TRNG AI HOC A LAT

C HOC

GIAO TRNH

OAN TRONG TH

2002

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MUC LUC
MC LC.................................................................................................................. 2 Phn I: TON B SUNG GII TCH VECTOR..................................................... 6 I. H ta cc (Descartes) ............................................................................. 6 II. H ta tr ...................................................................................................... 6 III. H ta cu.................................................................................................... 7 IV. Cc php tnh vector ........................................................................................ 8 IV.1. Phn tch mt vector ra cc thnh phn trc giao..................................... 8 IV.2. Php cng vector....................................................................................... 9 IV.3. Hiu hai vector.......................................................................................... 9 IV.4. Cng nhiu vector................................................................................... 10 IV.5.Tch v hng.......................................................................................... 10 IV.6. Tch vector .............................................................................................. 11 IV.7. Vi phn vector......................................................................................... 11 V. Cc ton t c bit thng dng trong vt l................................................ 12 V.1. Gradient.................................................................................................... 12 V.2. Divergence ............................................................................................... 12 V.3. Rotationel (Curl) ...................................................................................... 12 Phn II: C HC..................................................................................................... 14 Chng I:NG HC ............................................................................................ 14 1.1 Khi nim....................................................................................................... 14 1.1.1- Chuyn ng c hc .............................................................................. 14 1.1.2 H qui chiu ............................................................................................ 14 1.1.3 Khng gian v thi gian.......................................................................... 15 1.2 Phng trnh chuyn ng v Phng trnh qu o .................................... 15 1.2.1 Phng trnh chuyn ng ...................................................................... 15 1.2..2 Phng trnh qu o............................................................................. 16 1.3 Vn tc ........................................................................................................... 16 1.3.1 nh ngha vn tc .................................................................................. 16 1.3.2 Biu thc ca vn tc trong cc h ta .............................................. 18 a) Trong h ta cac : ........................................................................... 18 b) Trong h ta tr .................................................................................. 19 c) Trong h ta cu ................................................................................. 20 1.3.3 Vn tc gc v vn tc din tch............................................................. 20 a) Vn tc gc .............................................................................................. 20 b) Vn tc din tch...................................................................................... 21 1.4 Gia tc ............................................................................................................ 22 1.4.1 cong v bn knh chnh khc............................................................. 22 1.4.2 Gia tc tip tuyn v gia tc php tuyn................................................. 23 1.5 Cc dng chuyn ng n gin .................................................................... 25 1.5.1 Chuyn ng thng ................................................................................. 25 1.5.2 Chuyn ng bin i u ...................................................................... 25 1.5.3 Chuyn ng trn.................................................................................... 26 oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

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a) Vn tc gc .............................................................................................. 26 b) Gia tc gc............................................................................................... 28 Chng II NG LC HC.................................................................................. 31 2.1 nh lut I Newton......................................................................................... 31 2.1.1 Lc v chuyn ng................................................................................ 31 2.1.2 nh lut I Newton.................................................................................. 32 2.1.3 H qui chiu tri t ................................................................................ 32 2.2 Nguyn l tng ng ................................................................................. 33 2.3- nh lut II Newton...................................................................................... 35 2.3.1 Lc v gia tc :........................................................................................ 35 2.3.2 Khi lng : ............................................................................................ 35 2.3.4 Dng khi qut nh lut II Newton........................................................ 36 2.4. nh lut III Newton..................................................................................... 38 Chng III C HC H CHT IM CC NH LUT BO TON......... 39 3.1 Khi tm......................................................................................................... 39 3.1.1 nh ngha............................................................................................... 39 3.1.2 Vn tc ca khi tm .............................................................................. 40 3.1.3 Phng trnh chuyn ng ca khi tm ................................................ 42 3.2 Chuyn ng ca vt rn................................................................................ 42 3.2.1 Chuyn ng tnh tin............................................................................. 42 3.2.2 Chuyn ng quay .................................................................................. 43 3.3 nh lut bin thin v bo ton ng lng................................................. 44 3.3.1 Khi nim................................................................................................ 44 3.3.2 nh lut bo ton ng lng ca mt c h ........................................ 44 3.3.3 Xung lng ca ngoi lc....................................................................... 46 3.4 Chuyn ng ca vt c khi lng thay i ................................................ 46 3.5 Momen lc v momen ng lng................................................................ 48 3.5.1 Momen lc .............................................................................................. 48 3.5.2 Momen ng lng................................................................................. 49 Chng IV TRNG LC TH TRNG HP DN................................... 53 4.1 Khi nim v tnh cht ca trng lc th..................................................... 53 4.2- Th nng v c nng ca trng lc th....................................................... 55 4.2.1 nh lut bo ton c nng trong trng lc th .................................... 56 4.2.2 S th nng........................................................................................ 58 4.3 Trng hp dn ............................................................................................. 60 4.3.1 : nh lut hp dn vn vt : ................................................................... 60 a) S thay i gia tc trng trng theo cao : ........................................ 61 b) Tnh khi lng ca thin th :................................................................ 62 4.3.2 Trng hp dn ...................................................................................... 62 a) Bo ton moment ng lng trong trng hp dn :............................. 63 b) Th nng hp dn..................................................................................... 64 4.4 Chuyn ng trong trng hp dn .............................................................. 66

