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E F  D F     
− −  ≤ ⇒  D −  E −  +  E −  F −  +
 
+  EF + − −  +  DF +
 EF F E   DF F D   D  E  E  F
 
+  D −  F −  ≤ LQkQGVHDPDGH RE LQHP

 D  F
[ + \ + ] = ⇒ [\ + \] + ][ ≤ LPSOLFD LH FDUH UH]XOW LPHGLDW (JDOLWDWH SHQWUX

[ = \ = ] = ⇒ D − = E − = F − = ⇒ D = E = F =
D E F

2*GLQQU
ÌQWULXQJKLXODVFX LWXQJKLF$%&VHFRQVLGHU vQ O LPLOH$'%(&)1RW PFX
+$ +% +&
+SXQFWXOORUGHFRQFXUHQ úL ; = < = = = 6 VHDUDWHF
+' +( +)
;< + ;= + <= ≥ ; + < + = ≥
ÌQOHJ WXU FXRSUREOHP DOXL0DUFHO&KLUL GDW OD20*0S
LQJ0DULXV2OWHDQX5P9kOFHD
+$ WJ%Ö + WJ&Ö
6ROX LH) U DPDLGDDLFLGHPRQVWUD LDVHSRDWHDU WDXúRUF
WJ$Ö
=
+'
+% WJ$Ö + WJ&Ö +& WJ$Ö + WJ%Ö
3DUWHD GUHDSW D LQHJDOLW LL HVWH LPHGLDW
WJ%Ö WJ&Ö
= =
+( +)
D E
 + ≥ HWF 3ULPDSDUWHDLQHJDOLW LLGHYLQH

 E D 

WJ%Ö + WJ&Ö WJ$Ö + WJ&Ö WJ%Ö + WJ&Ö

∑ ≥ ∑
WJ$Ö WJ%Ö WJ$Ö
⋅
'DU WJ$Ö + WJ%Ö + WJ&Ö = WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö 9H]L[]SDJUHOD LD
'LQúLUH]XOW WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö − WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö − ≥ WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö − ⇔
∑ ∑
⇔ WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö WJ$Ö + WJ%Ö + WJ&Ö − WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ%Ö + WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö + WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö + ≥
≥ WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ%Ö + WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö + WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö − ⇔
⇔ WJ$Ö + WJ%Ö + WJ&Ö − WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ%Ö + WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö + WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö + ≥ ⇔
⇔ WJ $Ö + WJ %Ö + WJ &Ö − WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ%Ö + WJ$Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö + WJ%Ö ⋅ WJ&Ö + ≥
6
WJ$Ö = úLDQDORDJHOHFXQRWD LLOHX]XDOHvQWULXQJKL,QHJDOLWDWHDGH
E + F − D

YLQH 6 ⋅ ∑ − 6 ⋅ ∑ + ≥ ⇔
E + F − D E + F − D D + F − E

⋅
⇔ 6 ⋅ ∑ D + E − F D + F − E − 6 ⋅ ∑ E + F − D D + F − E D
+ E − F + E + F − D D + F − E D + E − F≥
'DU 6 = D + E + FD + E − FD + F − EE + F − D = D + E + F − D E
F 'HRDUHFH $%& HVWH DVFX LWXQJKLF DWXQFL D < E + F úL DQDORDJHOH 'HFL
D E F SRW IL ODWXULOH XQXL WULXQJKL ⇒ D = [ + \ E = [ + ] F = \ + ] ⇒
⇒ 6 = [\ + \] + [] )RORVLQGUHOD LLOHLQHJDOLWDWHDGHYLQH
[\ + \] + [] ⋅ [ \ + [ ] + \ ] − [\ + \] + [] [\] + [\ ] + [ \] ⋅ +
+ ⋅ [ \ ] ≥ ⇔ [\ + \] + [] [ \ + [ ] + \ ] − [\ + \] + [] [\] +
+ [\ ] + [ \] + [ \ ] = ( [ \ ] ≥
&XP ( [ \ ] HVWHVLPHWULF vQUDSRUWFXWRDWHFHOHYDULDELOHSXWHPSUHVXSXQH
[ ≥ \ ≥ ] ,QHJDOLWDWHD GHYLQH GXS HIHFWXDUHD FDOFXOHORU JUXS UL úL RUGR
Q UL FRQYHQDELOH HFKLYDOHQW FX D DU WD F [ \ − ] > [\ + ] [ − \ @ + \ ] ⋅
⋅ [ − \ [ − ] ≥ LQHJDOLWDWHDGHY UDW LQkQGVHDPDGH(JDOLWDWHDUHORF⇔
⇔ [ = \ = ] ⇔ D = E = F ⇔ $%& HVWHHFKLODWHUDO
%LEOLRJUDILH9LRUHO*K9RG 9UDMDJHRPHWULHLGHPRGDWH(GLWXUD$OEDWURV%X
FXUHúWL

,;GLQQU
)LHQXPHUHOHSR]LWLYH D E F 6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HLQHJDOLW LOH

D D + E + F D D
D ∑ ≤ ∑ E + F ∑ E + F
≤
E+F D+E+F
D D+E+F D D
E ∑ ∑ ∑

≤ ≤
E+F E + EF + F E + F
D D
,QHJDOLWDWHDÄ ∑ ≤∑ ³DSDU LQHSURIHVRUXOXL9DVLOH&kUWRDMH
E+F E + F
'HPRQVWUD LH
 D D + E + F D 
D 6 = ∑  ∑ ) D>DED − E + DFD − F@
 D + E + FE + F E + F  D + E + F

− =
D
XQGH ) D = HWFúL > ) D − ) E@ DVD±E
E + F E + F
vQVHDPQ $DV%⇔VJQ$ VJQ%⇔RUL$%!RUL$ % $%DXDFH
HDúLSR]L LHUHODWLYOD]HURSHD[DUHDO 'HFL

6 = >DED − E ) D + DFD − F ) D + EFE − F ) E + ED E − D ) E +
D+E+F

+ FDF − D ) F + FEF − E ) F@ = > DED − E ) D − ) E + EFE − F ⋅
D+E+F
⋅ ) E − ) F + FDF − D ) F − ) D ≥
2EVHUYD LHD≤E≤F⇔ ) D ≤ ) E ≤ ) F
 D DD + E + F 
6 = ∑ 
−
D + E + FE + F  D + E + F

