TREATMENT PROCESS FLOW SHEETS

Dr.S. Kaliappan
Centre for Environmental Studies
Anna University
Chennai-600 025

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Over the years, a variety of methods have been developed for the treatment of water and
wastewater. In most situations, a combination or sequence of methods will be needed.
The specific sequence required will depend on the quality of the untreated water or
wastewater and the desired quality of the product. Although treating water is relatively
inexpensive on a per-cubic-meter basis, there is little opportunity to modify water quality
directly in most natural systems such as streams, lakes, and groundwaters because of the
large volumes involved. Rather, what is done is to treat the water used for public water
supplies and to treat the water used for public water supplies and to treat wastewater
before it is returned to the environment in engineered systems.

It is the purpose of this discussion to present an overview of the various methods

and means used for the treatment of water and wastewater. Topics to be considered in
this include (1) the classification of treatment methods, (2) the various methods used for
the treatment of specific contaminants, (3) the configuration of typical water and
wastewater treatment plants, and (4) the techniques used to size the individual treatment
facilities.

2.0CLASSIFICATION OF TREATMENT METHODS

The contaminants in water and wastewater are removed by physical, chemical, and
biological means. The specific methods are classified as physical unit operations,
chemical unit processes, and biological unit processes. Although several of these
operations and processes are combined in most treatment systems, they are usually
considered separately – a practice followed in this text. By considering each group
separately, it is possible to examine the fundamental principles involved apart from their
application in the treatment of water and wastewater.

2.1 PHYSICAL UNIT OPERATIONS

Treatment operations in which change is brought about through the application of

physical forces are classified as physical unit operations. Typical unit operations include
screening, mixing, gas transfer, sedimentation, and filtration.
2.2 CHEMICAL UNIT PROCESSES

Treatment processes in which the removal or treatment of contaminants is brought about

by the addition of chemicals or by chemical reactions are classified as chemical unit
processes. Chemical precipitation and disinfection are two important examples.

2.3 BIOLOGICAL UNIT PROCESSES

Treatment processes in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by biological

means are classified as biological unit processes. The activated sludge process used for
the treatment of the organic matter in wastewater is perhaps the best-known example.

3.0 TREATMENT METHODS FOR WATER, WASTEWATER, AND

CONTAMINATED WATERS

A wide variety of contaminants that may be found in water and wastewater were
identified and Contaminants that may have to be removed from groundwater, surface
water, and wastewater to meet specific water quality objectives are identified in Table.1.
Because of their importance, treatment methods for contaminants of anthropogenic origin
are also considered.

3.1 WATER TREATMENT METHODS

The most important objective of water treatment is to produce a water that is biologically
and chemically safe for human consumption. Quality requirements similar to those for
domestic use will generally apply for most industrial users. In some cases, such as in the
manufacture of printed circuits, even higher quality requirements may have to be met.
The principle contaminants found in water and the unit operations noted there, commonly
used water treatment methods are either physical operations or chemical processes.
Biological processes are not used because appreciable amounts of organic matter are not
present in most natural waters and biological processes are not suitable in situations
where contaminant concentrations are low. In general, effluents from biological
treatment processes do not meet source standards for domestic water supplies. However,
many community water supplies contain treated effluents from upstream wastewater
discharges but dilution and the assimilative capacity of the receiving water are sufficient
to make the mixture acceptable as a water supply source.

