF + = ⋅ ⋅ I ⇒ I = 'HPRQVWU P SULQ LQGXF LH PDWHPDWLF

I Q = Q ∀Q∈1 3UHVXSXQkQG I Q = Q úLVFULLQGUHOD LDSHQWUXQDYHP

I + I + + I Q = I Q ⋅ I Q + DGLF + ++ Q = Q I Q +

Q Q +
= Q I Q + GHXQGH I Q + = Q + DGLF SURSULHWDWHDHVWHDGHY UDW SHQ

WUXQ5H]XOW I Q = Q RULFDUHQ∈1

] + ]
;GLQ)LH$C&$≠∅DVWIHOvQFkW∀ ] ] ∈$

∈$úLD∈5
FX D ! 6 VH GHWHUPLQH IXQF LLOH I $ → & X SURSULHWDWHD I ] − I ] ≤ ] − ]

D
∀ ] ] ∈$
SURI'DQùWHIDQ0DULQHVFXúL9LRUHO&RUQHD+XQHGRDUD
6ROX LH)LH ] ] ∈$FX ] ≠ ] 3HQWUXvQFHSXWSURE PDILUPD LD
N
Ä3HQWUXRULFHQ∈1 ] + ] − ] ∈$∀ N = Q ³
Q
'RYDGDDFHVWHLDRYRPIDFHSULQLQGXF LHGXS Q3HQWUX Q = úL N = DILUPD LDHVWH
HYLGHQW $GPLWHPDILUPD LDDGHY UDW SHQWUXXQQ∈1 úLSURE PMXVWH HDHLSHQWUX Q +
)LH N = Q + GDF DYHP N SDU DWXQFL ∃ V = Q DVWIHO vQFkW N = V GH XQGH
N V N
] + ] − ] = ] + ] − ] DúDGDUFRQIRUPFXLSRWH]D ] + ] − ] ∈$
Q +
Q
Q +
'DF DYHPNLPSDUDWXQFL N ≤ Q + − úLH[LVW V = Q − DVWIHOvQFkW N = V + GH

V +  V   V +
XQGH ] + ] − ] = ] + Q ] − ]  +  ] + Q ] − ]  úL FXP V V + ≤ Q

Q + 

  
vQYLUWXWHDLSRWH]HLúLDSURSULHW LLPXO LPLL$J VLPF ] + QN+ ] − ] ∈ $ &XDFHDVWD

DILUPD LDHVWHGRYHGLW
N
)LHQ∈1 IL[DWúL ZN = ] + ] − ] ∀ N = Q $WXQFL
Q
I ] − I ] = I Z − I Z + I Z − I Z + + I Z −
− I Z ≤

+ +
D
≤ I Z − I Z + I Z − I Z + + I Z − I Z ≤ ⋅ ] − ]
−
QD

Q
⋅ ] − ]
D D D D
+ ] − ] = ⋅ ] − ] = ] − ] =
QD
QD
QD − Q
Q D −

ÌQ FRQVHFLQ ∀ Q ∈ 1 I ] − I ] ≤ ⋅ ] − ] úL FXP D > J VLP F
D
Q D −
I ] = I ] úLFXP ] úL ] DXIRVWDUELWUDUDOHVHFRQFKLGHPF IHVWHIXQF LDFRQVWDQW
&XP IXQF LLOH FRQVWDQWH YHULILF FHULQ D SUREOHPHL FRQFKLGHP F DFHVWHD VXQW VLQJXUHOH
IXQF LLFXSURSULHWDWHDGLQHQXQ

;GLQ'DF QXPHUHOHUHDOHDúLEYHULILF VLPXOWDQLQHJDOLW LOH
ORJ D + < ORJ E − úL ORJ E + > ORJ D − V VHFRPSDUHDFXE
SURI'DQ1HGHLDQX
6ROX LH$U W PF D < E 6 SUHVXSXQHPSULQDEVXUGF D ≥ E GHFL E ≤ D $WXQFL
ORJ D + < ORJ E − ≤ ORJ D − ⇒ ORJ D + < ORJ D − ,
(FXD LD DWDúDW DFHVWHL LQHFXD LL HVWH ORJ D + = ORJ D − úL VH UH]ROY QRWkQG
FXWDPELLPHPEUL⇒ W = D + W = D − ⇒ W + W = D + D ⇒ D = W F FL [ → [ + [
HVWHLQMHFWLY 'HFL D = D + ⇒XúRU D = VROX LHXQLF
,QHFXD LD , YD DYHD VROX LD D > $QDORJ ORJ D + ≥ ORJ E + > ORJ D −
úLFXXQUD LRQDPHQWLGHQWLFYDUH]XOWD D < FRQWUDGLF LH'HFLREOLJDWRULX D < E

;GLQQU)LHQXPHUHOHFRPSOH[HQHQXOH ] ] ] FDUHYHULILF UHOD LLOH
] + ] = ] ] + ] = ] ] + ] = ]
6 VHDUDWHF ] + ] + ] =
'DF ] = ] = ] V VHDUDWHF ] ] ] VXQWDIL[HOHXQXLWULXQJKLHFKLODWHUDO
1LFRODH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
6ROX LH)LH ] = ] + ] + ] $WXQFLUHOD LLOHGLQHQXQ GHYLQ ] − ]N = ]N N
'DU ] − ] N = ] N ⇔ ] − ] N ] − ] N = ] N ] N ⇔ ] ] = ] ] N + ] ] N 3ULQ vQVXPDUH RE LQHP