= ∑ * D>DED − E + DFD − F@
E + F

XQGH * D = HWFúL*D±*EDVD±E$úDGDU6≥
E + F
 DD + E + F D 
E 6 = ∑   = ∑ ) D >DED − E + DF D − F @ XQGH
 E + EF + F E + F 

−

) D = HWFúL > ) D − ) E@ DVD±E$úDGDU 6 ≥
E + FE + EF + F

 D DD + E + F 
6 = ∑   = ∑ * D >DED − E + DF D − F@ XQGH
E + EF + F 

−
E + F
E+F
* D = HWFúL >* D − * E@ DVD±E$úDGDU 6 ≥
E + F E + EF + F

I D
2EVHUYD LH'DF H[SUHVLD ( D = DUHSURSULHWDWHDF ÄD≤E≤F
E + FE + F

D D
⇔ ( D ≤ ( E ≤ ( F ³DWXQFLH[LVW LQHJDOLWDWHD ∑ I D ≥ ∑ I D
E + F E+F

,;GLQQU
6 VHDUDWHF [ + \ + [ + \ ≤ ⇔ PD[^ [ \ [ + \ ` ≤
6 VHGHWHUPLQHDULDPXO LPLL$ ^[\∈5 [ + \ + [ + \ ≤`
'HPRQVWUD LH9RPIRORVLLQHJDOLWDWHD [ − \ ≤ [ + \ ≤ [ + \
'LUHFW [ + \ ≤ [ + \ ⇔ [ + \ ≤ [ + \ + [ + \ ⇒ [ + \ ≤ ⇔ [ + \ ≤
[ − \ ≤ [+ \ ⇔ [ − \ + [ + \ ≤ [ + \ + [+ \ ⇒ [ − \ + [ + \ ≤⇔
⇔ PD[^ [ \ ` ≤ ⇔ PD[^ [ \ ` ≤ ÌQFRQFOX]LH PD[^ [ \ [ + \ ` ≤
5HFLSURF)LH [ \ ∈5SHQUXFDUH [ ≤ \ ≤ [ + \ ≤ 3XWHPSUHVXSXQHI U D
UHVWUkQJHJHQHUDOLWDWHDF \≥0XO LPHDSHUHFKLORURUGRQDWH [ \ ∈5SHQWUX
FDUH [ ≤ \ ≤ [ + \ ≤ DUHRULJLQHD2FDSXQFWGHVLPHWULH
&D]XO[≥$WXQFL ≤ [ \ [ + \ ≤ úL [ + \ + [ + \ = [ + \ ≤
&D]XO[$WXQFL − ≤ [ < ≤ \ ≤ úL − ≤ [ + \ ≤ $úDGDU [ + \ + [ + \ ≤
≤⇔±[ + \ + [ + \ ≤ ⇔ [ + \ ≤ + [ + − \ ⇔ [ + + \ − ≤
≤ [ + + \ − FHHDFHHVWHHYLGHQW
ÌQFRQFOX]LH [ + \ + [ + \ ≤
6HDUDW FXXúXULQ F PXO LPHD$HVWHFHDSUH]HQWDW PDLMRVúL
σ>$@
±

$ %
±
±
±
± ±

2EVHUYD LH3XQFWXOVHSXWHDUH]ROYDúLGLUHFWSULQGRYDGDIDSWXOXLF PXO LPLOH$
úL%VXQWHJDOHXQGH% ^[\∈5_ [ ≤ \ ≤ [ + \ ≤ `
2EVHUYD LH 'DF QRW P I [ \ = [ + \ + [ + \ XQGH [ \ ∈ 5 DWXQFL
I − [− \ = I [ \ = I \ [ FHHD FH vQVHDPQ F PXO LPHD DUH FHQWUX GH VLPH
WULH2úLD[HOHGHVLPHWULH \ = [ úL \ = − [
2EVHUYD LH'DF [ \ ∈&DWXQFLGLUHFWDHVWHDGHY UDW vQV UHFLSURFDHVWHIDOV

'H H[HPSOX [ = úL \ = L [ + \ + [+ \ = ⋅ = + >

+ +


úL ⋅ ≤

;GLQQU
6 VHDUDWHF GDF E E E Q Q∈1 VXQWvQSURJUHVLHJHRPHWULF DWXQFL
Q Q
∑ − N − EN ≥ ∑ − N − EN
N = N = Q +
SURI,OLH'LDFRQX
6ROX LDDXWRUXOXL)LHTUD LDSURJUHVLHLDWXQFLSXWHPVFULH
Q Q Q Q
∑ − N − EN − ∑ − N − EN = ∑ − N − ⋅ E ⋅ T N − − ∑ − N − ⋅ E ⋅ T N − =
N = N = Q + N = N = Q +
Q Q Q
= E ⋅ ∑ − N − ⋅ T N − − E T Q ⋅∑ − N − ⋅ T N − = E − T Q ∑ − N − ⋅ T N − =
N = N = N =
− T Q − T
Q
= E − T Q ⋅ = E ⋅ ≥ GHXQGHUH]XOW FRQFOX]LD
+ T + T

2EVHUYD LH 3HQWUX Q E = D E = E E = F E = G VH RE LQH R FXQRVFXW SUR

EOHP GLQ&XOHJHUHDGHDOJHEU ,6WDPDWH,6WRLDQSDJ D + G ≥ E + F

;GLQQU
)LH2$%&XQWULHGUXGUHSWXQJKLF2$⊥2%⊥2&⊥2$úL0∈,QW∆$%&
1RWkQG [ \ ] GLVWDQ HOHODSODQHOH2%&2&$2$%V VHDUDWHF
2$ ⋅ 2% ⋅ 2& ≥ ⋅ [\]
SURI'RULQ0 UJKLGDQX&ROHJLXO1D LRQDOÄ$O,&X]D³&RUDELD
[ \ ]
6ROX LH'HPRQVWU PPDLvQWkLUHOD LD + + =
2$ 2% 2&
ÌQWUDGHY U VFULLQG YROXPXO WHWUDHGUX
OXL2$%&vQGRX PRGXULRE LQHP &
9RO02%&9RO02$&9RO02$%
9RO2$%&DGLF
[ 0 \
2% ⋅ 2& ⋅ [ 2$ ⋅ 2& ⋅ \ 2$ ⋅ 2% ⋅ ]
=
2
+ +
] $
2$ ⋅ 2% ⋅ 2&
GHXQGHSULQvPS U LUHSULQ