3.2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS

The principle objective of wastewater treatment is to produce an effluent that can be

discharged without causing serious environmental impacts. The principal contaminants
found in wastewater and the unit operation and processes used for their removal are
summarized in Table 3. Processes and operations used in wastewater treatment are
similar to those used in water treatment, except for biological methods. The principal use
of biological treatment is for the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in some situations.
A large number of biological process configurations are in use, and several combine
physical operations and chemical and biological processes within the same unit.
 TABLE.1
Typical Contaminants Found in Various Waters that May Need to Be
Removed to Meet Specific Water Quality Objectives*

TYPICAL CONTAMINANTS FOUND IN

CLASS
Groundwater Surface water Wastewater
Floating and None Branches, leaves, algal Wood, rags, paper, grit, food
suspended materials mats, soil particles wastes, feces
Colloidal materials Microorganisms, trace Clay, silt, organic Food wastes, feces, pathogenic
organic and inorganic materials, pathogenic bacteria, other
† organisms, algae, other microorganisms, silt
constituents
microorganisms
Dissolved materials Iron and manganese, Organic compounds, Organic compounds (e.g.
hardness ions, tannic acids, hardness BOD) nutrients, heavy metals,
inorganic salts, trace ions, inorganic salts inorganic salts
organic compounds
Dissolved gases Carbon dioxide, ‡ Ammonia, hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen sulfide methane
Immiscible liquids § Oils and greases Oils and greases

* Specific water quality objectives may be related to drinking water standards,

industrial use requirements, effluent discharge requirements, or agricultural reuse.
†
Typically of anthropogenic origin.
‡
Gas supersaturation may have to be reduced if surface water is to be used in fish
hatcheries.
§
Unusual in natural groundwater aquifers.
 TABLE.2
Unit Operations, Processes, and Treatment Systems
Used to Remove the Major Contaminants Found in Water

CONTAMINANT UNIT OPERATION. CLASSIFICATION*

UNIT PROCESS, OR
TREATMENT SYSTEM
Pathogenic organisms Chlorination C
Ozonation C
Turbidity and Screening P
Suspended matter Sedimentation P
Filtration P
Coagulation/flocculation/
sedimentation/filtration C/ P/P/P
Color Adsorption P/C
Ion exchange C
Coagulation/ flocculation /
sedimentation/filtration C/ P/P/P
Tastes and odors Oxidation (aeration) P/C
Adsorption P
Chemical oxidation C
Organic matter Adsorption P
Ion exchange C
Ozonation C
Coagulation / flocculation
/ Sedimentation / filtration C/ P/P/P
Hardness ions, Chemical precipitation C
Ca+2 + Mg+2 Ion exchange C
Dissolved gases Aeration P
Vacuum deaeration P
Chlorination C
Ion exchange C
Heavy metals Chemical precipitation C
Ion exchange C
Iron and manganese Ion exchange C /P
Oxidation / precipitation /
filtration
Dissolved solids Reverse osmosis
Distillation
*C = chemical, P = physical.
3.3 CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER TREATMENT METHODS
Serious health and environmental hazards exist in a wide variety chemicals of
anthropogenic origin that have been found in both surface waters and groundwaters. The
principal objectives to be met in treating contaminated groundwaters are to eliminate the
 health hazards and to restore, to the extent possible, he quality of the groundwater.
Treatment methods for contaminated groundwaters are listed in Table 4.
TABLE 3
Unit Operations, Processes, and Treatment Systems
Used to Remove the Major Contaminants Found in Wastewater

UNIT OPERATION,
CONTAMINANT UNIT PROCESS, OR CLASSIFICATION
TREATMENT SYSTEM
Suspended solids Screening and comminution P
Sedimentation P
Flotation P
Filtration P
Coagulation / sedimentation C/P
Land treatment P
Biodegradable organics Activated sludge B
Trickling filters B
Rotating biological contactors B
Aerated lagoons B
Oxidation ponds B
Intermittent sand filtration P/B
Land treatment B/C/P
Physical / chemical P/C
Pathogens Chlorination C
Ozonation C
Land treatment P
Nutrients: Suspended-growth nitrification and
Nitrogen denitrification B
Fixed-film nitrification and
denitrification B
Ammonia stripping C/P
Ion exchange C
Breakpoint chlorination C
Land treatment B/C/P
Phosphorus Metal salt coagulation/ C/P
sedimentation
Lime coagulation / sedimentation C/P
Biological / chemical phosphorus C/P
removal B/C
Land treatment C/P
Refractory organics Carbon adsorption P
Tertiary ozonation C
Land treatment systems P
Heavy metals Chemical precipitation C
Ion exchange C
Land treatment C/P
Dissolved inorganic solids Ion exchange C
Reverse osmosis P
Electrodialysis C
*B = biological, C = chemical, P = physical.
 TABLE 4
Unit Operations, Processes, and Treatment Systems Used to
Remove Anthropagenic Contaminants Found in Groundwater

