Chng IV

Cm bin o v tr v dch chuyn

4.1. Nguyn l o v tr v dch chuyn Vic xc nh v tr v dch chuyn ng vai tr rt quan trng trong k thut. Hin nay c hai phng php c bn xc nh v tr v dch chuyn. Trong phng php th nht, b cm bin cung cp tn hiu l hm ph thuc vo v tr ca mt trong cc phn t ca cm bin, ng thi phn t ny c lin quan n vt cn xc nh dch chuyn. Trong phng php th hai, ng vi mt dch chuyn c bn, cm bin pht ra mt xung. Vic xc nh v tr v dch chuyn c tin hnh bng cch m s xung pht ra. Mt s cm bin khng i hi lin kt c hc gia cm bin v vt cn o v tr hoc dch chuyn. Mi lin h gia vt dch chuyn v cm bin c thc hin thng qua vai tr trung gian ca in trng, t trng hoc in t trng, nh sng. Trong chng ny trnh by cc loi cm bin thng dng dng xc nh v tr v dch chuyn ca vt nh in th k in tr, cm bin in cm, cm bin in dung, cm bin quang, cm bin dng sng n hi. 4.2. in th k in tr Loi cm bin ny c cu to n gin, tn hiu o ln v khng i hi mch in c bit x l tn hiu. Tuy nhin vi cc in th k in tr c con chy c hc c s c xt gy n v mn, s ln s dng thp v chu nh hng ln ca mi trng khi c bi v m. 4.2.1. in th k dng con chy c hc a) Cu to v nguyn l lm vic Cm bin gm mt in tr c nh Rn, trn c mt tip xc in c th di chuyn c gi l con chy. Con chy c lin kt c hc vi vt chuyn ng cn kho st. Gi tr ca in tr Rx gia con chy v mt u ca in tr Rn l hm ph thuc vo v tr con chy, cng chnh l v tr ca vt chuyn ng. i vi in th k chuyn ng thng (hnh 4.1a):

Rx =

l Rn L
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(4.1)

Trng hp in th k dch chuyn trn hoc xon:

Rx = Rn M

(4.2)

Trong M < 360o khi dch chuyn trn (hnh 4.1b) v M > 360o khi dch chuyn xon. (hnh 4.1c)
Rx, l Rn, , L a)
2 1 1 2 1 1

Rn R R

Rn

b) Hnh 4.1 Cc dng in th k 1) in tr 2) Con chy

c)

Cc in tr c ch to c dng cun dy hoc bng dn. Cc in tr dng cun dy thng c ch to t cc hp kim Ni - Cr, Ni Cu , Ni - Cr - Fe, Ag - Pd qun thnh vng xon dng l xo trn li cch in (bng thu tinh, gm hoc nha), gia cc vng dy cch in bng emay hoc lp oxyt b mt. Cc in tr dng bng dn c ch to bng cht do trn bt dn in l cacbon hoc kim loi c ht ~10-2m. Cc in tr c ch to vi cc gi tr Rn nm trong khong 1k n 100k, i khi t ti M. Cc con chy phi m bo tip xc in tt, in tr tip xc phi nh v n nh.
b) Cc c trng

- Khong chy c ch ca con chy:

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Thng thng u hoc cui ng chy ca con chy t s Rx/Rn khng n nh. Khong chy c ch l khong thay i ca x m trong khong Rx l hm tuyn tnh ca dch chuyn.
Rx
Cui ng chy

Khong chy c ch

u ng chy

x Hnh 4.3 phn gii ca in th k dng dy

Hnh 4.2 S ph thuc ca in tr in th k vo v tr con chy

- Nng sut phn gii: i vi in tr dy cun, phn gii xc nh bi lng dch chuyn cc i cn thit a con chy t v tr tip xc hin ti sang v tr tip xc ln cn tip theo. Gi s cun dy c n vng dy, c th phn bit 2n-2 v tr khc nhau v in ca con chy: + n v tr tip xc vi mt vng dy. + n - 2 v tr tip xc vi hai vng dy. phn gii ca in tr dng dy ph thuc vo hnh dng v ng knh ca dy in tr v vo khong ~10m. phn gii ca cc in tr kiu bng dn ph thuc vo kch thc ht, thng vo c ~ 0,1 m. - Thi gian sng: Thi gian sng ca in k l s ln s dng ca in th k. Nguyn nhn gy ra h hng v hn ch thi gian sng ca in th k l s mi mn con chy v dy in tr trong qu trnh lm vic. Thng thi gian sng ca in th k dng dy dn vo c 106 ln, in k dng bng dn vo c 5.107 - 108 ln.
4.2.2. in th k khng dng con chy c hc

khc phc nhc im ca in th k dng con chy c hc, ngi ta s dng in th k lin kt quang hoc t.
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a) in th k dng con tr quang