PHPEUXO GUHSW UH]XOW HJDOLWDWHD 0DL %
GHSDUWHIRORVLQGUHOD LD úLLQHJDOLWDWHDPHGLLORUDYHP
[ \ ] [ \ ]
= + + ≥ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ GH XQGH UH]XOW LQHJDOLWDWHD GLQ HQXQ
2$ 2% 2& 2$ 2% 2&

[ \ ]  
(JDOLWDWHDDUHORFGDF úLQXPDLGDF  =  DGLF GDF WULHGUXO
2$ 2% 2&  
= =
2$%&HVWHDVHPHQHDFXWULHGUXOFXYkUIXOvQ0úLED]DIRUPDW GHFHOHWUHLSXQFWH
±SURLHF LHDOHOXL0SHIH HOHWULHGUXOXLGDW

;GLQQU
'DF X Y ∈ & ± 5 VXQW DIL[HOH XQRU SXQFWH GLQ SULPXO FDGUDQ X = Y =
+ XY
Z= V VHUH]ROYHLQHFXD LD [ + OJ Z + OJ Z [ − > OJ Z ⋅ [− −
X+Y
SURI,OLH6W QHVFX/LFHXOÄ2FWDYLDQ*RJD³6LELX
6ROX LH1RW P X = FRV α + L VLQ α Y = FRV β + L VLQ β
FRV + L FRV VLQ

α+β α+β α +β
+ XY + FRVα + β + L VLQα + β
Z=
X + Y FRVα + FRVβ + LVLQα + VLQβ
= =
FRV FRV + L VLQ FRV
α +β α −β α+β α −β

FRV
α +β
'XS IDFWRUL]DUHúLVLPSOLILFDUHUH]XOW Z = $YHPZ∈5úLGLQLSRWH
FRV
α −β

] α úL β VXQW vQ SULPXO FDGUDQ GHFL < < ⇒ Z < GHRDUHFH
α −β α +β π

<
< FRV < FRV 5H]ROY PLQHFXD LD

α +β α −β

OJ Z [ − + OJ Z [ − > OJ Z ⋅ [ − − ⇔ OJ Z [ − [ − > OJ Z ⋅ [ − −
)XQF LDORJDULWPLF vQ ED] VXEXQLWDU HVWH VWULFW GHVFUHVF WRDUH 5H]XOW VLVWHPXO
 [ − [ − < ⋅ [ − −

GHLQHFXD LL  [ − >
 ⋅ − >
 [−
[− [ − < ⋅ [− − ⇔ [− − ⋅ [− − ⋅ [− + < ⇔ [ − ⋅ [ +

+ < ⇒ < [ < ⇒ [ ∈ = ,
[ − > ⇒ [ > ⇒ [ > OJ ⇒ [ ∈ ORJ + ∞ = ,

⋅ [ − − > ⇒ [ >⇒ [ > ORJ ⇒ [ ∈  ORJ + ∞  = ,
 
 
6ROX LD [ ∈ , ∩ , ∩ , = ORJ
$OW PHWRG SULQFDUHVHDUDW F Z <

+ XY + X Y
= Z 3UHVXSXQHP Z < úLVHYDFRQILUPDVDXLQILUPD

⋅
X+Y X+Y
+ XY + X Y
< ⇒ + X Y + XY + X XYY < X X + X Y + YX + YY ⇒ + X Y + XY + < +
X + YX + Y
+ X Y + YX + ⇒ X Y + XY − X Y − YX < YX − X − YX − X < X − X Y − Y <
X = FRV α + L VLQ α Y = FRV β + L VLQ β − L VLQ α−L VLQ β < L VLQ α VLQ β < ⇒
⇒ VLQ α VLQ β > DGHY UDWSHQWUXF αúLβVXQWvQSULPXOFDGUDQ

;,GLQQU
Q

'LQ [Q = ∑ WJ V VHFDOFXOH]H OLP Q [Q − OQ
N = Q + N Q→∞
SURI'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX

 P ∈ ^ `
WJ[ − [ 
6ROX LH 9RP LQH VHDPD F OLP = P= $SOLF P WHR
[ 
[→ P
[ >
∞ P ∈ 1 P ≥
[ − OQ
UHPD&HVDUR6WRO]FD]XO úLRE LQHP [ = OLP Q [Q − OQ = OLP Q =
Q →∞ Q →∞
Q
[Q+ − [Q [Q − [Q+
= OLP = OLP = OLP [Q − [Q+ QQ + = OLP WJ

− WJ
Q→∞ Q→∞ Q + Q +
−
Q→∞ Q→∞
Q + Q Q Q +
− −

Q = OLP WJ

− WJ − WJ − WJ
Q +   Q + Q + Q + Q + Q + Q + Q +
− + + + −
Q→∞
 WJ −
  
  − WJ


 Q + Q +  Q    Q + Q + ⋅
Q = OLP   + OLP
Q + Q +  Q +   Q → ∞
− − ⋅

Q →∞
        
  Q +  Q + 
     
 
 
 − WJ 
 

 Q     Q +  Q  
  + OLP  Q +   + OLP  Q
 Q +    Q +    Q + Q + 
⋅ ⋅ −
 
Q → ∞ Q → ∞

 Q + 
   
 
Q
'DF LQHPVHDPDGHGLQGHGXFHPF [ = − OLP = −
Q→∞ Q + Q +

;,GLQQU
)LHI[∞→[∞RIXQF LHFXSURSULHW LOH
D OLP > I [ − [@ = E [ + I I I [ = I [ ∀[≥
[ →∞
6 VHDUDWHF I [ = [ ∀[!
*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX2QHúWL
[
6ROX LH9RPDU WDF I [ ≥ [ ∀[≥(VWHFODUF I [ ≥ ∀[≥)LH