] ] = ] ∑ ] N + ] ∑ ] N ⇔ ] ] = ] ] + ] ] ⇔ ] = ⇔ ] =
N = N =

] ]
)LH α = β = &XP ] = ] = ] úL ] + ] + ] = RE LQHP α = β = úL
] ]
+ α + β = 'LQ + α = −β UH]XOW + α = − β = β = DGLF + α + α = ⇔

⇔ + α + α + α = ⇔ + α + α = úL GHFL β = α $WXQFL = + α + β = + α + α ⇒

⇒ α + α = − ⇒ 5Hα = − GHFL 5Hα = − &XP α = LPHGLDW VH RE LQH

L L
,Pα = ± 'HFL α = − + = ε β = α = − − = ε

L
)LH $ ] % ] & ] úL U = ] = ] = ] $% = ] − ] = U − α = U = U

−
L
$& = ] − ] = U − β = U = U %& = ] − ] = U α − β = U L = U 'HFL

+
WULXQJKLXO$%&HVWHHFKLODWHUDO

;GLQ6 VHDUDWHF GDF E E E Q Q∈1 VXQWvQSURJUHVLHJH
Q Q
RPHWULF DWXQFL ∑ − N −EN ≥ ∑ −N −EN
N = N = Q +
SURI,OLH'LDFRQX
6ROX LDDXWRUXOXL)LHTUD LDSURJUHVLHLDWXQFLSXWHPVFULH
Q Q Q Q
∑ − N − EN − ∑ − N − EN = ∑ − N − ⋅ E ⋅ T N − − ∑ − N − ⋅ E ⋅ T N − =
N = N = Q + N = N = Q +
Q Q Q
= E ⋅ ∑ − N − ⋅ T N − − E T Q ⋅ ∑ − N − ⋅ T N − = E − T Q ⋅ ∑ − N − ⋅ T N − =
N = N = N =
− T Q − T Q
= E − T Q ⋅ = E ⋅ ≥ GHXQGHUH]XOW FRQFOX]LD
+ T + T
2EVHUYD LH 3HQWUX Q = E = D E = E E = F E = G VH RE LQH R FXQRVFXW SUREOHP
GLQ&XOHJHUHDGHDOJHEU GH,6WDPDWH,6WRLDQSDJLQD D + G ≥ E + F

;,, GLQ )LH S ! SULP úL * ⋅ XQ JUXS SHQWUX FDUH

* = S + ] * ⋅ $XW * XQGH ] * = ^[ ∈ * _ [\ = \[ ∀ \ ∈ *` LDU $XW * $ HVWH
JUXSXODXWRPRUILVPHORUOXL*6 VHDUDWHF *⋅M=S
6ROX LH )LH $XW * = D ] * = E * = F ⇒ F = S + ED )LH ] ∈ * úL I * → *

I [ = ] × ] − $WXQFLI∈$XW*úL I $ $ I = * ⇒ ] D × ] −D = [ ∀ [ ∈ * ⇒ ] D ∈ ]*

D RUL
&XP ] * ⋅ HJUXS⇒ ] = H ⇒ ] DE = H HHOHPHQWXOQHXWUXDOOXL*

D E

)LH]∈*$YHP H = ] F F = ] F = ] S ⋅ ] DE = ] S 'HFL ] S = H ∀[∈*'LQWHRUHPD

OXL&DXFK\GHGXFHPF F = S N N ≥ GHRDUHFH * ≥ S > 3UHVXSXQHPF DYHP N >

6HúWLHYH]L%D]HOH$OJHEUHLF vQDFHVWFD] ] * S úLFXP]*⋅HVXEJUXSDOOXL*
DYHP E = S L ≤ L ≤ N 'HDLFL S N = S + DSL ⇒ S N − = + DS L − ⇒ D S = ⇒ D F =
&XP ] D ∈ ] * ] F ∈ ] * ⇒ ] D F ∈ ] * ⇒ ] ∈ ] * ∀ ] ∈ * ⇒ ] * = * GHFL * _ S
DEVXUGGHRDUHFH * S 'HFLDYHP N = DGLF *HVWHL]RPRUILVPFX=S
5HFLSURFRULFHJUXSL]RPRUIFX=SDUH I S = S − DXWRPRUILVPHGHFLUHOD LDH
YHULILFDW