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Chng V C HC CHT LU ........................................................................... 69 5.1 i cng v c hc cht lu ........................................................................ 69 5.2 Tnh hc cht lu ........................................................................................... 69 5.2.1 p sut .................................................................................................... 69 5.2.2 Cng thc c bn ca tnh hc cht lu.................................................. 70 5.3 ng hc cht lu l tng ........................................................................... 71 53.1 nh lut bo ton dng........................................................................... 71 5.3.2 nh lut Bernoulli ................................................................................. 72 5.4 Hin tng ni ma st (nht) ......................................................................... 74 5.4.1 Hin tng ni ma st v nh lut newton ........................................... 74 5.4.2 S chy ca lu cht trong mt ng tr .................................................. 75 CHNG VI CHUYN NG TNG I ..................................................... 79 6.1. Tnh bt bin ca vn tc nh sng............................................................... 78 6.1.1 Nguyn l tng i ............................................................................... 78 6.1.2 Nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng ...................................... 78 6.2. ng hc tng i tnh php bin i Lorentz....................................... 79 6.2.1 S mu thun ca php bin i Galil vi thuyt tng i Einstein .. 79 6.2.2. Php bin i Lorentz ............................................................................ 80 6.2.3. Cc h qu ca php bin i Lorentz ................................................... 83 a/ Khi nim v tnh ng thi v quan h nhn qu................................... 83 b/ S co ngn Lorentz .................................................................................. 84 c/ nh l tng hp vn tc.......................................................................... 86 6.2.3 ng lc hc tng i tnh ................................................................... 87 a/ Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng cht im: ................................... 87 b/ ng lng v nng lng. ..................................................................... 88 c/ Cc h qu ................................................................................................ 89 6.3 Lc qun tnh ................................................................................................. 92 6.3.1- Khng gian v thi gian trong h quy chiu khng qun tnh .............. 92 6.3.2- Lc qun tnh......................................................................................... 92 6.3.3- Lc qun tnh trong h quy chiu chuyn ng thng c gia tc.......... 93 6.3.4- Lc qun tnh trong h quy chiu chuyn ng quay: .......................... 95 6.4 Nguyn l tng ng ................................................................................. 98 6.4.1 Trng thi khng trng lng ................................................................. 98 6.4.2 Nguyn l tng ng .......................................................................... 99 6.4.3 L thuyt tng i rng ...................................................................... 100 6.5 chuyn ng quay ca Tri t .................................................................... 101 6.5.1 Gia tc trng trng.............................................................................. 101 6.5.2 Lc Crilit........................................................................................... 103 6.5.3 Con lc Fuc ......................................................................................... 104 Chng VII DAO NG V SNG ................................................................. 107 7.1 Dao ng iu ha ....................................................................................... 107 7.1.1 Hin tng tun hon............................................................................ 107 7.1.2 Dao ng iu ho ................................................................................ 107 7.1.3 Biu thc ton hc ca dao ng iu ha : ......................................... 108 oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

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7.1.4 Phng trnh ca dao ng iu ha .................................................... 109 7.1.5 Nng lng ca dao ng iu ha ...................................................... 109 7.2 V d p dng.............................................................................................. 110 7.2.1 Dao ng ca mt qu nng treo u mt l xo ................................ 110 7.2.2 Con lc vt l ........................................................................................ 112 7.3 Tng hp dao ng ...................................................................................... 114 7.3.1 Nguyn l chng cht ........................................................................... 115 7.3.2 Tng hp hai dao ng cng phng v cng chu k.......................... 115 7.4 Tng hp hai dao ng c chu k khc nhau cht t Hin tng phch . 118 7.5 Tng hp hai dao ng c phng vung gc ............................................ 122 7.5.1 Tng hp hai dao ng c phng vung gc v cng tn s ............. 122 7.5.2. Tng hp hai dao ng vung gc v c tn s khc nhau ................. 124 TI LIU THAM KHO ..................................................................................... 126

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PHAN I: TOAN BO SUNG GIAI TCH VECTOR

I. He toa o e cac (Descartes)
z Trong he toa o e cac, ba truc Ox, Oy, Oz vuong goc vi nhau. A y Vector
OA

r k r i

r r r j

r = r co the bieu dien : r r r OA= xi +yj +zk (1)

r r r r Hay r = OA = xe x + ye y + ze z

x, y, z : thanh phan cua vector r tren ba truc; r r r i , j , k : Cac vector n v. r r Vay co the bieu dien vector r dang r (x,y,z). The tch vi phan dv c tnh :

dv = dx dy dz
II. He toa o tru
z Trong he toa o tru, v tr cua iem A bat ky c xac nh bi ba toa o , , z. r : hnh chieu cua r tren mat phang xOy. A : goc gia Ox va . r z : hnh chieu cua r tren truc Oz. y x r Vay, vector ban knh r cua iem co the c viet di dang :

r r

r r r r = e + ze z

(2)

Biet ba toa o tru cua mot iem ta co the xac nh c ba toa o e cac cua iem ay bang phep bien oi :

r r r OA = A e + A e + A z e z

(3)

x = cos y = sin z = z

ds = d dz
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= x 2 + y 2 y = arctg hoac x z = z : dien tch vi phan

(4)