$ = ^λ > _ I [ ≥ λ[ ∀ [ ≥ ` úLILH λ ∈$'HGXFHPF
I [ = [ + I I I [ ≥ [ + λI I [ ≥ [ + λ I [ ≥ [ + λ [ GHXQGH
+ λ λ +
I [ ≥ [ ∀ [ ≥ 'HFL ∈ $ 'HILQLP úLUXO [Q Q≥ [ = [Q+ =

[Q +
$WXQFL [Q ∈ $ ∀ Q ≥ 3ULQ LQGXF LH RE LQHP [Q ∈ ∀Q ≥ úL HVWH

=
FODU F [Q+ ≥ [Q 'HFL [Q Q≥ HVWH FRQYHUJHQW OD O ∈ [ ] 3H GH DOW SDUWH
O + = O GHXQGHO $úDGDU OLP [Q =
Q→∞
)LHDFXP [ ≥ $YHP I [ ≥ [Q [ ∀Q ≥ GHXQGH I [ ≥ OLP [Q [ = [
Q→∞
$úDGDU I [ ≥ [ ∀[ ≥ 8UPHD] F I [ = [ + I I I [ ≥ [ + I I [ ≥
≥ [ + I [ 'HDLFLRE LQHP I N + [ − I N [ ≥ ⋅ N DGLF
Q − Q −
∑ > I N + [ − I N [@ ≥ ∑ N 'HFL I Q [ − Q [ ≥ I [ − [ ∀[ ≥ úL Q ∈ 1
N = N =
3HQWUX α!IL[DWIDFHPQ→∞vQUHOD LD I Q α − Q α ≥ I α − α 'HFLGLQD

I α ≤ α &XP I α ≥ α DYHP I α = α 'HFL I [ = [ ∀[ >

;,GLQQU
)LH$∈05RPDWULFHSHQWUXFDUHDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD
GHW $ + , + GHW $ − , < 6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF PDWULFHD$HVWHLQYHUVDELO

&H]DU/XSX&RQVWDQ D
6ROX LH6 SUHVXSXQHPSULQDEVXUGF GHW $ = 9RPDSOLFDXUP WRUXOUH]XOWDW
Ä2ULFH PDWULFL ; < ∈ 05 VDWLVIDF HJDOLWDWHD GHW ; + < + GHW ; − < =
= GHW ; + GHW< ³
2 GHPRQVWUD LH D DFHVWXL UH]XOWDW SRDWH IL I FXW SULQ FDOFXO GLUHFW VDX GXS
FXPXUPHD]
&RQVLGHU PSROLQRPXO 3W = GHW ; + W< = GHW< W + DW + GHW ; D ∈5
$YkQGvQYHGHUHF 3 + 3 − = GHW ; + GHW< VHGHGXFHLGHQWLWDWHDIROR

VLW vQ SUREOHP 0DL GHSDUWH FRQVLGHU P PDWULFLOH $ + , úL $ − , (YLGHQW F

GHW $ − , GHW $ + , ∈ 5 $VWIHO DSOLFkQG UH]XOWDWXO PDL VXV PHQ LRQDW SHQWUX
FHOHGRX PDWULFLFRQVLGHUDWHYRPRE LQH GHW $ − , + GHW $ + , =
GHW $ + GHW , = $SOLFkQGLQHJDOLWDWHD&DXFK\6FKZDU]DYHP
= >GHW $ − , + GHW $ + , @ ≤ >GHW $ − , + GHW $ + , @ < IDOV

;,GLQQU
Q
6HúWLHF úLUXO DQ Q≥ DQ = −π ⋅ OQ Q + ∑ VLQ HVWHFRQYHUJHQWFX OLP DQ = D ∈
π
N = Q Q→∞
∈56 VHFDOFXOH]H OLP QDQ − D

Q→∞
SURI'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX

6ROX LH$SOLF PWHRUHPD&HVDUR6WRO]FD]XO úLRE LQHP

DQ − D D − DQ D − D Q+
OLP Q DQ − D = OLP = OLP Q+ = OLP Q = OLP DQ − D Q+ ⋅ Q Q + =
Q→∞ Q→∞ Q→∞ Q→∞ Q→∞
Q + Q Q Q +
− −
Q
  π π
= OLP   π ⋅ OQ  +  − VLQ  ⋅ Q ⋅ Q +  = OLP   π ⋅ OQ  +  − + − +
  π     π
Q →∞
  Q Q +   Q →∞
  Q  Q Q Q +
    Q + 
− VLQ  ⋅ Q ⋅ Q +  = π ⋅ OLP   OQ +  −  ⋅ Q ⋅  + π ⋅ OLP   −
π π  
Q + Q +
+
  Q  Q  Q  Q →∞  Q
Q →∞ 
 
 Q  OQ + [ − [
 ⋅ Q ⋅ Q +  + OLP   − VLQ Q + ⋅  = π ⋅ OLP +
  π π 
Q +  Q→∞  Q +
−
  Q +  Q +  [ → [

−
[ VLQ [ + [ − FRV [ −[
+ π + π ⋅ OLP OLP + π + π ⋅ OLP = π ⋅ OLP
−
[ [ [ [ +

= π ⋅ +
[ → [ [ → [ → [ →
π π π
⋅ OLP VLQ [ = π − + ⋅ =
π

+π+
[ →

;,,GLQQU
Q[ Q+ +
6 VHGHWHUPLQHSULPLWLYHOHIXQF LHLI5→5 I [ =
[ Q+ − [ Q+ + [ +
Q∈1
SURI,OLH'LDFRQX
6ROX LH)XQF LDIILLQGFRQWLQX SH5UH]XOW F DGPLWHSULPLWLYH'DF [DWXQFL