CONTAMINANT UNIT OPERATION, CLASSIFICATION

UNIT PROCESS, OR *
TREATMENT SYSTEM
Acids and alkalies Membrane separation / reuse P
Neutralization C
Biodegradable organics Activated sludge B
Aerobic filtration B
Aerobic ponds B
Anaerobic digestion B
Heavy metals Adsorption (traces) P
Chemical reduction C
Gravimetric separation P
Precipitation C
Inorganic ions and salts Adsorption (traces) P
Encapsulation / fixation P
Gravimetric separation P
Landfill P
Membrane separation / reuse P
Precipitation C

Reactive ions and Chemical oxidation / reduction C

compounds Dissolving C
Encapsulation / fixation P
Hydrolysis C
Refractory organics Chemical oxidation C
Incineration C
Solvent extraction / incineration C
Solvent extraction / reuse C
Solvents and oils Acid / caustic stripping C
Distillation P
Evaporation P
Filtration P
Gravimetric separation P
Incineration C
Steam stripping P

*B = biological, C = chemical, P = physical.

4.0 TREATMENT PROCESS FLOW SHEETS

Depending on the contaminants to be removed, an almost limitless number of process

combinations can be developed using the unit operations and processes. The term "flow
sheet" is used to describe a particular combination of unit operations and processes used
to achieve a specific treatment objective. Apart from the analysis of the technical
feasibility of the individual treatment methods, the exact flow-sheets configuration will
depend on factors such as (1) the needs of the client's needs, (2) the designer's past
experience, (3) regulatory agency policies on the application of specific treatment
methods, (4) the availability of equipment suppliers, (5) what use can be made of existing
facilities, (6) the availability of qualified operating personnel, (7) initial construction
costs, and (8) future operation and maintenance costs. Conventional flow sheets for the
treatment of water and wastewater are presented and discussed below.

4.1 WATER TREATMENT

The treatment required for a water depends on the source of supply. For example, the
treatment of water from a remote mountain catchment area may involve screening,
filtration, and disinfection, whereas the treatment for river water may involve screening,
coagulation / flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. Groundwater from
deep wells may require no treatment at all. Depending on the local geology, both
groundwater and surface supplies may require softening for hardness removal. A flow
sheet for the treatment of a groundwater containing iron and manganese is shown in Fig.1
As shown, chlorine and atmospheric oxygen are used to oxidize the iron and manganese.
After sedimentation, granular-medium filtration is used to remove any residual oxidation
products.

A typical flow sheet for the complete treatment of river water is shown in Fig.2.
As shown, the bar racks and screens are used to remove large debris. The coagulation /
flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration treatment steps are used for the removal of
turbidity and pathogenic organisms. Chemical coagulation and flocculation are used to
produce a flocculant precipitate that enmeshes the colloidal and suspended solids in the
water. The precipitate is removed by gravity sedimentation. Filtration is used to remove
any residual solids remaining after sedimentation. Disinfection is used for the control of
pathogenic organisms. After disinfection, the treated water is often stored in a clear well
prior to being pumped into the distribution system. The storage lagoons are used for the
treatment of the materials removed from the raw water and the materials added to bring
about treatment.

4.2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT

The treatment required for a wastewater will depend on the effluent discharge
requirements. For example, where an ocean discharge is used, removal of large debris by
screens and of settleable solids by sedimentation may be the only treatment steps that are
required. Where treated effluent is to be discharged to an inland stream, complete
treatment may be required. Discharges to environmentally sensitive lakes, streams, and
estuaries may require additional treatment to remove specific constituents.

