a) Transformers

SELF INDUCTANCE

N L i i
di eL dt

N L

Mutual Inductance
11 L1 i1
L2

N 2 K1 M i1 i1 M

21 12
i2

22
i2

N 1 K 2 i2
M L1 L 2

Dot Convention
Aiding fluxes are produced by currents entering like marked OR dotted terminals.

Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux, , in webers, Wb.
i1
i2

Current entering "dots" produce fluxes that add.

v1
-

N1

N2

v2
-

11 flux in coil 1 produced by current in coil 1

12 flux in coil 1 produced by current in coil 2

21 flux in coil 2 produced by current in coil 1

22 flux in coil 2 produced by current in coil 2

1 total flux in coil 1 11 12
2 total flux in coil 2 21 22

Mutual Inductance
i1
i2
+ + -

v1

N1

N2

v2

Faraday's Law

v1 (t ) N1

d1 d d N1 11 N1 12 dt dt dt di1 di L12 2 dt dt
mutual inductance
6

In linear range, flux is proportional to current

v1 (t ) L11
self-inductance

Mutual Inductance
i1
i2

v1
-

N1

N2

v2
-

di1 di2 v1 (t ) L11 L12 dt dt di1 di2 v2 (t ) L21 L22 dt dt

Linear media

v1 (t ) L1

di1 di M 2 dt dt

L12 L21 M
Let

di1 di2 v2 (t ) M L2 dt dt
L1 L11
7

L2 L22

Ideal Transformer - Voltage

i1
+
AC

i2

v1
-

N1

N2

v2
-

d v1 (t ) N1 dt
Load

This changing flux through coil 2 induces a voltage, v2 across coil 2

1 v1 (t )dt N1

v2 (t ) N 2

d dt

d v1 N1 dt N1 v2 N 2 d N 2 dt

N2 v2 v1 N1

Turns ratio

N2 N1

Ideal Transformer - Current

i1
+
AC

i2

Magnetomotive force, mmf

v1
-

N1

N2

v2
-

Load

F Ni

The total mmf applied to core is

F N1i1 N 2i2 R

For ideal transformer, the reluctance R is zero.

N1i1 N 2i2

N1 i2 i1 N2

Ideal Transformer - Power

i1
+
AC

i2

v1
-

N1

N2

v2
-

Load

P vi

Power delivered to primary

Power delivered to load

P v1i1 1
N2 v2 v1 N1 N1 i2 i1 N2

P2 v2i2
P2 v2i2 v1i1 P 1

Power delivered to an ideal transformer by the source is transferred to the load.

Transformer Summary
1. Transformers will work only with AC supply. There is no rotating parts. Only the flux is changing (alternating) and the conductor is stationary. Hence it is statically induced emf (self induced emf and mutual induced emf )

2. We assumed that all of the flux links all of the windings of both coils. Thus, the voltage across each coil is proportional to the number of turns on the coil.

N2 v 2 t v1 t N1

2. We assumed that the reluctance of the core is negligible, so the total mmf of both coils is zero.

N1 i2 t i2 t N2

3. A consequence of the voltage and current relationships is that all of the power delivered to an ideal transformer by the source is transferred to the load.

P1 P2

TRANSFORMER

CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION

BASICS
A transformer is a static device which uses the phenomenon of mutual induction to change the values of alternating voltages and currents. One of the main advantages of a.c. transmission and distribution is the ease with which an alternating voltage can be increased or decreased by transformers. Losses in transformers are generally low and thus efficiency is high. Being static they have a long life and are very stable.

Transformer principle of operation

When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, a small currentcalled the no-load current I0flows, which sets up a magnetic flux in the core. This alternating flux links with both primary and secondary coils and induces in them e.m.f.s of E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction. The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by

principle of operation

V1/V2 is called the voltage ratio and N1/N2 the turns ratio, or the transformation ratio of the transformer.
If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and the device is termed a step-down transformer. If N2 is greater then N1 then V2 is greater than V1 and the device is termed a step-up transformer.

principle of operation
When a load is connected across the secondary winding, a current I2 flows. In an ideal transformer losses are neglected and a transformer is considered to be 100% efficient. Hence input power = output power, or V1I1 = V2I2, i.e., in an ideal transformer, the primary and secondary volt-amperes are equal.

principle of operation

The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the volt-amperes that it can transform without overheating. the transformer rating is either V1I1 or V2I2, where I2 is the full-load secondary current.

Ideal Transformer no-load phasor diagram

no-load phasor diagram

The core flux is common to both primary and secondary windings in a transformer and is thus taken as the reference phasor in the diagram. On no-load the primary winding takes a small no-load current I0 and since, with losses neglected, the primary winding is a pure inductor, this current lags the applied voltage V1 by 90. Assuming no losses, current I0 produces the flux and is drawn in phase with the flux. The primary induced e.m.f. E1 is in phase opposition to V1 (by Lenzs law) and is shown 180 out of phase with V1 and equal in magnitude. The secondary induced e.m.f. is shown for a 2:1 turns ratio transformer.

practical transformer
A no-load phasor diagram for a practical transformer is shown.
If current flows then losses will occur. When losses are considered then the no-load current I0 is the phasor sum of two components (i) IM , the magnetizing component, in phase with the flux, and (ii) IC , the core loss component (supplying the hysteresis and eddy current losses).