 Q 
′
[ Q[Q− +
Q[Q+ +
 − 
[ [
∫ I [G[ = ∫ [Q+ − [Q+ + [ + G[ = ∫ Q Q−
G[ = ∫ 

G[ =
[ − [ + +  [ −  +
 Q 
[  [

= DUFWJ [ Q −  + & 5H]XOW F SULPLWLYHOHOXLIYRUILGHIRUPD

 [
 Q 
DUFWJ  [ − [  + & [ <

 
[ = 'HRDUHFH ) WUHEXLH V ILH GHULYDELO vQ

) [ = &
DUFWJ  [ Q −  + & [ >


  [
GHFLFRQWLQX vQUH]XOW OLP ) [ = OLP ) [ = ) DGLF
[→ [→
[< [ >
 Q 
DUFWJ  [ − [  + & − [ <
 π
  
+ & = − + & = & = & 'HFL ) [ = & [ =
π π

DUFWJ  [ Q −  + & + π [ >

  [
;,,GLQQU
)LH I > @ → 5 R IXQF LH DVWIHO vQFkW H[LVW / ! FX SURSULHWDWHD F

I [ − I \ ≤ / ⋅ [ − \ ∀ [ \ ∈ > @ 6 VH DUDWH F GDF ∫ I [ G[ = úL

N
I   = ∀ N = Q XQGHQ∈1 Q≥DWXQFL / ≥ Q
Q
SURI'DQùWHIDQ0DULQHVFXúL9LRUHO&RUQHD+XQHGRDUD
Q − [
N
6ROX LH3HQWUX N = Q ILH [N = $WXQFL = ∫ I [ G[ = ∑ ∫ I [ G[ =
+

Q
N =
[
Q −  [ +[
 Q −  [ + [ +
I [ G[ + ∫  = ∑  ∫ I [ − I [N G[ +
[ +
I [ G[
+

= ∑  ∫

[ +[
[ +   [
N =   N = 

Q −  [ + [ +
+ ∫[ + [ + I [ − I [N + G[  ≤ / ⋅ ∑  ∫ [ − [N G[ + ∫[ + [ + [ − [N + G[  =
[ +  [ + 

[
N = 

 

/ Q −
/ Q −
/
= ⋅ ∑ [N + − [N = ⋅ ∑ = GHXQGH/≥Q
N = N = Q Q

;,,GLQQU

FRV [ ≠

6 VHDUDWHF IXQF LDX5→5 X [ =  DUFWJ[ DGPLWHSULPLWLYH
 [=

SURI$QD0LKDHOD$OH[D3LWHúWL

FRV [ ≠

6ROX LH&RQVLGHU PIXQF LLOHIJ5→5 I [ =  [ úL J [ = [ +
 [=
QHQXO SH5IDGPLWHSULPLWLYHúLILH)5→5RSULPLWLY DVDJGHULYDELO úL
QRW
FX GHULYDWD FRQWLQX SH 5 vQ SOXV = K [ = DGPLWH SULPLWLYH úL ILH
J [ [ +
+ [ = DUFWJ[ + & R SULPLWLY &RQVLGHU P * 5 → 5 GDW GH
* [ = J [ ⋅ ) + [ 3XWHP VFULH *
[ = J
[ ⋅ ) + [ + J [ ⋅ )
+ [ ⋅

⋅ +
[ = J
[ ⋅ ) + [ + J [ ⋅ I + [ ⋅ ∀[∈5DGLF *
[ = [ ⋅
J [
⋅ ) + [ + I + [ GHXQGH I + [ = *
[ − [ ⋅ ) + [ ∀[∈5&XP
*′FkWúL [ ⋅ ) + [ DGPLWSULPLWLYH⇒IXQF LDI$+DUHSULPLWLYH

;,,GLQQU
6 VHDUDWHF SROLQRPXOI∈=>;@ I = ; + D; + Ö HVWHUHGXFWLELORULFD
UHDUILD∈=
6ROX LHL'DF D∈=± ^` DWXQFL I D = D + D ⋅ D − + Ö = Ö + Ö + Ö = Ö
Ö − −
GHXQGHUH]XOW ; − D − _ I VDIRORVLWWHRUHPDOXL)HUPDWGDF DS∈=FXS!

!QXP USULPFDUHQXGLYLGHSHDDWXQFL D S− ≡ PRG S
LL 'DF D = Ö DWXQFL I = ; + Ö = ; − Ö = ; + Ö ; − Ö = ; +
+ Ö ; + Ö

;,,GLQQU
$U WD LF QXH[LVW IXQF LLI 5→5FDUHDGPLW RSULPLWLY ) 5→ 5FX
SURSULHWDWHD OLP ) $ I [ = OLP I $ ) [ = −∞
[→−∞ [→−∞
SURI0DULXV*KHUJX6ODWLQD
6ROX LH
/HP )LHI5→5RIXQF LHúL α∈5DVWIHOvQFkW OLP I [ ∈^±∞∞`VDX OLP I [ ∈
[↑α [↓α
∈^±∞∞`$WXQFLIQXDUHSURSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[SH5

'HPRQVWUD LD/HPHL6 SUHVXSXQHPF OLP I [ ±∞FHOHODOWHFD]XULVHYRUWUDWDDQD

[↑α
ORJ9RPDU WDF H[LVW XQLQWHUYDO,DVWIHOvQFkW I , QXHVWHLQWHUYDOYDUH]XOWDDSRLF I
QXDUHSURSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[ OLP I [ ±∞⇒∃ α < α DVWIHOvQFkW I [ < I α −
[↑α
∀ [ ∈ α α $WXQFL I α α@ = I α α ∪ ^ I α` ⊂ −∞ I α − ∪ ^ I α` GH
XQGHUH]XOW F I α α@ QXHVWHLQWHUYDO$úDGDUIQXDUH3URSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[
6 WUHFHPDFXPODUH]ROYDUHDSUREOHPHL
'LQ OLP ) $ I [ = −∞ ⇒∃D∈5DVWIHOvQFkW ) $ I [ < ) ∀[≤D
[→∞
$U W PF )HVWHLQMHFWLY SH±∞D@ÌQWUDGHY UGDF DUH[LVWD [ < [ ≤ D DVWIHO

vQFkW ) [ = ) [ GLQ WHRUHPD OXL /DJUDQJH H[LVW ξ ∈ [ [ DVWIHO vQFkW
)
ξ = LH I ξ = $WXQFL ) I ξ = ) úLVDUFRQWUD]LFHDVWIHOUHOD LD
SHQWUX [ = ξ $úDGDU)HVWHLQMHFWLY SH±∞D@)LLQGúLFRQWLQX YRPGHGXFHF
)HVWHVWULFWPRQRWRQ SH±∞D@GHFLH[LVW OLP ) [ = α ∈ 5
[→−∞
'DF α∈5GLQ OLP I $ )[ = −∞ GHGXFHP OLP I \ = −∞ VDX OLP I \ = −∞