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dv = ds. d = ddzd : The tch vi phan. III. He toa o cau

z

A O r
r

x Trong he toa o cau, v tr cua iem A bat ky c xac nh bang toa o r, , . Trong o : r r : o dai cua vector ban knh r r : goc gia Oz va r : nh ngha nh trong he toa o tru. r r r Cac vector n v trong he toa o cau la : er , e va e . Trong o : r r e r : Vector n v doc theo truc r .

r e : Vector n v nam trong mat phang kinh tuyen i qua A va r vuong goc vi e r , co chieu theo chieu tang cua . r e : Vector n v c nh ngha nh trong he toa o tru. Vay,
vector ban knh cua iem A co dang : (5) r Ta co s lien he gia ba toa o cau vi ba toa o e cac cua mot iem nh sau :

r r r = re

r r r OA=Arer + Ae + Ae

(6)

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x = r sin cos y = r sin sin z = r cos

(7)

dS = r sin drd = r2 sindd

S=
0

2 2 2 r = x + y + z z = arccos 2 x + y 2 + z2 = arctg y x

(8)

2
0

sin d d = 4 r 2

dV = r sindddz
Nhan xet :

4 V = r 2 sin d d dr = r 3 3 0 0 0
r 2

1. Tuy theo tnh chat cua chuyen ong, ta co the chon he toa o thch hp e mo ta chuyen ong. Thong thng, neu chat iem chuyen ong theo mot ng thang ta chon he toa o e cac, neu chat iem chuyen ong quanh mot truc ta chon he toa o tru, con neu chat iem chuyen ong quanh 1 tam ta chon he toa o cau. 2. Trng hp chat iem chuyen ong trong mot mat phang ta thng xet trong mat phang z = 0. Khi o he toa o e cac co 2 toa o x va y, con cac he toa o tru va cau suy bien thanh he toa o cc, tc he co hai toa o la r va . 3. Cac he toa o e cac, tru va cau eu la cac he toa o trc giao. Cac vector n v doc theo cac truc eu vuong goc vi nhau tng oi mot.

IV. Cac phep tnh vector

IV.1. Phan tch mot vector ra cac thanh phan trc giao Thng mot vector c xac nh oi vi mot he toa o. Mot vector co the c phan tch ra cac thanh phan theo cac bien so khong gian cua he toa o tng thch e tien viec phan giai. Cac he toa o thng dung la he toa o e cac, he toa o tru va he toa o cau. r Mot vector A co the viet dang :

r r u goi la vector n v trong he toa o e cac Oxyz, u song song va cung r r chieu A va u = 1 . r r r Cac vector n v i , j , k hng doc theo 3 truc Ox, Oy, Oz. Co the phan
tch :

r r A = Au

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r r r OA = x i + y j + z k OA = x 2 + y 2 + z2

IV.2. Phep cong vector e xac nh phep cong vector, ta xet trng hp dch chuyen nh sau : C
r d
r d2 r V r V2

r d1

Neu mot chat iem i t A en B c bieu dien bi d 1 va sau o chat iem i t B C c bieu dien bi d 2 . Vay co the xem iem a dch chuyen mot khoang d e i t A C. Co the viet d = d 1 + d 2 . Phep cong vector co tnh giao hoan : Ta co : Do vay :

r V1

r r

AC2 = AD2 + DC2 AD = AB + BD = V1 + V2 cos V2 = (V1 + V2 cos )2 + (V2sin)2 = V1 1 + V2 2 + 2 V1 V2 cos

V12 + V22 + 2 V1 V2 cos
r V

r r r r r V = V1 + V2 = V2 + V1

V=

(8)

E
r V1 r r

r V2

C V2 sin

B V2 cos D

* ac biet : V1 va V2 thang goc nhau = /2 Khi o : V = IV.3. Hieu hai vector Ta xem :

V12 + V22

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r r r r r D = V1 V2 = V1 + ( V2 )

D=
D=

V12 + V22 + 2 V1 V2 cos ( )

V12 + V22 2 V1V2 cos

(9)

Phep tr vector khong co tnh chat giao hoan. IV.4. Cong nhieu vector Ta m rong cho trng hp cong hai vector V = V1 + V2 + V3 ..... , de thay rang dung phep tnh tien ta lan lt sap xep sao cho mui cua vector nay trung vi iem au cua vector ke tiep, vector tong se la oan thang noi lien iem au cua vector au tien en iem mui cua vector cuoi cung. oi vi hnh ben ta co : r r r r r V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
r V r V1 r V4 r V3 r r r r

r V2

r r = Vx i + Vy j

Xet vector tong trong mat phang xOy ta co : r r r r r V = (V1x i + V1y j ) + ( V2 x i + V2 y j ) + ... r r = (V1x + V1y + ...) i + (V2 x + V2 y + ...) j Trong o : Vx = V1x + V2 x + ... = Vix = Vi cos i

Vy = V1y + V2 y + ... = Viy = Vi sin i i i r i la goc hp bi Vi va truc Ox. r VicosI , Visini lan lt la thanh phan cua Vi theo hai truc Ox va Oy.