CORE LOSS & Power Factor

E.m.f. equation of a transformer

The magnetic flux 8 set up in the core of a transformer when an alternating voltage is applied to its primary winding is also alternating and is sinusoidal.

E.m.f. equation of a transformer

Transformer on-load phasor diagram

Transformer on-load phasor diagram

If the voltage drop in the windings of a transformer are assumed negligible, then the terminal voltage V2 is the same as the induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary. Similarly, V1 = E1. Assuming an equal number of turns on primary and secondary windings, then E1 = E2, and let the load have a lagging phase angle current I2 lags V2 by angle

on-load phasor diagram

When a load is connected across the secondary winding a current I2 flows in the secondary winding. The resulting secondary e.m.f. acts so as to tend to reduce the core flux. However this does not happen since reduction of the core flux reduces E1, hence a reflected increase in primary current occurs which provides a restoring mmf. Hence at all loads, primary and secondary mmfs are equal, but in opposition, and the core flux remains constant. is sometimes called the balancing current and is equal, but in the opposite direction, to current I2 as shown. I0, shown at a phase angle to V1, is the no-load current of the transformer

on-load phasor diagram

Transformer construction

Transformer windings are usually of enamel-insulated copper or aluminium. Cooling is achieved by air in small transformers and oil in large transformers.

Transformer construction
There are broadly two types of single-phase double-wound transformer constructions the core type and the shell type, as shown. The low and high voltage windings are wound as shown to reduce leakage flux.

TYPES of Transformer
For power transformers, rated possibly at several MVA and operating at a frequency of 50 Hz in, the core material used is usually laminated silicon steel or stalloy, the laminations reducing eddy currents and the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a minimum.

Large power transformers are used in the main distribution system and in industrial supply circuits. Small power transformers have many applications, examples including welding and rectifier supplies, domestic bell circuits, imported washing machines, and so on.

Types
For audio frequency (a.f.) transformers, rated from a few mVA to no more than 20 VA, and operating at frequencies up to about 15 kHz, the small core is also made of laminated silicon steel. A typical application of a.f. transformers is in an audio amplifier system.

Types
Radio frequency (r.f.) transformers, operating in the MHz frequency region have either an air core, a ferrite core or a dust core. Ferrite is a ceramic material having magnetic properties similar to silicon steel, but having a high resistivity. Dust cores consist of fine particles of carbonyl iron or permalloy (i.e. nickel and iron), each particle of which is insulated from its neighbour.

Applications of r.f. transformers are found in radio and television receivers.

Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Regulation of a transformer

Transformer losses and efficiency

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY

Problem: A 100 kVA, 4000 V / 200 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has 100 secondary turns. Determine (a) the primary and secondary current, (b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of the flux.

Auto transformers

Isolating transformers

Three-phase transformers

Current transformers

Current transformer circuit diagram symbols are shown

Voltage transformers

TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER

Small Transformers

Main Parts of a Transformer

Assembling of core of a core type Transformer

Hollow-core construction.

Assembly of core and winding

Windings wrapped around laminations.

Laminated core material

Exploded view of shell-type transformer core construction.

Preformed Windings

Assembling of core and winding

Two dimensional representation

Circuit representation

What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a static device which uses the phenomenon of mutual induction to change the values of alternating voltages and currents. Losses in transformers are generally low and thus efficiency is high. Being static they have a long life and are very stable operation.

Application of Transformer
Used in ac circuits according to the requirement of the circuit. Wide range of application-few VA rating to MVA rating. One of the main application is in a.c. transmission and distribution system where alternating voltage can be increased or decreased by transformers.

Principle of operation
When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, a small currentcalled the no-load current I0flows, which sets up a magnetic flux in the core. This alternating flux links with both primary and secondary coils and induces in them e.m.f.s of E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction. The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by

principle of operation
V1/V2 is called the voltage ratio and N1/N2 the turns ratio, or the transformation ratio of the transformer. If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and the device is termed a step-down transformer. If N2 is greater then N1 then V2 is greater than V1 and the device is termed a step-up transformer.

principle of operation
When a load is connected across the secondary winding, a current I2 flows. In an ideal transformer losses are neglected and a transformer is considered to be 100% efficient.

Hence input power = output power, or V1I1 = V2I2, i.e., in an ideal transformer, the primary and secondary volt-amperes are equal.

Rating of Transformer
The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the voltamperes that it can transform without overheating.
the transformer rating is either V1I1 or V2I2, where I2 is the full-load secondary current.