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Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation behaves both as particles (called photons) and as waves. Wavelength ( ) and frequency ( ) are related according to the equation
where
). The energy (
where
is Planck's constant ( ).
), which are
more commonly expressed as hertz ( Part A A microwave oven operates at 2.40 Hint A.1
Hint A.2
Hint A.3
Some people lose their wireless Internet connection at home while their microwave oven is turned on because both happen to operate at 2.40 .
Part B There are two types of ultraviolet light, UVA and UVB, that are both components of sunlight. Their wavelengths range from 320 to 400 for UVA and from 290 to 320 for UVB. Compare the energy of of microwaves, UVA, and UVB. Hint B.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint B.2 Determine the relationship between wavelength and energy Hint not displayed Hint B.3 Which has greater energy, UVA or UVB? Hint not displayed Rank from greatest to least energy per photon. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them. ANSWER:
View Correct
UVB radiation causes sunburn whereas UVA radiation does not. However, UVA, which causes tanning, is thought to be even more dangerous. The precise wavelengths of ultraviolet light that contribute to the formation of skin cancers still need to be determined by scientists.
Properties of Waves
Learning Goal: To understand electromagnetic radiation and be able to perform calculations involving wavelength, frequency, and energy. Several properties are used to define waves. Every wave has a wavelength, which is the distance from peak to peak or trough to trough. Wavelength, typically given the symbol (lowercase Greek "lambda"), is usually measured in meters. Every wave also has a frequency, which is the number of wavelengths that pass a certain point during a given period of time. Frequency, given the symbol (lowercase Greek "nu"), is usually measured in inverse seconds ( ). Hertz ( ), another unit of frequency, is equivalent to inverse seconds. The product of wavelength and frequency is the speed in meters per second ( The speed of light is symbolized by the letter and is always equal to . For light waves, the speed is constant. in a vacuum; that is,
Another term for "light" is electromagnetic radiation, which encompasses not only visible light but also gamma rays, X rays, UV rays, infrared rays, microwaves, and radio waves. As you could probably guess, these different kinds of radiation are associated with different energy regimes. Gamma rays have the greatest energy, whereas radio waves have the least energy. The energy (measured in joules) of a particular kind of light wave is equal to its frequency times a constant called Planck's constant, symbolized
where
These two equations can be combined to give an equation that relates energy to wavelength:
Part A A radio station's channel, such as 100.7 FM or 92.3 FM, is actually its frequency in megahertz ( . Calculate the broadcast wavelength of the radio station 102.7 FM. Hint A.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint A.2 Convert frequency to hertz Hint not displayed Hint A.3 Choose a formula for frequency Hint not displayed Express your answer in meters to four significant figures. ANSWER: = 2.919 Correct ), where
Part B Green light has a frequency of about Hint B.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint B.2 Choose a formula for energy Hint not displayed Express your answer in joules. ANSWER:
"19 = 3.98!10 Correct
Part C Hospital X-ray generators emit X rays with wavelength of about 15.0 nanometers ( is the energy of the X rays? Hint C.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint C.2 Convert nanometers to meters Hint not displayed Hint C.3 Choose a formula for energy Hint not displayed Express your answer in joules. ANSWER:
"17 = 1.32!10 Correct
), where
. What
First, determine the amount of energy in joules needed to heat the coffee using the following equation:
in which
is
the temperature change. Second, determine the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 11.6
in which
is Planck's constant (
), and
). Lastly, use the total energy and the energy per photon to determine the number of photons needed. Hint A.2 Determine the total energy required of coffee from 25.0 to 62.0 ? Assume that the coffee has
How much energy in joules is required to heat 275 the same density, 0.997
Hint A.2.1 Determine the mass of coffee Hint not displayed Hint A.2.2 Determine the temperature change Hint not displayed Express your answer numerically in joules. ANSWER:
4 = 4.24!10 Correct
Hint A.3
What is the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 11.6 Hint A.3.1 Relation between energy and wavelength
Hint not displayed Express your answer numerically in joules per photon. ANSWER: 1.71!10 "24 Correct
Hint A.4 If
Identify how to find the number of photons is the number of joules per photon, which choice shows how to calculate the
Correct Plug in the values of and and calculate the number of photons based on units:
Electromagnetic radiation in this region of the spectrum is also used for cellular phones, radar, and wireless Internet.
where
is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, is the threshold frequency of the metal. , the equation can also be written as
is Planck's constant,
is the frequency of
where
Here are some data collected on a sample of cesium exposed to various energies of light. Light energy ( ) 3.87 3.88 3.89 3.90 3.91 Electron emitted? Electron ( no no yes yes yes 0 0.01 0.02 )
Part A What is the threshold frequency Note that Hint A.1 How to approach this problem of cesium?