Hnh 4.4 trnh by s nguyn l ca mt in th k dng con tr quang. in th k trn dng con tr quang gm iot pht quang (1), bng o (2), bng tip xc (3) v bng quang dn (4). Bng in tr o c phn cch vi bng tip xc bi mt bng quang dn rt mnh lm bng CdSe trn c con tr quang dch chuyn khi trc ca in th k quay. in tr ca vng quang dn gim ng k trong vng c chiu sng to nn s lin kt gia bng o v bng tip xc.
4

2 1

in tr

~20 ms

Thi gian

Hnh 4.4 in th k quay dng con tr quang 1) iot pht quang 2) Bng o 3) Bng tip xc 4) Bng quang dn

Thi gian hi p ca vt liu quang dn c vi chc ms.

b) in th k dng con tr t

Hnh 4.5 trnh by s nguyn l mt in th k t gm hai t in tr R1 v R2 mc ni tip v mt nam chm vnh cu (gn vi trc quay ca in th k) bao ph ln mt phn ca in tr R1 v R2, v tr phn b bao ph ph thuc gc quay ca trc. in p ngun ES c t gia hai im (1) v (3), in p o Vm ly t im chung (2) v mt trong hai u (1) hoc (3). Khi in p o c xc nh bi cng thc:
Vm = R1 R ES = 1 ES R1 + R 2 R
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(4.3)

Trong R1 l hm ph thuc v tr ca trc quay, v tr ny xc nh phn ca R1 chu nh hng ca t trng cn R = R1 + R2 = const.

2 Vm/ES R1 R2 70% 50% 1 a) Hnh 4.5 in th k in t 3 30%

0O

180O b)

360O

T hnh 4.5b ta nhn thy in p o ch tuyn tnh trong mt khong ~90o i vi in k quay. i vi in k dch chuyn thng khong tuyn tnh ch c vi mm.
4.3. Cm bin in cm

Cm bin in cm l nhm cc cm bin lm vic da trn nguyn l cm ng in t. Vt cn o v tr hoc dch chuyn c gn vo mt phn t ca mch t gy nn s bin thin t thng qua cun o. Cm bin in cm c chia ra: cm bin t cm v h cm.
4.3.1. Cm bin t cm a) Cm bin t cm c khe t bin thin

- Cm bin t cm n: trn hnh 4.6 trnh by s nguyn l cu to ca mt s loi cm bin t cm n.

1 3
XV

2
XV

R 2 a) 3 b) Hnh 4.6 Cm bin t cm 1) Li st t 2) Cun dy 3) Phn ng - 75 1 c)

Cm bin t cm n gm mt cun dy qun trn li thp c nh (phn tnh) v mt li thp c th di ng di tc ng ca i lng o (phn ng), gia phn tnh v phn ng c khe h khng kh to nn mt mch t h. S hnh 4.6a: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, phn ng ca cm bin di chuyn, khe h khng kh trong mch t thay i, lm cho t tr ca mch t bin thin, do h s t cm v tng tr ca cun dy thay i theo. S hnh 4.6b: khi phn ng quay, tit din khe h khng kh thay i, lm cho t tr ca mch t bin thin, do h s t cm v tng tr ca cun dy thay i theo. H s t cm ca cun dy cng c th thay i do thay i tn hao sinh ra bi dng in xoy khi tm st t dch chuyn di tc ng ca i lng o Xv (hnh 4.6c). Nu b qua in tr ca cun dy v t tr ca li thp ta c:
W 2 W 2 0s = L= R Trong : W- s vng dy.

