Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
L L
Molecular Iormula (Empirical Formula) L X
X
1
99 . 100
99 . 100
Mass Empirical
mass Molecular
moles
moles
Limiting and Excess Reactant Problem
Silver nitrate and sodium phosphate have reacted in equal amounts oI 200 grams each.
What is the limiting reactant?
$teps
Sodium nitrate Sodium phosphate
Chemical 3AgNo
3
Na
3
Po
4
Mass (g) 200g 200g
Molar Mass
moles
g
169.87 163.94
Ratio moles
87 . 169
200
1.18 mol
94 . 163
200
1.22 moles
Divide by coefficients
3
1.18
0.392
1
22 . 1
1.22
Answer: Limiting reactant is Sodium nitrate
o7mulas
n m/MM 100
yield l Theoretica
yield Actual
yield Percentage L
Answer Mg
3
N
2
2 3
2 3
N Mg
1 N Mg
Mass Empirical Formula Molecular
L
L
10
Solution and Solubility
ene7al te7ms
O The higher the temperature, the Iaster the reaction
O Miscible liquids that mix in all proportions and have no max concentration
O Immiscible 2 liquids that Iorm separate layers instead oI dissolving
****The solubility oI a solid or liquid increases with temperature.
**However Ior a gas it decreases with temperature
Water as a solvent
Water is able to dissolve other substances. There is hardly a substance known which has
not been identiIied in solution in water.
Concentration of a solution
How much solute and solvent there is. A solution can be concentrated or dilute.
Concentration amount oI solute/amount oI solution X 100
Solute
The substance to be dissolved
Polar Solvent
The substance doing the dissolving the dissolving (water polar, grease/etc. non-polar)
Solution
A homogenous mixture composed oI two or more substances
Electrolyte ( or N) itmus Result
Ionic Salt Neutral
Acid Red
SupersaLuraLed
8arely anyLhlng dlssolved
SaLuraLed
A couple are noL dlssolved
unsaLuraLed
CompleLely dlssolved
11
Base Blue
Molecular N Neutral
Intermolecular Forces
Three types oI Iorce can operate between covalent molecules:
DF Ior A (ondon Dispersion Iorces) weak
Dipole-dipole Ior polar molecules only! Usually stronger than DF
Hydrogen Bonding: an extreme version oI DDF occurs Ior polar molecules that contain
Hydrogen AND one oI F, O, or N
** IKE DISSOVES IKE
Acids and ases
Acids Bases
Ph |potential hydrogen| is under 7 Ph |potential hydrogen| is over 7
H
ion OH
-
ion
Acid Phenolphthalein colourless Base Phenolphthalein pink
HCl; H
2
So
4
; H
3
Po
4
NaOH; iOH
Arrhenius acids and bases
According to the Arrhenius deIinition, an acid is any substance, which when dissolved in
water, tends to increase the amount oI . An example is HCl:
An Arrhenius base is any substance, which when dissolved in water, tends to increase the
amount oI OH . An example is NaOH:
These deIinitions are correct but not general enough to include the wide range oI acid and
base substances which are known to exist. In addition, they rely on the use oI water as a
solvent, which is also too narrow.
12
7onsted-Low7y acids and bases
A Bronsted-owry (B) acid is deIined as any substance that can donate a hydrogen ion
(proton) and a Bronsted-owry base is any substance that can accept a hydrogen ion
(proton). Thus, according to the B deIinition, acids and bases must come in what is
called confugate pairs. For example, consider acetic acid dissolved in water:
Notice that we have written explicitly in these reactions. The reason is that
acid/base dissociation occurs by a proton transfer reaction Irom an acid species to a
speciIic water molecule. The transIer occurs through a hydrogen bond between the acid
molecule and a solvating water molecule.
Here, CH COOH is a B acid because it can donate a proton, and
CH COO its confugate base because it can accept a proton. Note
that and also Iorm such a conjugate pair.
**Note that the can be called a hydronium ion. The hydronium ion is what really
makes acids acids.
** A hydrogen ion (H) is the same thing as a single proton
Theory Acids Bases
Arrhenius H produced Irom the
ionization oI the molecule
OH- produced Irom the
dissociation oI the
compound
Revised H3O produced by acid
reacting with water
Base reacts with water to
produce OH-
Bronsted-owry H donors H acceptors
o7mulas
100
ml solution oI volume
g solute oI mass
percent
volume
mass
L
DIUTION:
2 2 1 1
V C V C
100
solution oI volume
solute oI volume
percent
volume
volume
L
6
10
g solution oI mass
g solute oI mass
million per parts in ion Concentrat L
9
10
g solution oI mass
g solute oI mass
billion per parts in ion Concentrat L
V
n
C
100
g solution oI mass
g solute oI mass
percent
mass
mass
L
13
Gases and Atmospheric Chemistry
$tanda7d conditions
0C 273 K
1 atm 101.352 kPa 101,325 Pa 760 Hg 760 torr
1 1000 ml 1000 cm
3
1dm
3
O Temperature is always in Kelvin and is represented by a capital 'T
Laws and o7mulas
Boyle`s Law
O !ressure and volume are inversely proportionate when temperature is at a constant
O II pressure increases, volume decreases |temperature is constant|
2 2 1 1
V P V P L L
Charles` Law
O 'olume and temperature are proportionate when pressure is at a constant
O II volume increases, temperature increases |pressure is constant|
1 2 2 1
T V T V L L
Gay-Lussac`s Law
O !ressure and temperature are proportionate when volume is at a constant
O II pressure increases, temperature increases |volume is constant|
2
2
1
1
T
P
T
P
Combined gas Law
O The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the temperature oI a system
remains constant
1 2 2 2 1 1
T V P T V P L L L L
Dalton`s law of partial pressure
O The sum oI the individual pressures oI all the gases that make up a mixture is equal
to the total pressure
1
P3 P2 P1 PT
O The partial pressure oI each gas is equal to the mole Iraction oI each gas multiplied
by the total pressure
P P
moles total
gas moles
T
L
Ideal Gas Law
9 pressure |n atmosphere nnumber of moles of gas
vvolume llttes 8unlversal Cas ConsLanL 831
!/(molk) 11emperaLure kelvlo
14
PV nRT
Hydrocarbons and Energy
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon. There are three
types: alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
1) Alkanes: their general Iormula is C
n
H
2n2
single bond
2) Alkenes: their general Iormula is C
n
H
2n
double bond
3) Alkynes: their general Iormula is C
n
H
2n-2
triple bond
Types of alkanes
Number oI Carbon atoms Name
1 Methane
2 Ethane
3 Propane
4 Butane
5 Pentane
6 Hexane
7 Heptane
8 Octane
9 Nonane
Alkanes have single bonds only. Diagrams oI alkanes are:
Methane (CH
4
) Ethane (C
2
H
6
)
CH
3
CH
3
$tructural Condensed
__
15
Types of alkenes
Number oI Carbon atoms Name
1 Methene
2 Ethene
3 Propene
4 Butene
5 Pentene
6 Hexene
7 Heptene
8 Octene
9 Nonene
Alkenes have double bonds as well as single bonds. When naming alkenes, it is important
to number the carbon atoms, giving the double bond the lowest number:
prop1ene. pent2ene.