IV.5.Tch vo hng Tch vo hng cua hai vector A va B k hieu A . B (oc la A cham B ) c xac nh la mot so vo hng nh sau : r r r r A . B = A . B. cos vi la goc hp bi (A , B ) (10) Vi nh ngha tren chung ta de dang suy ra mot so tnh chat sau : Vi
r r
r r

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r r A . A = A2 + A2 + A2 = A2 x y z r r A . B = A x Bx + A y By + A z B z r r r r Neu A B th A . B = 0

r r r r A = A x i + A y j + A z k r r r r B = Bx i + By j + Bz k

Tch vo hng co tnh chat giao hoan : A . B = B . A r r r r r r r Tch vo hng co tnh chat phan phoi : A . B . C = A . B + A . C
v r r Cac vector n v i , j , k co tnh chat :

r r

r r

v r r r r r i . i = j . j = k . k =1 v r r r r v i . j = j.k = k. i = 0

IV.6. Tch vector Cho hai vector A va B . Tch vector A va B k hieu A B (oc A nhan B ) r r c xac nh la mot vector thang goc vi mat phang cha A va B , co chieu tuan theo qui tac van nut chai va co o ln : r r r r A B = A . B . sin , : goc hp bi ( A , B ) (11) T nh ngha tren ta co cac tnh chat sau : r r r r A B = B A
r r r r r r r r

r A

r r r r r r i i = j j = kk = 0 r r r r r r r r r i j = k ; j k = i ;k i = j
Cho hai vector :

r r r r r r r A B+ C = AB+ AC

r B r A

r B

r r BA

r r r r r A B =(A y Bz A z By )i (A x Bz A z Bx ) j + (A x By A y Bx )k
r r r i j k r r A B = Ax Ay Az Bx By Bz

r r r r A = Ax i + Ay j + Azk r r r r B = B x i + By j + Bz k

Hay

IV.7. Vi phan vector Cho ham so vector f (s) , tc vector f phu thuoc vao bien so s.

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r r r r f (s + ds) f (s) df = lim : ao ham vector f s ds s 0 Ta co mot so tnh chat sau :

(12)

r r d r r dA dB AB = ds ds ds r r d r r dA r dB r .A .B + A .B = ds ds ds r r r dB d r r dA r B + A AB = ds ds r ds r d d r dA A = A+ ds ds ds

( )

(vi vo hng )

ao ham rieng phan : Cho A(x , y , z ) . Vi phan cua A theo mot bien so goi la ao ham rieng phan : r r r A A(x + x , y , z ) A (x , y , z ) = lim (13) x x 0 x Tnh chat : vi phan rieng phan co cac tnh chat giong vi phan vector noi tren.

V. Cac toan t ac biet thng dung trong vat ly

V.1. Gradient Cho mot ham vo hng U(x, y, z), gradient cua U c k hieu la gradUU, vi : U r U r U r U = i + j+ k (14) x y z V.2. Divergence Cho ham so vector A(x , y , z ) , divergence cua A k hieu la vi :
r

Div A A ,

Trong o

r A x A y A z + A= + x z y r r r r A = Ax i + Ay j + Azk

(15)

V.3. Rotationel (Curl) Cho ham so vector A(x , y , z ) , Curl cua A k hieu la Rot A A , vi :
r r
r

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r i

r j

r k
(16)

r A = x y z Ax Ay Az

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PHAN II: C HOC CHNG I:ONG HOC

1.1 Khai niem
Trong chng nay, muc tieu la nghien cu s chuyen ong cua vat the di hnh thc ong hoc chat iem, chung ta ch gii han viec mo ta chuyen ong ma cha e cap en nguyen nhan gay ra chuyen ong. Ta xet mot vai khai niem c ban : 1.1.1- Chuyen ong c hoc Chuyen ong c hoc la s thay oi v tr cua vat nay oi vi vat khac hoac cua phan nay oi vi phan khac cua cung mot vat. Chuyen ong cua mot vat co tnh chat tng oi, khi noi en chuyen ong cua mot vat nao o phai xem no chuyen ong oi vi vat nao. Khi o chuyen ong cua vat c xem la s thay oi toa o khong gian theo thi gian so vi vat c qui c ng yen. Khai niem ng yen cung ch co tnh chat tng oi, cho en nay ngi ta cha tm c vat nao ng yen tuyet oi ca. Ngay mat tri cung chuyen ong xung quanh tam thien ha cua chung ta va thien ha nay cung chuyen ong tng oi so vi cac thien ha khac trong vu tru bao la. 1.1.2 He qui chieu Chuyen ong c hoc co tnh chat tng oi, vay khi xet chuyen ong cua mot chat iem can xac nh ro iem ay chuyen ong so vi nhng vat nao c xem la ng yen. He vat ma ta qui c la ng yen va dung lam moc e khao sat, xac nh v tr cua iem chuyen ong c goi la he qui chieu. Khi khao sat chuyen ong ta co the chon he qui chieu nay hay he qui chieu khac. Can chon he qui chieu thch hp sao cho viec mo ta va nghien cu tnh chat chuyen ong c n gian nhat. e mo ta chuyen ong trong pham vi khong ln tren be mat qua at, thng ta chon he quy chieu la qua at hay mot he vat nao o khong chuyen ong oi vi trai at. V du, e nghien cu chuyen ong cua mot qua an phao, co the chon he qui chieu la mat at hay chnh la khau phao. Trai at chuyen ong chung quanh mat tri, do vay trong mot so trng hp khi nghien cu cac chuyen ong trong thai dng he, tam mat tri c chon la he qui chieu. au the ky 17, nh s dung he qui chieu mat tri (he qui chieu Copernic), Kepler mi tm c qui luat ung an mo ta chuyen ong cua cua cac hanh tinh trong Thai dng he. Mac du c mo ta khac nhau trong cac he qui chieu khac nhau, nhng neu biet chuyen ong tng oi cua cac he qui chieu, co