R =

- t tr ca khe h khng kh. 0s

- chiu di khe h khng kh. s - tit din thc ca khe h khng kh. Trng hp W = const ta c:
dL = L L ds + d s

Vi lng thay i hu hn v s ta c:
L = W 20 W 2 0s0 s 0 ( 0 + )2

(4.4)

nhy ca cm bin t cm khi khe h khng kh thay i (s=const):

S = L = L0 0 1 + 0
2

(4.5)

nhy ca cm bin t cm khi thay i tit din khng kh ( = const):

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Ss =

L L 0 = s s 0

(4.6)

Tng tr ca cm bin:
W 2 0 s Z = L = khe h khng kh s v phi tuyn vi chiu di khe h khng kh . (4.7)

T cng thc (4.7) ta thy tng tr Z ca cm bin l hm tuyn tnh vi tit din

Z, L L = f() Z5000Hz = f() Z500Hz = f() Hnh 4.7 S ph thuc gia L, Z vi chiu dy khe h khng kh

c tnh ca cm bin t cm n Z = f() l hm phi tuyn v ph thuc tn s ngun kch thch, tn s ngun kch thch cng cao th nhy ca cm bin cng cao (hnh 4.7). - Cm bin t cm kp lp theo kiu vi sai: tng nhy ca cm bin v tng on c tnh tuyn tnh ngi ta thng dng cm bin t cm kp mc theo kiu vi sai (hnh 4.8).
XV XV XV

a)

b) Hnh 4.8 Cm bin t cm kp mc theo kiu vi sai

c)

c tnh ca cm bin t cm kp vi sai c dng nh hnh 4.9.

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L L1 = f() L1 - L2 = f() L2 = f() Hnh 4.9 c tnh ca cm bin t cm kp lp vi sai

b) Cm bin t cm c li t di ng
Cm bin gm mt cun dy bn trong c li t di ng c (hnh 4.10).
1 2

XV

l0 l

lf

Hnh 4.10 S nguyn l cm bin t cm c li t 1) Cun dy 2) Li t

Di tc ng ca i lng o XV, li t dch chuyn lm cho di lf ca li t nm trong cun dy thay i, ko theo s thay i h s t cm L ca cun dy. S ph thuc ca L vo lf l hm khng tuyn tnh, tuy nhin c th ci thin bng cch ghp hai cun dy ng dng vo hai nhnh k st nhau ca mt cu in tr c chung mt li st.

4.3.2. Cm bin h cm
Cu to ca cm bin h cm tng t cm bin t cm ch khc ch c thm mt cun dy o (hnh 4.11). Trong cc cm bin n khi chiu di khe h khng kh (hnh 4.11a) hoc tit din khe khng kh thay i (hnh 4.11b) hoc tn hao do dng in xoy thay i (hnh 4.11c) s lm cho t thng ca mch t bin thin ko theo sut in ng e trong cun o thay i. - Cm bin n c khe h khng kh:

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T thng tc thi:

t =

iW1 iW1 0 s = R

i - gi tr dng in tc thi trong cun dy kch thch W1.

~ 1
XV

4 3 1 3 3 4 2
XV

2 4 4 a) ~

b) ~ XV
XV XV

~ c)

2 ~ d) ) ~ e) ~

Hnh 4.11 Cm bin h cm 1) Cun s cp 2) Gng t 3) li t di ng 4) Cun th cp (cun o)

Sc in ng cm ng trong cun dy o W2: e = W2 d t W W s di = 2 1 0 . dt dt

W2 - s vng dy ca cun dy o. Khi lm vic vi dng xoay chiu i = I m sin t , ta c:

e=

W2 W1 0 s I m cos t
W2 W1 0 s s I = k

v gi tr hiu dng ca sut in ng:

E=

I - gi tr hiu dng ca dng in, k = W2 W1 0 I . Vi cc gi tr W2, W1, 0, v I l hng s, ta c:

dE = E E ds + d s
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Hay

E = k

s ks 0 ( 0 + )2

(4.8)

nhy ca cm bin vi s thay i ca chiu di khe h khng kh (s = const):

S = E = ks 2 0 1 + 0
2

E0 0 1 + 0
2

(4.9)

Cn nhy khi tit din khe h khng kh s thay i ( = const): SS =

E0 =

E k E 0 = = s 0 s 0

(4.10)

ks 0 - sc in ng h cm ban u trong cun o W2 khi XV = 0. 0

Ta nhn thy cng thc xc nh nhy ca cm bin h cm c dng tng t nh cm bin t cm ch khc nhau gi tr ca E0 v L0. nhy ca cm bin h cm S v SS cng tng khi tn s ngun cung cp tng. - Cm bin vi sai: tng nhy v tuyn tnh ca c tnh cm bin ngi ta mc cm bin theo s vi sai (hnh 4.11d,,e). Khi mc vi sai nhy ca cm bin tng gp i v phm vi lm vic tuyn tnh m rng ng k. - Bin th vi sai c li t: gm bn cun dy ghp ng trc to thnh hai cm bin n i xng, bn trong c li t di ng c (hnh 4.12). Cc cun th cp c ni ngc vi nhau sao cho sut in ng trong chng trit tiu ln nhau.
2