Type of alkynes
Number oI Carbon atoms Name
1 Methyne
2 Ethyne
3 Propyne
4 Butyne
5 Pentyne
6 Hexyne
7 Heptyne
8 Octyne
9 Nonyne
Alkynes have triple bonds as well as single bonds. When naming alkynes, as with alkenes,
it is important to number carbon atoms, giving the triple bond the lowest number:
pentyne. but1yne.
Naming hydrocarbons
1) Find the largest continuous chain.
2) IdentiIy the branches oI the longest chain.
3) Name the branches.
16
4) II there are 2 or more branches, the carbon closest to the branch gets the lowest
number.
5) Branches oI the same type use preIixes. Commas are used between numbers and
hyphens between numbers and letters.
6) II there is more than one type oI branch, name the branches in alphabetical order.
7) II there is more than one chain that could be the main chain, select the chain with
the most branches attached.
Naming branches
Number oI Carbon atoms Name
1 Methy
2 Ethyl
3 Propyl
4 Butyl
5 Pentyl
6 Hexyl
7 Heptyl
8 Octyl
9 Nonyl
The prefixes for when there are more than one branch of the same type are:
Number oI branches PreIix
1 -
2 Di
3 Tri
4 Tetra
5 Penta
6 Hexa
7 Hepta
8 Octa
9 Nona
Isomers
Isomers organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formulas
Butane 2methyl !ropane
Cyclos
Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons that form geometric shapes when drawn out into their
structural diagrams. There are also cycloalkenes and cycloakynes. The same rules
apply.
1hey have Lhe same number of
carbons and hydrogen's
(molecular formula) buL Lhey
have dlfferenL conflguraLlons
(sLrucLural formulas)
17
Cyclobutane: Cyclopentene: Cyclopropene:
Combustion
Complete combustion oI alkanes equations are: C
n
H
n
O2 CO2 H2O.
Incomplete combustion oI alkanes equations are: C
n
H
n
O2 CO2 H2O CO C
Endothermic and Exothermic reactions
Endothermic reactions absorb heat (energy) |cold|. Examples are dissolving a chemical
in water (a medical cold pack) and any reaction where a bond is broken. Eothermic
reactions release heat (energy) |hot|. Examples are combustion equations and any
reaction where a bond is made.
%ypes of Calo7imete7s
Calorimeter
A calorimeter measures energy change
"mLcLt
" is the heat content (thermal energy)
m is the mass
c is the speciIic heat capacity
t is the temperature change
Bomb calorimeter
Bomb calorimeters measure energy change much more accurately that the calorimeter.
They are also much more expensive.
" CLt
" is the heat content (thermal energy)
C is the heat capacity
t is the temperature change
Enthalpy
n
Q -
H
w
" is measured in Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ).
2 is measured in grams (g).
. is measured in
Celsius grams
Joules
L
A9 is measured in C.
" is measured in Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ).
is measured in
Celsius grams
Joules
L
A9 is measured in C.
n" can change dependlng on Lhe quesLlon
18
!7oblems
Calorimeter Problem
100g oI water (c 4.184
Celsius grams
Joules
L
) are placed in a calorimeter. The heat oI the water
is measured to be 15.6 C. 0.568 g oI calcium is added to the water, and a chemical
reaction takes place. The Iinal temperature oI the solution is 26.3C. How much heat is
released per mole of calcium?
For this question, you will use the Iollowing Iormulas:
i I
T T T
T c m Q
w
L L
n
Q -
H
w
Mr
m
n
$tep 1
C 10.7 T
15.6 26.3 T
H
$tep 2
J 4476.88 Q
C 10.7
C g
J
4.18 100g Q
T c m Q
w
w
w
H L
H L
L
L L
$tep 3
0.014 n
40.08
0.568
n
Mr
m
n
$tep 4
315903 H
0.014
J 4476.88 -
H
n
Q -
H
w
Answer:
mole
J
315903 H
-313 1oules are released per mole
n Lhls case lL ls n
because Lhe quesLlon
asks how much heaL ls
released per le
colclo
19