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the t cach mo ta chuyen ong oi vi he qui chieu nay suy ra cach mo ta chuyen ong oi vi he qui chieu khac. V du, biet chuyen ong tron cua mot iem tren vanh xe ap oi vi xe ap, biet chuyen ong cua xe ap oi vi mat ng, co the xac nh c chuyen ong cua mot iem tren vanh xe ap oi vi mat ng. Trong c hoc, khi nghien cu chuyen ong cua vat the n gian, nhieu luc co the bo qua anh hng do kch thc, hnh dang cua vat va lc can cua moi trng. Luc o xem vat nh la mot chat iem. Trong thc te, tuy trng hp cu the ma ta co the xem vat la chat iem hoac co the. He qui chieu chuyen ong thang, eu goi la he qui chieu quan tnh. 1.1.3 Khong gian va thi gian Khi chat iem chuyen ong th v tr tng oi cua no se thay oi trong khong gian theo thi gian. Thi gian trong c hoc co ien c xem la troi eu an t qua kh en tng lai, ong nhat va khong quan he en chuyen ong cua vat chat. Khong gian cung c xem la trong rong, ong nhat, ang hng, co 3 chieu va tuan theo hnh hoc Eudide, khong lien quan en chuyen cua vat chat. Vat ly hoc hien ai ch ra rang thi gian va khong gian la hai pham tru vat chat lien quan nhau va chu anh hng bi chuyen ong cua vat chat. Tuy nhien, khi nghien cu chuyen ong cua nhng vat v mo vi van toc rat be so vi van toc anh sang, cac quan niem cua c hoc co ien c xem la gan ung va co the s dung e mo ta chuyen ong. Luc o co the xem cac o dai va khoang thi gian la nh nhau trong moi phep o.

1.2 Phng trnh chuyen ong va Phng trnh quy ao

1.2.1 Phng trnh chuyen ong Trong chuyen ong c hoc, v tr cua mot chat iem se c xac nh hoan toan neu ta biet 3 gia tr ve so o cua toa o. Vay e xac nh chuyen ong cua mot chat iem, ta can biet v tr cua iem ay tai nhng thi iem khac nhau, tc can biet vector ban knh cua chat iem la ham cua thi gian : r r r = r (t ) (1.1) Phng trnh tren bieu dien v tr cua chat iem theo thi gian va goi la phng trnh chuyen ong cua chat iem. Vay, trong he toa o ecac ta co : x = x(t) ; y = y(t) ; z = z(t) (1.2) Tng t trong he toa o tru ta co : Trong he toa o cau ta co :

= (t) ; = (t) ; z = z(t)

(1.3) (1.4)

r = r(t) ; = (t)

; = (t)

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moi thi iem t, chat iem co mot v tr xac nh va khi t bien thien th r chat iem chuyen ong mot cach lien tuc, vay ham r (t ) la nhng ham xac nh, n tr va lien tuc cua t. 1.2..2 Phng trnh qu ao Khi chuyen ong v tr cua chat iem luon luon thay oi, vach thanh mot ng lien tuc trong khong gian, o la qu ao cua chat iem chuyen ong. Hay co the xem qu ao cua chat iem chuyen ong la ng tao bi tap hp tat ca cac v tr cua no trong khong gian trong suot qua trnh chuyen ong. Biet he phng trnh chuyen ong co the suy ra c phng trnh qu ao bang cach kh t khoi cac phng trnh o. Chang han, trong he toa o ecac, kh t khoi he phng trnh (1.2) ta c : f1(x,y) = 0 la phng trnh ng cong C1 nao o trong mat phang (xOy), f2(y,z) = 0 la phng trnh ng cong C2 nao o trong mat phang (yOz). Vay he phng trnh mo ta qu ao chuyen ong cua chat iem gom hai phng trnh vo hng oc lap, moi phng trnh mo ta mot mat cong trong khong gian. Qu ao cua chat iem chnh la ng cat cua hai mat cong o. Trong cac he toa o khac nhau, cac phng trnh qu ao noi chung co dang khac nhau, nhng chung cung mo ta mot qu ao xac nh. Qu ao la mot trong nhng ac trng c ban cua chuyen ong. Tuy nhien, tren cung mot qu ao, chat iem co the chuyen ong theo nhng qui luat khac nhau. V vay, ngoai phng trnh qu ao chung ta can phai biet qui luat chuyen ong cua chat iem tren qu ao o.

f1(x,y) = 0 ; f2(y,z) = 0

1.3 Van toc

1.3.1 nh ngha van toc Ngoai v tr, chuyen ong cua chat iem con c ac trng bang van toc cua no. e ac trng cho ca phng, chieu va o nhanh cham cua chuyen ong chat iem, ngi ta a vao mot vector goi la vector van toc. Trong chuyen ong thang eu van toc c xac nh bang t so gia quang ng dch chuyen cua chat iem va khoang thi gian ma chat iem dch chuyen het quang ng o. Trong chuyen ong thang khong eu, vat chuyen ong luc nhanh luc cham va moi thi iem chuyen ong c ac trng bang mot van toc khac nhau.