;,, GLQ QU 'HWHUPLQD L IXQF LD GHULYDELO I 5 → 5 FX SURSULHW LOH
I

[ = I

[ RULFDUH[∈5úL I = I
= I

=
I

[
6ROX LH5HOD LDVHVFULH = FDUHSULQLQWHJUDUHG OQ I

[ = [ + & GHXQ
I

[
GH I

[ = H [ + & VDX I

[ = ± NH [ N ∈5FRQVWDQW ,QWHJUkQGGLQQRXRE LQHP

N [ N
I
[ = ± H + N N ∈ 5 FRQVWDQW 2 QRX LQWHJUDUH QH G I [ = ± H [ + N [ + N

 N
 ± + N =
 N

N∈5FRQVWDQW 'LQFRQGL LLOHLQL LDOHRE LQHP ± + N = $YHPFD]XULOH

± N =



N = ⇒ N = N = I [ = H [ + [ +

N = − ⇒ N = N = I [ = −H + [ FDUH QX YHULILF I = 5 PkQH
[
[
I5→5 I [ = H + [ +

;,,GLQ6 VHGHWHUPLQHQXP UXOPD[LPGHHOHPHQWHDOXQXLLQHOXQLWDU
$⋅FDUHDUHH[DFWGLYL]RULDLOXL]HURúLFDUHHVWHFRPXWDWLY
6ROX LH,QHOXO = ⋅DUHHOHPHQWHHVWHFRPXWDWLYúLDUHGLYL]RULDL
OXL]HUR ⋅ ⋅ )LHDFXP$⋅XQLQHOFRPXWDWLYúL6PXO LPHD

GLYL]RULORUOXL]HUR3UHVXSXQHPF Q = $ > )LHG∈6úL[∈$ ±6([LVW D≠FX

GD = HFL [G D = DGLF [G = VDX [G ∈6'DF [G = DYHP [ = VDX[∈6DE
VXUG'HFL [G ∈6&XP_$ ±6_ _$_±!⋅_6_H[LVW [ [ ∈$ ±6GLIHULWH

DVWIHOvQFkW [G = = [ G 'HFL [ − [L G = SHQWUX L = 'DU [ − [L ≠
L = úLFXPG≠RE LQHP [ − [L ∈6 L = DGLF _6_≥DEVXUG$úD
GDUQXP UXOPD[LPGHHOHPHQWHHVWH

;,,GLQ$U WD LF QXH[LVW IXQF LLI5→5FDUHDGPLWRSULPLWLY
)5→5FXSURSULHWDWHD OLP ) $ I [ = OLP I $ ) [ = −∞
[ → −∞ [ → −∞
SURI0DULXV*KHUJX6ODWLQD
6ROX LH/HP )LHI5→5RIXQF LHúLα∈5DVWIHOvQFkW OLP I [ ∈^±∞∞`VDX
[↑α
OLP I [ ∈^±∞∞`$WXQFLIQXDUHSURSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[SH5
[↓α
'HPRQVWUD LD OHPHL 6 SUHVXSXQHP F OLP I [ = −∞ FHOHODOWH FD]XUL VH YRU WUDWD
[↑α
DQDORJ9RPDU WDF H[LVW XQLQWHUYDO,DVWIHOvQFkW I , QXHVWHLQWHUYDOYDUH]XOWDDSRL
F IQXDUHSURSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[
OLP I [ = −∞ ⇒ ∃ α < α DVWIHOvQFkW I [ < I α − ∀[∈ α α $WXQFL
[↑α
I α α@ = I α α ∪ ^ I α` ⊂ −∞ I α − ∪ ^ I α` GHXQGHUH]XOW F I α α@
QXHVWHLQWHUYDO$úDGDUIQXDUHSURSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[
6 WUHFHPDFXPODUH]ROYDUHDSUREOHPHL'LQ OLP ) $ I [ = −∞ ⇒∃D∈5DVWIHO
[ →∞
vQFkW ) $ I [ < ) ∀[≤D
$U W PF )HVWHLQMHFWLY SH±∞D]ÌQWUDGHY UGDF DUH[LVWD [ < [ ≤ D DVWIHOvQ
FkW ) [ = ) [ GLQWHRUHPDOXL/DJUDQJHH[LVW ξ ∈ [ [ DVWIHOvQFkW )
ξ = LH
I ξ = $WXQFL ) I ξ = ) úLVDUFRQWUD]LFHDVWIHOUHOD LDSHQWUX [ = ξ
$úDGDUIHVWHLQMHFWLY SH±∞D])LLQGúLFRQWLQX YRPGHGXFHF )HVWHVWULFWPRQR
WRQ SH±∞D]GHFLH[LVW OLP ) [ = α ∈ 5
[ → −∞
'DF α ∈ 5 GLQ OLP I $ ) [ = −∞ GHGXFHP OLP I \ = −∞ VDX OLP I \ = −∞
[ → −∞ \ ↑α \ ↓α
vQIXQF LHGHPRQRWRQLDOXL)GDUvQILHFDUHGLQDFHVWHFD]XULFRQIRUP/HPHLGHPDLVXV
DPRE LQHF IQXDUH3'GHFLRFRQWUDGLF LH$úDGDU OLP ) [ ∈ ^−∞ + ∞`
[ → −∞
$YHPFD]XULOH
&D]XO , ) HVWH VWULFW FUHVF WRDUH SH ±∞ D] ÌQ ED]D FHORU GH PDL VXV YRP DYHD
OLP ) [ = −∞ úL)±∞D] ±∞)D]'HRDUHFH OLP ) [ = −∞ SXWHPDOHJH E < D
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