[→−∞ \↑α \↓α
vQIXQF LHGHPRQRWRQLDOXL)GDUvQILHFDUHGLQDFHVWHFD]XULFRQIRUP/HPHLGH

PDLVXVDPRE LQHF IQXDUHSURSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[GHFLRFRQWUDGLF LH$úDGDU
OLP ) [ ∈ ^−∞ + ∞` $YHPFD]XULOH
[→−∞
&D]XO,)HVWHVWULFWFUHVF WRDUHSH±∞D@
ÌQED]DFHORUGHPDLVXVYRPDYHD OLP ) [ = −∞ úL)±∞D@ ±∞)D@
[→−∞
'HRDUHFH OLP ) [ = −∞ SXWHPDOHJH E < D DVWIHOvQFkW ) E < D

[→−∞
3HGHDOW SDUWH)VWULFWFUHVF WRDUHSH±∞D@LPSOLF I = )

≥ SH±∞D
$WXQFL I ) −∞ E@ = I −∞ ) E@ ⊂ I −∞ D ⊂ > + ∞ $FHDVWD DUDW F
I $ ) ≥ SH±∞E@vQFRQWUDGLF LHFXIDSWXOF OLP I $ ) [ = −∞
[→−∞
&D]XO,,)HVWHVWULFWGHVFUHVF WRDUHSH±∞D@
(VWHFODUF vQDFHVWFD]DYHP OLP ) [ = +∞ úL ) −∞ D @ = > ) D + ∞ ÌQ
[→−∞
SOXV ) VWULFW GHVFUHVF WRDUH SH ±∞ D@ LPSOLF I = )

≤ SH ±∞ D 'HRDUHFH
IDDYHP ) I −∞ D ⊂ ) −∞ @ = ) −∞ D@ ∪ ) >D @ = > ) D + ∞ ∪
∪ ) >D @ ⊂ >F + ∞ XQGH F = PLQ  ) D LQI ) W  $FHDVWDDUDW F ) $ I ≥ F
 W∈> D @ 
SH±∞DvQFRQWUDGLF LHFXIDSWXOF OLP ) $ I [ = −∞
[→−∞

2/GLQQU
6 VHDUDWHF GDF P Q S ∈1 FX P ⋅ Q S = DWXQFL [ P + \ Q = ] S DUHR

LQILQLWDWHGHVROX LLvQPXO LPHDQXPHUHORUQDWXUDOHQHQXOH

SURI1LFRODH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
6ROX LH &XP P ⋅ Q S = ⇒ ∃ D E ∈ = DVWIHO vQFkW PQD + SE = 'DF FHO
SX LQXQXOGLQQXPHUHOH P Q S HVWHHJDOFXDWXQFLHFXD LDDUHRLQILQLWDWHGHVR
OX LLSHQWUXP ]∈1]≥\ [ ]S±SHQWUXQ ]∈1]≥[
\ = ] S − SHQWUX S = [ \ ∈1 ] = [ P + \ Q
3UHVXSXQHPvQFRQWLQXDUHF P Q S ≠ &XP P Q S ∈1 GLQUH]XOW F
XQXO GLQ QXPHUHOH D úL E HVWH VWULFW SR]LWLY LDU FHO ODOW HVWH VWULFW QHJDWLY GDF
D = ⇒ ES = ⇒ S = LPSRVLELO DQDORJ SHQWUX E 'LVWLQJHP XUP WRDUHOH
GRX FD]XUL
D < E > )LH D = −N E = W XQGHNW∈1 $WXQFLGHYLQHSW±NPQ
DGLF SW = + NPQ $WXQFL [ = αα P + β Q NQ \ = βα P + β Q NP ] = α P + β Q W
αβ∈1 VXQWVROX LLDOHHFXD LHLSHQWUXF [ P + \ Q = α P α P + β Q NPQ + β Q α P +
+ β Q NPQ = α P + β Q +NPQ = α P + β Q SW = ] S &XP α β ∈ 1 UH]XOW F HFXD LD
DUHRLQILQLWDWHGHVROX LL
D > E < )LH D = N E = −W XQGHNW∈1 $WXQFLGHYLQHNPQ±SW
DGLF SW = − + NPQ &XPN≥úL P Q ≥ P Q ≠ DWXQFLNPQ≥⇒NPQ±
±≥úLLPHGLDW NPNPQ − NQNPQ − ∈1 ±^`$WXQFL [ = αα P + βQ NQ NPQ−
\ = βα P + β Q NP NPQ− ] = α P + β Q SW αβ∈1 VXQWVROX LLDOHHFXD LHLSHQWUX

F [ P + \ Q = α P α P + β Q NPQ NPQ− + β Q α P + β Q NPQ NPQ− = α P + β Q NPQ− =

= α P + β Q S W = ] S &XPαβ∈1 UH]XOW F HFXD LDDUHRLQILQLWDWHGHVROX LL

2EVHUYD LL
3HQWUX P = Q = S = VH RE LQH SUREOHPD SDJ GLQ Ä(OHPHQWDU\
WKHRU\RIQXPEHUV´GH:6LHUSLQVNL
3HQWUX P = Q > S = Q − VHRE LQHSUREOHPDSDJGLQÄ(OHPHQWDU\
WKHRU\RIQXPEHUV´GH:6LHUSLQVNL
3HQWUX S = + PQ VHRE LQHSUREOHPD2GLQ*0QU
3HQWUXP QVHRE LQHSUREOHPD2GLQ*0QU