*- Xet chuyen ong cua mot chat iem tren ng cong c :

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Ta chon mot iem O tren ng c lam goc va chon chieu dng la chieu chuyen ong cua chat iem. Gia s thi iem t, chat iem v tr M xac nh bi hoanh o cong s(t), thi iem t + t chat iem v tr M tng ng vi s + s. Vay trong khoang t chat iem dch chuyen c mot quang ng s. Quang ng trung bnh chat iem dch chuyen c trong mot n v thi gian c nh ngha la van toc trung bnh cua chat iem trong khoang t :

v=

Xet trng hp hat ch dch chuyen theo phng Ox. Neu trong khoang thi gian vo cung be dt hat dch chuyen c mot oan ng vo cung be dx th trong khoang thi gian ay chuyen ong co the xem la eu va co the xem van toc tai thi iem t la :

s t

v = lim
t 0

x dx = t dt

Vay van toc bang ao ham cua toa o theo thi gian va noi chung la ham cua thi gian v = v(t). Biet bieu thc van toc, co the xac nh c quang ng i cua hat trong khoang thi gian cho trc. Neu chon goc toa o tai x = 0 la v tr cua hat thi iem t=0 th v tr cua hat thi iem t c xac nh nh sau :

dx = vdt x(t) = v(t)dt

0

Trong trng hp tong quat, khi chuyen ong khong eu va co phng thay oi th van toc cua hat c nh ngha la mot vector, bang t so cua vector o di r d s chia cho khoang thi gian vo cung be dt e hat i c o di ay. Goi vector r v la vector van toc, ta co :

v = lim

t 0

s ds = t dt

Neu chon tai thi iem t = 0 chat iem goc 0 (s = 0), th v tr cua chat iem thi iem t c xac nh :

s = v(t ) dt
0

Xet ca phng, chieu ta co :

hng theo phng tiep tuyen vi qu ao va theo chieu chuyen ong cua hat.

r r ds v= dt r r Chieu cua vector v trung vi vector o di d s , tc moi thi iem, van toc

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M
r ds

r
M

r v(t )

r r
O Hnh 1.1

r r r + dr

r v ( t + t )

Vector van toc tai mot v tr M la mot vector v co phng nam tren tiep tuyen vi qu ao tai M, co chieu theo chieu chuyen ong va co gia tr bang tr tuyet oi cua v. r Goi la vector n v, tiep tuyen vi qu ao tai iem M va hng theo chieu chuyen ong cua chat iem, th :

Vay vector van toc la t so gia vector dch chuyen vo cung be d s cua chat iem vi khoang thi gian vo cung be dt e chat iem i c o di ds. Ba r r r y gi lay hai v tr vo cung gan nhau cua hat, ng vi cac vector ban knh r r va r + d r . Ro rang la vi phan cua vector ban knh d r bang o di vo cung be

r r r ds v=v= dt

(1.5)

r ds

cua hat :

r r dr = d s

Vay co the viet bieu thc van toc :

Vay, van toc cua chat iem tai mot iem nao o bang ao ham bac nhat theo thi gian cua vector ban knh tai iem o. Th nguyen cua van toc la
a) Trong he toa o ecac :

r r dr v= dt

LT 1 va n v la (m/s).

1.3.2 Bieu thc cua van toc trong cac he toa o

o dch chuyen vi phan cua chat iem :

r r r r d s = dx e x + dye y + dze z

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r r e x i r r j e y = r r e k z
Theo (1.5 ) ta co :

r r d s dx r dy r dz r = ex + ey + ez v= dt dt dt dt

(1.6)

Goi vx, vy, vz la thanh phan cua v tren cac truc toa o :

r r r r v = vx ex + vyey + vzez
dx & =x dt dy & vy = = y dt dz & vz = = z dt vx =

Vay :

Chat iem chuyen ong bat k trong khong gian co the xem ong thi tham gia ba chuyen ong thang tren ba truc toa o ecac vi cac van toc tng ng vx, vy, vz. o ln vector van toc :

v = v2 + v2 + v2 x y z

(1.7)

v cho biet chat iem chuyen ong nhanh hay cham, con chieu cua no xac nh chieu chuyen ong cua chat iem tren qu ao. r v r vy r v cos(Ox , v) = x , cos(Oy , v) = , cos(Oz , v) = z (1.8) v v v
b) Trong he toa o tru

r r r r d s = d e + d e + dz e z
r d r d r dz r v= e + e + ez dt dt dt
(1.9)

Cac thanh phan cua vector van toc trong he toa o tru :

v =
v =

d & = dt

d & = dt

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vz =

Da tren tnh chat trc giao cua he toa o tru, ta de dang suy ra gia tr cua vector van toc :
2 & & & v = v 2 + v 2 + vz = 2 + 2 2 + z 2 x y

dz & =z dt

(1.10)

c) Trong he toa o cau

r r r r d s = dr e r + r d e + r sin d e
d r d r r dr r e e + r sin er + r v= dt dt dt
vr = dr & =r dt d & v = r =r dt
(1.11)