First use the chart to determine the threshold energy in electron volts. Then convert that energy to joules. Then use that value to calculate the corresponding frequency.
Hint A.2
Hint A.2.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed ANSWER: = 3.89 Correct
Hint A.3
Hint A.4
Useful formulas
where
is
Part B Red light has a wavelength of about Hint B.1 How to approach this problem Hint not displayed Hint B.2 Threshold energy of cesium Hint not displayed Hint B.3 Find the energy of red light Hint not displayed Hint B.4 Useful formulas Hint not displayed ANSWER: yes no Correct . Will exposure to red light cause electrons to be emitted from cesium?
Part C What is the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons when cesium is exposed to UV rays of frequency Hint C.1 How to approach this problem Hint not displayed ANSWER:
"19 = 3.72!10 Correct
light emitted by the decay of electrons from higher orbits to the Part A What wavelength level? Hint A.1 How to approach the problem
level.
should the astrophysicist look for to detect a transition of an electron from the
to the
where
, and
is the Rydberg constant in inverse meters. , and the Rydberg constant, then solve for
Express your answer numerically using three significant figures. ANSWER: 9.07!10 "2 Correct
Atomic Spectra
Learning Goal: To calculate the wavelengths of the lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum. Atoms give off light when heated or otherwise excited. The light emitted by excited atoms consists of only a few wavelengths, rather than a full rainbow of colors. When this light is passed through a prism, the result is a series of discrete lines separated by blank areas. The visible lines in the series of the hydrogen spectrum are caused by emission of energy accompanying the fall of an electron from the outer shells to the second shell. The wavelength ( ) of the lines can be calculated using the Balmer-Rydberg equation
where Part A
is an integer,
, and
Hint not displayed Hint A.2 Classify the series . Match the values of to the correct series.
There are several named series, defined by their value of Drag each item to the appropriate bin. ANSWER:
View Correct If an excited electron drops to the second shell, the light emitted will be in the Balmer series:
Correct
If an excited electron drops to the second shell, the light emitted will be in the Balmer series. Part B The image shows the wavelengths (in nanometers) of the four visible lines in the Balmer series for hydrogen. Match each line to its corresponding transition. Hint B.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint B.2 Identify which transition will emit the shortest wavelength Hint not displayed Hint B.3 Identify which transition will emit the longest wavelength Hint not displayed Drag each item to the appropriate bin. ANSWER:
View Correct
Part C If our eyes could see a slightly wider region of the electromagnetic spectrum, we would see a fifth line in the Balmer series emission spectrum. Calculate the wavelength associated with the fifth line. Hint C.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint C.2 What values of m and n should be used? Hint not displayed Hint C.3 Substitute the values of m and n in the equation Hint not displayed Express the wavelength numerically in nanometers. ANSWER: = 397 Correct lies outside of the visible region shown here.
A wavelength of 397
is in the ultraviolet region, which would be to the left of the spectrum shown.
Part A How much energy does the electron have initially in the n=4 excited state? Hint A.1 Use the Bohr equation
The Bohr equation states that the energy of an electron in a particular orbit is given by
where = 1.10!10 7 = 6.63!10 "34 and = 3.00!10 8 Enter your answer numerically in joules. ANSWER:
!19 = !1.36"10 Correct
Part B What is the change in energy if the electron from Part A now drops to the ground state? Hint B.1 How to approach the problem = 4.00 in Part A. Now find the energy of the ground state. Then subtract the two energies:
Hint B.2
Correct
as a negative number (it is a net loss of energy from the for the remaining calculations.
point of view of the system). However, you should use the absolute value of
Part C What is the wavelength Hint C.1 of the photon that has been released in Part B?
ANSWER:
Part D What might the photon from Part C be useful for? Hint D.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed ANSWER: Warming up a frozen hot dog Getting a suntan Checking for broken bones Night-vision goggles Listening to music Correct
Problem 6.34
Indicate whether energy is emitted or absorbed when the following electronic transitions occur in hydrogen. Part A from 2 to 6 state, Energy is emitted. Energy is absorbed. Correct
ANSWER:
where
is Planck's constant.
This formula applies to all objects, regardless of size, but the de Broglie wavelength of macro objects is miniscule compared to their size, so we cannot observe their wave properties. In contrast, the wave properties of subatomic particles can be seen in such experiments as diffraction of electrons by a metal crystal. Part A The mass of an electron is . If the de Broglie wavelength for an electron in a hydrogen atom is .