2/GLQQU
)LH D E F > DVWIHOvQFkW D + E + F = 6 VHDUDWHF
 D E F 
DE + EF + FD  ≥
E +E F +F D +D
+ +
SURI*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX2QHúWL
6ROX LH6 FRQVLGHU P[∈>@'LQLQHJDOLWDWHD&%6GHGXFHPF


 
D E F  D E F 
 =
[ + E [ + F [ + D 
+ + ≥ + +
[ +E[
+F [
+D
 D +E+F 

D + E + F

 D E F 

 
 ≥   =
 D [ + E + E [ + F + F [ + D 
+ +
[ + DE + EF + FD

 [+E [+F [+D 
 D E F  G[ D E
'HFL  ∫ + + G[ ≥ ∫
⇒ + +
[ + E
[ + F
[ + D [ + DE + EF + FD E + E F +F
 
F
+ F FL DE + EF + FD ≤
D + D DE + EF + FD + DE + EF + FD DE + EF + FD

≥ ≥
D + E + F
=

≤

2/GLQQU
)LH D D D ∈= úL [Q = DQ + + DQ 6 VHDUDWHF H[LVW RLQILQLWDWHGH
QXPHUHQDWXUDOHQSHQWUXFDUH [ Q HVWHLUD LRQDO
6ROX LH 3UHVXSXQHP F H[LVW Q ≥ DVWIHO vQFkW ∀ Q ≥ Q [Q H S WUDW SHUIHFW
'HFL [Q = \ Q \Q ∈ 4 ∀ Q ≥ Q &XP [Q ∈ = ⇒ \Q ∈ = ∀ Q ≥ Q )LH
1 = DD D ≠ úLSFHOPDLPDUHIDFWRUSULPDOOXL1)LH SN N ≥ úLUXOQXPHUH
ORU SULPH ([LVW N DVWIHO vQFkW ∀ N ≥ N SN 1 = ⇒ SN DL = ∀ N ≥ N
L = 'HDVHPHQHDH[LVW N DVWIHOvQFkW N ≥ N SN > Q )LH 0 = PD[^N N `

$WXQFL ∀ Q ≥ 0 \ S − = [S − = ∑D N
S −
≡ ∑ PRG S Q ≡ PRG SQ GLQ WHR

N = N =

UHPDOXL)HUPDW
)RORVLQG VLPEROXO OXL/HJHQGUH DYHP   = ∀Q≥ 0 'LQOHJHDUHFL
 
 SQ 
S − S −
S  ⋅
SURFLW LLS WUDWLFHGHGXFHPF  Q  = − = − Q ≥ 0 &XP

 
H[LVW RLQILQLWDWHGHQXPHUHSULPHGHIRUPDNGHFLH[LVW N Q Q≥ FX
N Q+ > N Q úL N Q + SULP ∀ Q ≥ $OHJHP Q FX N Q + > S0 $YHP
 N Q +   N Q +     
N +−
 = − = 'DU   =   =   = −


   

 
   

   − −

   =   = − = − 'HFL± DEVXUG
    
 

2/GLQQU
6 VHGHWHUPLQHIXQF LLOHI1 →1 FXSURSULHWDWHDF SHQWUXQ≥DUHORF
I Q + I I Q
LQHJDOLWDWHD I Q + >

*DEULHO'RVSLQHVFX2QHúWL
6ROX LH (YLGHQW IXQF LLOH I Q = Q I Q = Q + VXQW VROX LL ÌQWkL REVHUY P F úL
IXQF LLOH GH IRUPD I 1 → 1 I = I N = N I N + = N + I N + =
= N + VXQWVROX LLN∈1 5HFLSURFYRPDU WDF RULFHVROX LHDUHDFHDVW
IRUP 3ULPXOSDVFRQVW vQDDU WDSULQLQGXF LHGXS NF I Q ≥ N ∀ Q ≥ N 3HQ
WUXN WRWXOHVWHFODU'DF I Q ≥ N ∀ Q ≥ N DWXQFL I I Q ≥ N ∀ Q ≥ N GHFL
N+N
I Q + > = N ∀ Q ≥ N XUPHD] HYLGHQW F I Q ≥ N + ∀Q ≥ N + /XkQG

I Q + I I Q
N Q RE LQHP I Q ≥ Q ∀ Q ∈ 1 'HFL I Q + > ≥

I Q + I Q
= I Q GHXQGH I Q + > I Q

≥
$FXPSUHVXSXQHPF H[LVW N∈1 FX I N ≥ N + 'LQ I Q ≥ Q +

I Q + I Q +
∀ Q ≥ N 'HFL I Q + > = I Q + DGLF I Q + ≥ I Q +

∀ Q ≥ N 'H DLFL SULQ LQGXF LH I Q ≥ Q − N + ∀ Q ≥ N 'HFL I Q + >
N
> I Q + − ∀Q≥N)LH S = N + 3HQWUX Q ≥ S DYHP

N Q N
I Q + > I Q + I Q + − > I Q + + − > I Q 3ULQ LQGXF LH


Q− S
I Q >   ∀Q≥S'HFLSHQWUXQ≥SDYHPFXP I Q ≥ Q ≥ S I Q + >

 
−
I I Q    I I Q I Q +

−S
3H GH DOW SDUWH I Q + >
 

 
> > ⋅  ≥
∀Q≥SGHXQGHRE LQHP I Q ≤ Q− S− I S + ∀Q≥S$úDGDUSHQWUX

 
− −
   Q− S   Q− S−

−S

Q ≥ S + DYHP
 
< I Q ≤ ⋅ I S + DGLF   S ⋅
   
  −



⋅ OQ ≤ Q − S OQ + OQ I S + FHHDFHHVWHLPSRVLELOIDFHPQ→∞úLvPS U LP

FXQ±S
$úDGDU Q ≤ I Q ≤ Q + ∀ Q ≥ 'H DLFL ILH I Q = Q ∀ Q ≥ ILH
I Q = Q + ∀ Q ≥ ILH H[LVW N ∈ 1 FX I N = N + 'LQ RE LQHP
I Q = Q + ∀Q≥N /XkQGN PLQLPDVWIHOvQFkW I N = N + YRP RE LQHIGH
IRUPDLQGLFDW ODvQFHSXWXOVROX LHL$úDGDUVROX LLOHVXQWFHOHLQGLFDWHvQSULPDSDUWH