Cac thanh phan cua vector van toc trong he toa o cau :

v = r sin
toc :

Da tren tnh trc giao cua he toa o cau, suy ra c gia tr cua vector van
2 2 v = v 2 + v + v = r

d & = r sin dt

& & 2 + r 2 2 + r 2 sin 2 2 r

(1.12)

1.3.3 Van toc goc va van toc dien tch

a) Van toc goc

Trong phan tren chung ta a a vao cac ai lng ac trng cho s thay oi nhanh hay cham cua toa o goc theo thi gian la va , cac ai lng nay c goi la van toc goc. e xac nh c chieu cua van toc goc, ta qui c nh sau : r Neu vector ban knh r quay mot goc theo chieu van inh oc thuan th inh oc tien theo chieu cua vector van toc goc . Goi n la vector n v doc theo , ta co :

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r d r & r = n= n dt

(1.13)

r v r r r + dr
O

r r

r r Hnh 1.2 r Luc o vector van toc goc , vector ban knh r va vector van toc v cua
chat iem chuyen ong tao thanh mot tam dien thuan, ta co he thc : r r r v= r (1.14)
b) Van toc dien tch

Van toc dien tch la mot ai lng co gia tr bang dien tch ma ban knh vector quet c trong mot n v thi gian va co chieu cung chieu vi van toc goc :

r dS r vs = n dt

(1.15)

T hnh (1.2) ta co : 1 dS = (r + dr ) r sin( ) 2 Bo qua cac so hang vo cung be bac hai ta c : 1 dS = r 2 d 2 Vay :

r 1 d r 1 2 & r vs = r 2 n= r n 2 dt 2
r 1 r vs = r 2 2

Cong thc tren co the viet di dang :

Ket hp cac cong thc ta co :

r r r 1r vs = r [ r ] 2

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r 1 r r vs = [r v] 2
1.4 Gia toc
1.4.1 o cong va ban knh chnh khuc Xet chat iem chuyen ong tren ng cong C. Gia s thi iem t1 chat iem P1. Sau o, thi iem t2 = t1 + t chat iem P2. Xem P P2 1 la mot cung be bat k cua C. Qua P1, P2 va mot iem bat ky P tren cung o ta ve mot vong tron th cung P1 P2 co the xem gan ung la mot cung cua vong tron ay va cang ung neu P1 va P2 cang gan nhau, tc khi P P2 cang be. Qua hnh 1 C

(1.16)

P1 s 1 P2 R
r 2

r v1

r v2

Hnh 1.3

ve ta thay vi cung o dai s, goc se ln khi oan s cang cong. Ngi ta nh ngha o cong trung bnh K nh sau :

K=

Khi P2 tien en P1 th K at en gia tr gii han goi la o cong cua qu ao.

(1.17)

K = lim

s 0

Luc o vong tron tren en mot v tr gii han goi la ng tron mat tiep vi ng cong c tai P1. Goi R la ban knh cua ng tron mat tiep ay th :

d = ds s

ds = R d
K=

Vay :

1 d = R ds

(1.18)

o cong cua qu ao tai mot iem c xac nh bi nghch ao cua ban knh vong tron mat tiep tai iem ay. Mat phang cha ng tron mat tiep vi ng cong goi la mat phang mat tiep vi ng cong tai iem tng ng. Phap tuyen vi ng cong tai iem ay va nam trong mat phang mat tiep c goi la phap tuyen chnh va ban knh cua ng tron mat tiep tng ng goi la ban knh chnh khuc tai iem a cho.

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1.4.2 Gia toc tiep tuyen va gia toc phap tuyen Noi chung, van toc cua mot hat luon luon bien oi ca ve o ln lan phng chieu. ai lng ac trng cho s bien thien cua van toc theo thi gian goi la gia toc va c xac nh bang ao ham cua van toc theo thi gian.

gian.

Vay gia toc cua hat bang o bien thien cua van toc trong mot n v thi Ta co :

r r dv a= dt

(1.19 )

Neu goi la vector n v doc theo phng tiep tuyen cua qu ao chuyen ong th : v =

r r ds v= dt

r r dv r d a= +v dt dt r r d d d ds = Ta co : dt d ds dt
Trong o

Thay (1.20) vao (1.19) ta co :

r ds r r = v dt

(1.20)

(1.21) (1.22)

qu ao tai iem ang xet. Vay :

d 1 ds = = v la van toc cua hat, vi R la ban knh chnh khuc cua ds R dt

r d r r Ta xac nh phng, chieu va o ln cua . Goi 1 va 2 la hai vector d r r r r r tiep tuyen n v rat gan nhau, ta co d = (s + ds) (s) = 2 1 . Ta tnh tien r r 1 lai gan 2 sao cho chung co chung mot goc. r r r r V d la vector vo cung be va 1 = 2 = =1 nen ta co :
r 1
d

r r d v d = dt R d

(1.23)

r d
r 2

Hnh 1.4

r d = d
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Mat khac v bnh phng vector = ( ) = 1 nen :

rr

r r r He thc tren chng to vector d vuong goc vi . Neu goi n la vector n

v vuong goc vi tiep tuyen va hng vao tam cua ng tron mat tiep doc theo ban knh chnh khuc cua qu ao, ta co the viet : (1.26) Ket hp cong thc tren vi (1.21) va (1.23) ta c :