, how fast is the electron moving relative to the speed of light? The speed of light is
Hint A.1
With mass in kilograms and wavelength in meters, the velocity can be calculated in meters per second. Once you know the velocity, express it as a percentage of the speed of light, . Hint A.2 Calculate the velocity of the electron in meters per second
What is the velocity of the electron? Express your answer numerically in meters per second. ANSWER:
6 = 2.20!10 Correct
Express your answer numerically as a percentage of the speed of light. ANSWER: 0.732 Correct
Part B The mass of a golf ball is 45.9 . If it leaves the tee with a speed of 80.0 Hint B.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint B.2 Convert the mass to kilograms Hint not displayed Express your answer numerically in meters. ANSWER:
"34 = 1.80!10 Correct
The de Broglie wavelength of the golf ball is insignificant compared to the size of the ball itself. That is why we do not observe the wave properties of objects in everyday life. On the atomic scale, we cannot observe the dual nature of subatomic particles directly because we can't see atoms, but the wave/particle description works well as a mathematical model of the behavior of elementary particles.
make a drawing. However, the student, having just learned about the Heisenberg uncertainty principle in physics class, complains that she cannot make the drawing. She claims that the uncertainty of the bacterium's position is greater than the microscope's viewing field, and the bacterium is thus impossible to locate. Part A What is the uncertainty of the position of the bacterium? Hint A.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint A.2 Determine the mass of the bacterium in kilograms Hint not displayed Hint A.3 Convert the velocity to meters per second Hint not displayed Hint A.4 Determine the uncertainty of the bacterium's momentum , the
Use the mass (in kilograms), the velocity (in meters per second), and the percent uncertainty to calculate uncertainty in the bacterium's momentum.
Hint A.4.1 How to find the uncertainty in the momentum Hint not displayed Express your answer numerically in kilogram meters per second. ANSWER: = Answer not displayed
Part B By looking at the uncertainty of the bacterium's position, did the student have a valid point? Hint B.1 Size of E. coli Hint not displayed ANSWER: The student has a point. The uncertainty of the bacterium's position is much larger than the bacterium itself. The bacterium's size and the uncertainty of its position are about the same magnitude. The student should have little trouble finding the bacterium in the microscope The student is wrong. The uncertainty of the bacterium's position is tiny compared to the size of the bacterium itself. Correct
integer. For example, an electron in the 2p subshell has a principal quantum number of
subshells are coded as 0, p subshells as 1, d as 2, and f as 3. For example, an electron in the 2p subshell has rule, can have integer values ranging from 0 to . ,
The magnetic quantum number the three 2p orbitals can be labeled ranging from to .
corresponds to the orbital in which the electron is located. Instead of 1, 0, and 1, but not necessarily respectively. As a rule,
, and
The spin quantum number corresponds to the spin of the electron in the orbital. A value of 1/2 means an "up" spin, whereas 1/2 means a "down" spin. Part A What is the only possible value of Hint A.1 for an electron in an s orbital?
Hint A.2
ANSWER:
0 Correct
Part B Classify each set of quantum numbers (ordered Hint B.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed , , , ) as possible or not possible for an electron in an atom.
Hint B.2
Identify issues with an example set of quantum numbers Hint not displayed
Quantum Numbers
Every electron in an atom is described by a unique set of four quantum numbers: number, , , , and . The principal quantum , identifies the shell in which the electron is found. The angular-momentum quantum number, , indicates the , distinguishes the orbitals within a subshell. The spin quantum
kind of subshell. The magnetic quantum number, number, , specifies the electron spin. Part A
Identify which sets of quantum numbers are valid and which are invalid. Each set is ordered ( Hint A.1 Identify the restrictions on the principal quantum number Hint not displayed Hint A.2 Identify the restrictions on the angular momentum quantum number Hint not displayed Hint A.3 Identify the restrictions on the magnetic quantum number Hint not displayed Hint A.4 Identify the restrictions on the spin quantum number Hint not displayed Drag each item to the appropriate bin. ANSWER:
).
Part B Identify the sets of quantum numbers that describe all the electrons in a neutral beryllium atom, ( Hint B.1 ). Determine the number of electrons in a Be atom Hint not displayed Hint B.2 Determine the first set of quantum numbers Hint not displayed Hint B.3 Determine the last set of quantum numbers Hint not displayed Drag each item to the appropriate bin. ANSWER: . Each set is ordered
View Correct
Hint A.1
Hint A.2
Match letter designations with values of the azimuthal quantum number Hint not displayed
Correct . For
For the known elements, only s, p, d, and f orbitals are used. However, quantum theory predicts the existence of orbitals with values higher than example, an orbital with would be given the letter designation of g.