3 1 ~ ~ Hnh 4.12 Cm bin h cm vi sai 1) Cun s cp 2) Cun th cp 3) Li t

V nguyn tc, khi li t v tr trung gian, in p o Vm u ra hai cun th cp bng khng. Khi li t dch chuyn, lm thay i mi quan h gia cun s cp vi cc cun th cp, tc l lm thay i h s h cm gia cun s cp vi cc
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cun th cp. Khi in tr ca thit b o ln, in p o Vm gn nh tuyn tnh vi hiu s cc h s h cm ca hai cun th cp.
4.4. Cm bin in dung 4.4.1. Cm bin t in n

Cc cm bin t in n l mt t in phng hoc hnh tr c mt bn cc gn c nh (bn cc tnh) v mt bn cc di chuyn (bn cc ng) lin kt vi vt cn o. Khi bn cc ng di chuyn s ko theo s thay i in dung ca t in.
-

i vi cm bin hnh 4.13a: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, bn cc ng

di chuyn, khong cc gia cc bn cc thay i, ko theo in dung t in bin thin.

C= 0 s

- hng s in mi ca mi trng. 0 - hng s in mi ca chn khng. s - din tch nm gia hai in cc. - khong cch gia hai bn cc.

XV

XV XV

a)

b) Hnh 4.13 Cm bin t in n

c)

i vi cm bin hnh 4.13b: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, bn cc ng

di chuyn quay, din tch gia cc bn cc thay i, ko theo s thay i ca in dung t in. C= 0 s 0 r 2 . = 360
(4.11)

- gc ng vi phn hai bn cc i din nhau.

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i vi cm bin hnh 4.13c: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, bn cc ng di chuyn thng dc trc, din tch gia cc bn cc thay i, ko theo s thay i ca in dung. C= 2 0 .l log( r2 / r1 ) s C C C d + ds + d s
s0 0s0 + 0 s 0 0 ( 0 + )2
(4.12)

Xt trng hp t in phng, ta c: C=

dC =

a v dng sai phn ta c:

C =
(4.13)

Khi khong cch gia hai bn cc thay i ( = const v s=const), nhy ca cm bin:
SC = 0s0 C = ( 0 + )2
(4.14)

Khi din tch ca bn cc thay i ( = const v = const), nhy ca cm bin:

SCS = C 0 = s 0
(4.15)

Khi hng s in mi thay i ( s = const v = const), nhy ca cm bin: SC = C s 0 = 0

(4.16)

Nu xt n dung khng:
Z= 1 = C s

dZ = a v dng sai phn:

Z =

Z Z Z d + ds + d s
0 0

s 0 ( 0 + )

0 (s 0 + s )

s +

1 0 s 0

Tng t trn ta c nhy ca cm bin theo dung khng:

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S Z = S Zs =

s 0 ( 0 + ) 0 (s 0 + s ) 0

(4.17)

(4.18)

S Z =

1 0 s 0

(4.19)

T cc biu thc trn c th rt ra:

-

Bin thin in dung ca cm bin t in l hm tuyn tnh khi din tch bn

cc v hng s in mi thay i nhng phi tuyn khi khong cch gia hai bn cc thay i.
-

Bin thin dung khng ca cm bin t in l hm tuyn tnh khi khong cch

gia hai bn cc thay i nhng phi tuyn khi din tch bn cc v hng s in mi thay i. Ngoi ra gia hai bn cc khi c in p t vo s pht sinh lc ht, lc ny cn phi nh hn i lng o.
4.4.2. Cm bin t kp vi sai
XV A2 A 1 A3

XV A1 A2 A3

A2 A1

A3 XV

a) b) Hnh 4.14 Cm bin t kp vi sai

c)