Treatment schemes are often identified as primary, secondary, or advanced (also

known as tertiary). In primary treatment, a portion of the suspended solids and organic
matter is removed from the wastewater. This removal is usually accomplished with
physical operations such as screening and sedimentation. The effluent from primary
treatment will ordinarily contain considerable organic matter and will have a relatively
high BOD. The further treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to remove the
residual organic mater and suspended material is known as secondary treatment. In
general, biological processes employing microorganisms are used to accomplish
secondary treatment. The effluent from secondary treatment usually has little BOD5 and
suspended solids and may contain several milligrams per litter of dissolved oxygen.
When required for water reuse or for the control of eutrophication in receiving waters,
advanced (tertiary) treatment is used for the removal of suspended and dissolved
materials remaining after secondary treatment.

The choice of a set of treatment methods depends on several factors, including

discharge permits and available disposal facilities. Actually, the distinction between
primary, secondary, and advanced treatment is rather arbitrary, as many modern treatment
methods incorporate physical, chemical, and biological processes in the same operation.
A more rational approach would be to drop these arbitrary distinctions and to focus
instead on the optimum combinations of operations and processes that must be used to
achieve the required treatment objectives. For enforcement purposes, the CPPHEO has
established standards for secondary treatment.

Typical flow sheets for the treatment of wastewater are presented in Figs.(3) and
(4). The flow sheets shown in Fig. (3) are used for small communities, whereas the flow
sheet shown in Fig. (4) is for a larger community. In the flow sheets shown in Fig. (3),
the large solids in the incoming wastewater are screened or reduced in size by
communication. In Fig.3 (a) and 3 (d), the wastewater, after pretreatment in either an
Imhoff tank or in wastewater oxidation ponds, is discharged to an aquatic marsh for final
treatment. In Fig.3 (b) the wastewater is disposed of by percolation into the soil after
biological treatment. In Fig. 3(c) a suspended-growth biological is used for treatment.
Under current regulations, the final effluent from flow sheets in Fig.3 (a), (c) and (d)
would have to be disinfected before discharge to the environment.

In larger communities (Fig.4), racks are used to remove large debris and the size
of coarse solids is reduced by communication. The use of grit-removal facilities will
depend on the nature and condition of the incoming sewers. Flow metering may precede
or follow grit removal. In some plants, flow metering is accomplished at the effluent end
of the plant. Settleable solids re removed in the primary sedimentation tank. Biological
treatment is used to remove colloidal and dissolved organic matter and any residual solids
escaping the primary sedimentation tank. The secondary sedimentation tank is an
integral part of the biological treatment process. Disinfection is used to control the
discharge of pathogenic microorganisms. Dechlorination is used to remove any residual
chlorine before discharge into ecologically sensitive areas.

4.3 CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER TREATMENT

Generally the cleanup of a contaminated groundwater could be accomplished by pumping

out the contaminated water, treating it, and reinjecting the treated water back into the
groundwater aquifer. A flow sheet for the treatment of a groundwater contaminated with
volatile and nonvolatile organic compounds is presented in Fig.5. As shown, gas (air)
stripping is used to remove the volatile organics, and activated carbon is used for the
removal of the nonvolatile organic compounds by adsorption. The air from the stripping
tower containing the organic compound removed from the groundwater is passed through
a filter before being discharged. The filter medium must be disposed of at a hazardous-
waste disposal site. Where the concentration of the contaminant is sufficient to support
microbial activity, selected strains of micro organisms have been used for treatment. In
the future, as the field of genetic engineering develops, it is anticipated that enzymes and
microbial cultures capable of treating a wide range of compounds will be developed.