Part B What is the label for this orbital that indicates the type of orbital and its orientation in space?
How to approach the problem axes. The p orbital that lies along the axis is labeled , the p orbital that axis is labeled , and the p orbital that lies along the axis is labeled . The label for a d orbital is related to its orientation with respect to . Identify which plane bisects this particular orbital to determine
The label for a p orbital is based on its orientation with respect to the , , and
the xy, xz, and zy planes. For example, the orbital that is bisected by the xz plane is labeled the appropriate label. Hint B.2 Match orbital orientation with coordinate plane location
Based on the orientation of the following orbitals, identify the coordinate plane that bisects the orbital.
View Correct
).
Part C Compare the orbital shown in Parts A and B to the orbital shown here in size, shape, and orientation. Which quantum number(s) would be different for these two orbitals?
Hint C.1
Hint C.2
Associate the quantum numbers with their specific orbital properties. Match the words in the left-hand column with the appropriate blank in the sentences on the right. Make certain each sentence is complete before submitting your answer. ANSWER:
ANSWER:
The actual value of assigned to a given orientation is not arbitrary. It is determined based on how the hydrogen atom behaves in a magnetic field. This also accounts for the name given to this quantum number.
Part D How would the orbital in the shell compare to the orbital in the and axes. subshell?
A. The contour of the orbital would extend further out along the B. The value of would increase by 2.
C. The radial probability function would include two more nodes. D. The orientation of the orbital would be rotated 45 along the xy plane. E. The Hint D.1 value would be the same. Identify the significance of the quantum numbers Hint not displayed Hint D.2 The radial probability function Hint not displayed Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins. ANSWER:
View Correct A following representation of this orbital, shown when it is bisected by the xy plane,
Orbital Diagrams
Learning Goal: To understand how to draw orbital diagrams, and how they are used to write electron configurations.
The electron configuration of an element is the arrangment of its electrons in their atomic orbitals. Electron configurations can be used to predict most of the chemical properties of an element. Orbital diagrams are a useful tool to aid in the derivation of the electron configuration of an element. Orbital diagrams are filled using the aufbau principle, the Pauli principle, and Hund's rule. Aufbau is German for "building up." The aufbau principle simply states that electrons are added to an orbital diagram one at a time to the lowest energy orbital available, and that the orbital diagram is thus "built up." However, due to shielding of the nucleus, the energies of orbitals are not always in order of energy level ( ). For example, the orbital is lower in energy than the orbital for elements with more than one electron. To aid in remembering the energy order of orbitals, draw a
diagram with the energy levels (1 through 8) down the left of the diagram, and the subshells of each energy level across in rows, with each row offset by one (so is below , is below , etc). To determine the order in which orbitals fill, read the diagram from top to bottom, left to right. This results in the order , etc. This order is often called the "aufbau order." The Pauli principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same value of all four quantum numbers ( , , , and ). The first three quantum numbers ( , , and ) specify a particular orbital, such as . The fourth quantum number ( ( and ) specifies the spin of the electron. ), only two electrons can occupy any given orbital.
Remember that subshells consist of three separate orbitals ( , , and ), for a total of up to six electrons in a given subshell. Similarly, subshells consist of five separate orbitals, and subshells consists of seven separate orbitals. Finally, Hund's rule states that the lowest energy electron configuration for an atom is one having the maximum number of electrons with parallel spins in degenerate orbitals. In other words, when three electrons begin to fill a subshell (which consists of three degenerate orbitals, meaning three orbitals with the same energy), the lowest energy configuration consists of one electron in each orbital, all with either spin up or spin down. Part A Draw an orbital diagram for boron. Hint A.1 How to approach the problem ). Next, fill the orbitals one electron at a time, from
First, determine the number of electrons in an atom of boron ( lowest energy to highest energy. Use this tool to draw the orbital diagram. ANSWER:
View Correct
Part B Draw an orbital diagram for scandium (Sc). Hint B.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint B.2 The aufbau principle orbital fills before the orbitals.