T kp vi sai c khong cch gia cc bn cc bin thin dch chuyn thng (hnh 4.14a) hoc c din tch bn cc bin thin dch chuyn quay (hnh 4.14b) v dch chuyn thng (hnh 4.14c) gm ba bn cc. Bn cc ng A1 dch chuyn gia hai bn cc c nh A2 v A3 to thnh cng vi hai bn cc ny hai t in c in dung C21 v C31 bin thin ngc chiu nhau. nhy v tuyn tnh ca t kp vi sai cao hn t n v lc tng h gia cc bn cc trit tiu ln nhau do ngc chiu nhau.
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4.4.3. Mch o

Thng thng mch o dng vi cm bin in dung l cc mch cu khng cn bng cung cp bng dng xoay chiu. Mch o cn tho mn cc yu cu sau: - Tng tr u vo tc l tng tr ca ng cho cu phi tht ln. - Cc dy dn phi c bc kim loi trnh nh hng ca in trng ngoi. - Khng c mc cc in tr song song vi cm bin. - Chng m tt. Hnh 4.15a l s mch cu dng cho cm bin t kp vi sai vi hai in tr. Cung cp cho mch cu l mt my pht tn s cao. Hnh 4.15b l s mch mch cu bin p vi hai nhnh t in.
Cx R eS ~ A2 A1 A3 Ura R a) b) eS ~ C0 Ura

Hnh 4.15 Mch o thng dng vi cm bin t in

4.5. Cm bin quang

Cc cm bin o v tr v dch chuyn theo phng php quang hc gm ngun pht nh sng kt hp vi mt u thu quang (thng l t bo quang in). Tu theo cch b tr u thu quang, ngun pht v thc o (hoc i tng o), cc cm bin c chia ra: Cm bin quang phn x. Cm bin quang soi thu.

4.5.1. Cm bin quang phn x

Cm bin quang phn x (hnh 4.16) hot ng theo nguyn tc di phn quang: u thu quang t cng pha vi ngun pht. Tia sng t ngun pht qua thu knh hi t p ti mt thc o chuyn ng cng vt kho st, trn thc c nhng vch chia phn quang v khng phn quang k tip nhau, khi tia sng gp phi vch chia phn quang s b phn x tr li u thu quang.
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Hnh 4.16 Cm bin quang phn x 1) Ngun pht 2) Thc o 3) u thu quang

Cm bin loi di phn quang, khng cn dy ni qua vng cm nhn nhng c ly cm nhn thp v chu nh hng ca nh sng t ngun sng khc.
4.5.2. Cm bin quang soi thu

S cu trc ca mt cm bin o v tr v dch chuyn theo nguyn tc soi thu trnh by trn hnh 4.17a. Cm bin gm mt ngun pht nh sng, mt thu knh hi t, mt li chia kch quang v cc phn t thu quang (thng l t bo quang in).
Tn hiu ra Chu k chia

3 1 2 5

Vr1 Vr2

Tn hiu chun

6 a)

4 b)

Hnh 4.17 a) S cu to cm bin quang soi thu b) Tn hiu ra 1) Ngun sng 2) Thu knh hi t 3) Thc o 4) Li chia 5) T bo quang in 6) M chun

Khi thc o (gn vi i tng kho st, chy gia thu knh hi t v li chia) c chuyn ng tng i so vi ngun sng s lm xut hin mt tn hiu nh sng hnh sin. Tn hiu ny c thu bi cc t bo quang in t sau li chia. Cc tn hiu u ra ca cm bin c khuch i trong mt b to xung in t to thnh tn hiu xung dng ch nht.

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Cc t bo quang in b tr thnh hai dy v t lch nhau mt phn t chia nn ta nhn c hai tn hiu lch pha 90o (hnh 4.17b), nh khng nhng xc nh c dch chuyn m cn c th nhn bit c c chiu chuyn ng. khi phc im gc trong trng hp mt in ngun ngi ta trang b thm mc o chun trn thc o.
u im ca cc cm bin soi thu l c ly cm nhn xa, c kh nng thu c

tn hiu mnh v t s tng phn sng ti ln, tuy nhin c hn ch l kh b tr v chnh thng hng ngun pht v u thu.
4.6. Cm bin o dch chuyn bng sng n hi 4.6.1. Nguyn l o dch chuyn bng sng n hi

Tc truyn sng n hi v trong cht rn ~ 103m/s. Thi gian truyn sng gia hai im trong vt rn cch nhau mt khong l xc nh bi biu thc: tP = l v