2/GLQQU
)LH D ≥ XQ QXP U QDWXUDO DVWIHO vQFkW D + D + D + VXQW SDOLQGUR
PLFH$WXQFLDHVWHRSXWHUHQDWXUDO DOXL
6ROX LH9RPIRORVLGRX UH]XOWDWHELQHFXQRVFXWH
5'DF D∈5±4DWXQFL ^^QD` _ Q ≥ ` HVWHGHQV vQ>@
53ULPDFLIU DOXL[HVWH ÔJ [`
[ ]
7UHFHPODUH]ROYDUHDSUREOHPHL$U W PvQWkLF D 3UHVXSXQHPF QXHVWHDúD
&D]XO D = &XP D ϕ ≡ PRG XOWLPDFLIU DOXL D Q + HVWHGHFL
úLSULPDFLIU 'HGXFHPF ÔJD Q + ` < OJ $U W PF >OJD Q + @ = > Q OJ D @
(VWH FODU F >OJD Q + @ ≥ > Q OJ D @ úL GDF QX DP DYHD HJDOLWDWH DP GHGXFH F
>OJD Q + @ = >Q OJ D@ + F FL >OJD Q + @ ≤ >OJ D Q + @ = >Q OJ D@ + GH XQGH
D Q + = N &XP [ + / ∀[∈=RE LQHPN úL D Q = LPSRVLELO'HFL
OJ > OJQ + − >Q OJ D@ > ^ OJ DQ` DGLF ^^ OJ DQ` _ Q ≥ ` QXHVWHGHQV vQ>@
'LQ5GHGXFHPF OJ D ∈4VDXOJD∈4DEVXUGF FL D =
&D]XO D ≠ úL D / $WXQFL D Q + ≡ PRG DGLF OJ < ÔJD Q + ` <
OJúLSURFHG PFDODFD]XOUH]XOWkQGF ^Q OJ D` < OJ DGLF vQED]DOXL5
OJD∈4DEVXUGF FL D /
'HFL D úLSXWHPVFULH D = N W FX W / 3UHVXSXQHPF W≥'DF W Q =
= [[ S DWXQFL D Q + = NQ [ [ S + = [ [ S ,
GHFLSULPDFLIU DOXL W Q
NQ−

HVWHGHXQGH ^Q OJ W` < OJ ∀Q≥DGLF OJW∈4DEVXUGF FL W / $úDGDUW

úL D = N
2/GLQQU
)LH D E F G SULPHFX D ≠ E úL D ≤ F 6HúWLHF H[LVW 0!DVWIHOvQFkWGDF
Q≥0 DQ + E úL FQ + G DXDFHHDúLVXP DFLIUHORUvQED]D«D±6 VHDUD
WHF D = F úL E = G

6ROX LH)LHN∈^«D±`RU G FLQ SULPLWLY PRGXORD&XP E ≠ D H[LVW

[ ≥ FX N [ ≡ EPRG D 'LQ WHRUHPD OXL )HUPDW N D [ ≡ E D ≡ EPRG D GHFL

N D [ = DQL + E FX QL ∈1L≥)LH L DVWIHOvQFkW∀ L ≥ L N D [ − E > D0 $WXQFL

∀ L > L VN DQL + E = VN FQL + G VN [ HVXPDFLIUHORUOXL[vQED]DN

 
'DU VN DQL + E = VN ,
 = GHFL VN FQL + G = ∀ L ≥ L )LH GHFL
 
 N RUL 
 
!
ND [ −E N S − G
FQL + G = N FX SL ≥ $WXQFL QL = ⇒ FN D [ = D ⋅ N S + EF − DG
#
S
#
=
D F
" #
&XP OLP SL = OLP D L [ = ∞ N Q _ EF − DG ∀ Q ≥ DGLF EF = DG úL F ⋅ N D [ = D ⋅ N S

$
L →∞ L →∞
EF = DG
⇒  'HFLD|FúLFXPFHVWHSULP D = F úL E = G
F = D ⋅ N S −D [
%
',9(57,60(170$7(0$7,&
3ULPDOHF LHGHPDWHPDWLFLDSOLFDWH
)LHF UXLVSHFLDOLVWvQGHYHQLUHvLYDILDGXVvQF GHODvQFHSXWODFXQRúWLQ VSUHH[HP

SOXF VXPDDGRX P ULPLQXYDILWUDQVSXV vQIRUPD

$FHDVW IRUP HVWHPXOWSUHDEDQDO úLQXH[SULP VWLOGHORF
ÌQF GLQSULPXOVHPHVWUXúWLPF
OQH
VLQSFRVS
ÌQDIDU GHDFHDVWDHVWHELQHúWLXWF

Q
∑  
∞
Q=  
FHHDFHvQVHDPQ F vOSXWHPH[SULPDSH LQkQGFRQWGHúLDVWIHO

Q
OQHVLQSFRVS ∑  
∞
Q =  
ÌQFRQWLQXDUHQHG PVHDPDLPHGLDWF
FRVKT⋅ − WDQK T
 
]
úLH OLP  + 
] → ∞ ]
'HDFHHDSXWHPÄVLPSOLILFD³H[SUHVLDODIRUPD

   FRVK T ⋅ − WDQK T
 ]
OQ OLP  +   + VLQ S + FRV S =
∞
 ] → ∞ ]   ∑ Q
  Q =
6 QHDPLQWLPF LQYHUVDPDWULFHLWUDQVSXVHHVWHWUDQVSXVDLQYHUVHLDVWIHOSXWHPVXE
UHVWULF LDXQXLVSD LXXQLGLPHQVLRQDOV IDFHPvQF RÄVLPSOLILFDUH³SULQLQWURGXFHUHDYHF
WRUXOXL;FHHDFHvQVHDPQ
; 7 − − ; − 7 =
$VRFLHPDFXPSH FXúLUH]XOW
( )
; 7 − − ; − 7 =
7UDQVSXVvQ
   FRVK T ⋅ − WDQK T
 ]
OQ OLP  +   + VLQ S + FRV S = ∑
∞
 ] → ∞ ]  
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