5.0 SLUDGE PROCESSING

In recent times, disposal of the material removed from water and wastewater (including
the material added to bring about treatment) has become one of the most difficult
problems in the implementation of any treatment system. The material removed by
treatment is usually identified as sludge. Typical methods that have been used for the
processing of sludge from water and wastewater treatment plants are considered below.

5.1 SLUDGE FROM WATER TREATMENT PLANTS

In general, because coagulant and filter-backwash sludges are quite different, different
methods of disposal should be used. In most new water filtration plants, and in many
modified older water treatment plants, filter backwash is returned to the raw-water intake
using this method, the only sludge that must be processed is the sludge removed from the
settling basin. In smaller treatment plants, storage basins are used to equalize the
backwash return-water flow rate.
The capacity of the equalization basins should be such that the rate at which backwash
water is returned to the treatment process is equal to or less than 10 percent of the
average plant filtration rate. The combined sludge removed from the settling basin is
usually disposed of in lagoons. Because lagoons are used both for storage and drying a
minimum of two lagoons is required. Drying is usually completed within six months.
In very large treatment plants, where space is at a premium, coagulant sludge may
be thickened before drying. In some cases, it has been possible to reuse the coagulant
sludge may be thickened before drying. In some cases, it has been possible to reuse the
coagulant sludge for the manufacture of bricks and building blocks. Some small
treatment plants discharge combined coagulant sludge to municipal sewers.
5.2 SLUDGE FROM WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS

In small wastewater treatment plants without sludge digestion facilities, sludge is

disposed of in lagoons or on sludge drying beds, as shown in sludge is disposed of in
sludge drying beds. In intermediate and large plants, biological sludge is usually
thickened before anaerobic sludge digestion digested sludge is either dewatered and
trucked away for disposal or applied to storage lagoons or drying beds for dewatering.
Dewatered sludge from storage lagoons or drying beds is usually disposed of by
landfilling or land spreading.

5.3 SLUDGE FROM CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER TREATMENT

Waste materials removed from contaminated groundwaters are usually concentrated prior
to disposal in specially designated hazardous-waste disposal sites. In some cases, the
waste materials can be incinerated or pyrolyzed.

6.0 IMPLEMENTATION OF TREATMENT METHODS

In both water and wastewater treatment, the physical implementation of the unit
operations and processes identified in Tables 2, 3, and 4 is accomplished in specially
designed tanks or other appropriate facilities in which the pertinent operational and
environmental variables are controlled so that treatment can be accomplished at
accelerated rates as compared with the rates that would be expected in natural systems.
In theory, the size and configuration of the tankage should depend on the kinetics
governing the specific operation and process and the treatment objectives to be met.
However, based on past experience, a variety of empirical design parameters have been
developed. Theses parameters are commonly used for the design of unit operations and
processes in routine applications. In some cases, because of the unusual nature of some
wastes, pilot-plant resting has been necessary to define design parameters.

Where chemical and biological processes are to be used, it is now common practice to
determine the required tank volume on the basis of a materials balance analysis in which
the applicable reaction and/or process kinetics controlling the process are considered.

Over the years, various design parameters and criteria have been developed from
practical experience for the design of conventional water and wastewater treatment
operations and processes. Typical design parameters are based on detention time, surface
loading rates, and mass loading rates. The most commonly used parameters are furnished
in Annexure – I
Annexure Design Parameter

1. Hydraulic detention time, θH:

volume V, m3
θH = --------------------- (1)
flow rate Q, m3/d

2. Hydraulic surface loading rate, S Q / A:

flow rate Q, m3 / d
SQ / A = -------------------- (2)
Surface area A, m2

3. Mass surface loading rate, SM / A :

mass of material applied, kg / d

SM / A = --------------------------------------- (3)
Surface area A, m2

4. Mass per volume loading rate, V M /V :

mass of material applied, kg / d

V M / V= --------------------------------------- (4)
Volume V, m3

5. Mass per mass loading rate, M M / M:

mass of material applied, kg/d

M M / M = ------------------------------------- (5)
Mass of material in system, kg