Bit tc truyn sng v v o thi gian truyn sng tP ta c th xc nh c khong cch l cn o:

l = vt P
S khi ca mt thit b o dch chuyn bng sng n hi biu din trn

hnh 4.18. Thi gian truyn sng tP t khi tn hiu xut hin my pht n khi n c tip nhn my thu c o bng my m xung. My m hot ng khi bt u pht sng v ng li khi tn hiu n c my thu.
ng h My m My thu l My pht

Hnh 4.18 S khi ca mt thit b o dch chuyn bng sng n hi

Gi s xung m c l N v chu k ca xung m l tH, ta c: t P = Nt H

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Khi :

l = vNt H

(4.20)

4.6.2. Cm bin s dng phn t p in

Trong cc cm bin p in, sng n hi c pht v thu nh s dng hiu ng p in. Hiu ng p in l hin tng khi mt tm vt liu p in (th d thch anh) b bin dng di tc dng ca mt lc c hc c chiu nht nh, trn cc mt i din ca tm xut hin mt lng in tch bng nhau nhng tri du, ngc li di tc ng ca in trng c chiu thch hp, tm vt liu p in b bin dng. o dch chuyn ta c th s dng hai dng sng n hi: - Sng khi: dc v ngang. - Sng b mt. Sng khi dc truyn cho cc phn t ca vt rn dch chuyn dc theo phng truyn sng to nn s nn ri li gin n ca cc lp ca vt rn. Sng ny c kch thch bng phn t p in rung theo b dy (hnh 4.19a). Sng khi ngang gy nn dch chuyn vung gc vi phng truyn sng, to ra chuyn ng trt tng i gia cc lp ca vt rn. Sng ny c kch thch bng mt phn t p in rung theo mt ct (hnh 4.19b).

Phng truyn sng

Phng truyn sng

V a) V

V b)

c)

Hnh 4.19 Cc dng sng n hi a) Sng dc b) Sng ngang c) Sng b mt v dng in cc kch thch

Sng b mt truyn trong lp b mt ca vt rn, bin ca chng hu nh bng khng su 2 di b mt. Sng b mt gm mt thnh phn sng dc v mt thnh phn sng ngang. Ngun kch thch sng b mt l mt h in cc kiu
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rng lc ci nhau ph ln b mt vt liu p in (hnh 4.19c). Khong cch gia hai rng k nhau ca cc in cc phi bng c th gy ra bin dng khi c in p V cng pha t vo v tng hiu ng ca chng. My thu sng b mt cng c cu to tng t nh my pht c gn c nh vo b mt vt rn, khi c sng b mt i qua, cc rng ca in cc lm bin dng b mt vt rn v gy nn in p do hiu ng p in.
4.6.3. Cm bin m t

Sng n hi pht ra nh s dng hiu ng Wiedemam: hin tng xon mt ng tr st t khi n chu tc dng ng thi ca mt t trng dc v mt t trng ngang. Sng n hi c thu trn c s s dng hiu ng Vilari: sc cng c hc lm thay i kh nng t ho v t thm ca vt liu st t. S nguyn l v cu to ca cm bin m t trnh by trn hnh 4.20. Cu to ca cm bin gm ng st t (1), nam chm di ng (2) trt dc ng gn vi vt cn xc nh v tr. Dy dn (3) nm gia trc ng v c ni vi my pht xung (4). My thu (5) c li t ni c hc vi ng.
1 2

u thu

l
My pht xung 4

Hnh 4.20 S nguyn l cm bin m t 1) ng st t 2) Nam chm 3) Dy dn 4) My pht xung 5) u thu

Nguyn l hot ng ca cm bin: My pht (4) cung cp mt xung in truyn qua dy dn (3), xung ny truyn vi vn tc nh sng (c), t trng do n sinh ra c ng sc l ng trn ng tm vi trc ng. Khi sng in t truyn n v tr nam chm (2), s kt hp ca hai t trng lm cho ng b xon cc b, xon cc b ny truyn i trong ng di dng sng n hi vi vn tc v. Khi sng n hi n my thu (5) n lm thay i t ho gy nn tn hiu hi p.

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Gi tP l thi gian t khi pht xung hi n khi nhn c xung hi p, do v << c ta c:

tP = l v (4.21)

Trong l l khong cch t nam chm n u thu, tP c o bng phng php m xung.

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