Use this tool to draw the orbital diagram. ANSWER: View Correct
Part C Electron configurations are a shorthand form of an orbital diagram, describing which orbitals are occupied for a given element. For example, is the electron configuration of boron. Hint C.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed
Hint C.2
Use this tool to generate the electron configuration of arsenic (As). ANSWER:
View Correct
Orbital-Filling Diagrams
Learning Goal: To learn to create orbital-filling diagrams. An orbital-filling diagram shows the number of electrons in each orbital, which are shown in order of energy. The placement of electrons in orbitals follows a certain set of rules. 1. Lower energy subshells fill before higher energy subshells. The order of filling is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p. The periodic table can be used to help you remember this order. 2. An orbital can hold up to two electrons, which must have opposite spins. 3. Hund's rule states that if two or more orbitals with the same energy are available, one electron goes in each until all are half full. The electrons in the half-filled orbitals all have the same value of their spin quantum number. Part A How many orbitals are there in the third shell ( Hint A.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint A.2 Determine how many orbitals are in the 3s subshell Hint not displayed Hint A.3 Determine how many orbitals are in the 3p subshell Hint not displayed Hint A.4 Determine how many orbitals are in the 3d subshell Hint not displayed Express your answer numerically as an integer. ANSWER: 9 Correct Nine orbitals (one s, three p, and five d) can hold a maximum of 18 electrons. Part B Show the orbital-filling diagram for (nitrogen). Stack the subshells in order of energy, with the lowest-energy subshell )?
at the bottom and the highest-energy subshell at the top. Hint B.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint B.2 How many electrons are in a neutral atom of N? Hint not displayed Hint B.3 How to use the orbital-filling tool Hint not displayed Use the buttons at the top of the tool to add orbitals. Click within the orbital to add electrons. ANSWER: View Correct
Part C Show the orbital-filling diagram for (sulfur). Stack the subshells in order of energy, with the lowest-energy subshell at
the bottom and the highest-energy subshell at the top. Hint C.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint C.2 How many electrons are in a neutral atom of S? Hint not displayed Use the buttons at the top of the tool to add orbitals. Click within the orbital to add electrons. ANSWER:
View Correct
Part D Show the orbital-filling diagram for (bromine). Stack the subshells in order of energy, with the lowest-energy subshell
at the bottom and the highest-energy subshell at the top. Hint D.1 How to approach the problem Hint not displayed Hint D.2 Determine the number of electrons in a neutral atom of Br Hint not displayed Use the buttons at the top of the tool to add orbitals. Click within the orbital to add electrons. ANSWER: View Correct
Hint B.1
Part C Which element has the following configuration: Hint C.1 Count electrons Hint not displayed Enter the symbol for the element. ANSWER: Ce Correct ?
In which specific subshell is the highest energy electron in Hint A.2.1 Identify the principal energy level
Hint not displayed Hint A.2.2 Identify the type of subshell Hint not displayed ANSWER: 4s 3s 4p 2s 3d 3p 4d 4f 2p 1s Correct Based on this subshell designation you can identify the values of and for the electron. The possible values of are 1/2 or +1/2
can be determined based on the value of . For any electron, the possible values of regardless of other factors. Hint A.3 What is the Identify the value
Express your answer numerically as an integer. ANSWER: 1 Correct The value can be thought of as a code for the type of subshell:
Subshell s p d f 0 1 2 3
Enter four numbers separated by commas (e.g., 3,2,-2,1/2). ANSWER: 4,1,0,1/2 Correct and , specify the 4p subshell.
Although we typically fill orbitals in a given subshell from left to right and "up" before "down" when making an orbital diagram, the "last" electron in gallium may go into any of the three 4p orbitals and may have either spin. Thus, the possible values of are 1, 0, or 1 (restricted to integers from to ) and the possible values of are +1/2 or 1/2.
Problem 6.26
The energy from radiation can be used to cause the rupture of chemical bonds. A minimum energy of 941 required to break the nitrogen-nitrogen bond in Part A What is the longest wavelength of radiation that possesses the necessary energy to break the bond? ANSWER:
"7 = 1.27!10 Correct
is
Part B What type of electromagnetic radiation is this? ANSWER: radiowaves infrared gamma rays X rays microwaves visible light ultraviolet Correct
Problem 6.30
It requires a photon with a minimum energy of Part A What is the minimum frequency of light necessary to emit electrons from sodium via the photoelectric effect? ANSWER:
14 = 6.66!10 Correct
Part C If sodium is irradiated with light of 439 , what is the maximum possible kinetic energy of the emitted electrons?
Part D What is the maximum number of electrons that can be freed by a burst of light whose total energy is 1.00 ANSWER:
12 = 2.21!10 electrons Correct
Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 94.7%. You received 62.49 out of a possible total of 66 points.