r r r d()2 = 2 d = 0

(1.25)

r r d = n d

Trong cong thc tren thanh phan :

r dv r v 2 r + n a= dt R

(1.27)

hng theo tiep tuyen goi la gia toc tiep tuyen, con thanh phan :

r dv r a = dt

(1.28)

hng ve tam chnh khuc cua ng cong va vuong goc vi phng cua vector van toc, goi la gia toc phap tuyen. r Vay gia toc a c phan tch thanh hai thanh phan :

r v2 r n an = R

(1.29)

r Gia toc tiep tuyen a

r r r a = a + an

(1.30)

co the am hoac dng tuy thuoc vao hng cua vector

vector van toc. Neu v giam dan theo thi gian th gia toc tiep tuyen am va hng ngc chieu vector van toc, chuyen ong cua chat iem trong trng hp nay la chuyen ong cham dan. Vay, gia toc tiep tuyen ac trng cho s thay oi ve o ln cua vector van toc. r Gia toc phap tuyen an bao gi cung hng ve pha lom cua qu ao, ve pha

gia toc. Neu v = const th gia toc tiep tuyen bang khong va ta co chuyen ong eu. r Neu v tang dan theo thi gian th gia toc tiep tuyen ln hn 0 va a cung hng

tam cua vong tron mat tiep tai iem ang xet. Gia toc phap tuyen ac trng cho s thay oi ve phng cua vector van toc. Trong trng hp rieng la chuyen ong thang, ban knh chnh khuc R=, r r vay a n = 0 va vector gia toc ch con mot thanh phan la a va hng doc theo phng cua chuyen ong thang. Khi hat chuyen ong tron eu, o ln cua van toc khong oi, gia toc tiep tuyen bang khong, gia toc phap tuyen se co o ln khong oi, ty le nghch vi R va luon luon hng vao tam ng tron. V vay gia toc phap tuyen trong chuyen ong tron con goi la gia toc hng tam.

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1.5 Cac dang chuyen ong n gian

1.5.1 Chuyen ong thang

r a n luon bang khong. Ta co :

an = 0 ;

Qu ao cua hat la mot ng thang, vay phng cua v khong thay oi va

a = a =

Khi a > 0 chat iem chuyen ong thang nhanh dan, khi a < 0 chat iem chuyen ong cham dan va khi a = ao = const chat iem chuyen ong thang bien oi eu. Trng hp chuyen ong thang bien oi eu, ta co :

dv dt

v = dv = a dt = at + C1
s = ds = v dt =
au.
1

Trong o C1 va C2 la nhng hang so tch phan c xac nh t ieu kien Gia s khi t = 0 th v = vo = C1, s = so = C2. Vay :

(at + C )dt = 2 at

+ C1t + C 2

v = vo + at

s = so +

Kh t ta co he thc :

1 2 at + v o t 2
(1.33)

(1.31) (1.32)

Neu chon goc toa o luc t = 0 co s = so = 0 th : Khi a = 0, chat iem chuyen ong thang eu. 1.5.2 Chuyen ong bien oi eu Trong chuyen ong bien oi eu, gia toc tiep tuyen a luon luon co gia tr khong thay oi : dv a = = ao = const (1.35) dt Chuyen ong bien oi eu co the la chuyen ong thang hay chuyen ong cong bat ky, tc an co the bang khong hoat khac khong. Khi a > 0 chat iem chuyen ong nhanh dan eu. Khi a < 0 chat iem chuyen ong cham dan eu. Cac phng trnh chuyen ong bien oi eu cua chat iem co dang :
2 v2 vo = 2as

2 v2 vo = 2a(s so )

(1.34)

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v = dv = a dt = a t + C1
s = ds = v(t ) dt =

(a

t + C1 )dt =

iem t = 0 chat iem v tr s0 va co van toc v0. Khi o ta co C1=v0 , C2 = s0. Van toc cua chat iem chuyen ong bien oi eu thi iem t : (1.36) Phng trnh chuyen ong bien oi eu cua chat iem co dang

1 a t 2 + C1t + C 2 2

Gia s thi

v = v0 + at

T o ta suy ra :

1 s = s0 + a t 2 + v0 t 2
v2 v2 = 2a (s s0 ) 0

(1.37) (1.38) (1.39)

Neu chon goc toa o luc t = 0 co s = s0 = 0 th :

v 2 v 2 = 2a s 0

Khi a =a0 = const, an =

oi eu. Khi a = 0 th chat iem chuyen ong tron eu. 1.5.3 Chuyen ong tron Xet mot chat iem chuyen ong tren mot ng tron tam O co ban knh R. V tr cua chat iem M tren ng tron c xac nh bi ban knh vector trng cho chuyen ong ay.
a) Van toc goc

v vi R

R = const th ta co chuyen ong tron bien

r R = OM . Ngi ta thng dung cac ai lng van toc goc va gia toc goc e ac

M Chuyen ong cua chat iem M tren ng tron c khao sat nh chuyen r ong quay cua ban knh vector R xung quanh truc vuong goc vi mat phang cha ng tron va qua tam O. Trong khoang O M

r R

t = t ' t gia s chat iem i c

'

Hnh 1.5
'

quang ng s = MM ng vi goc quay MOM = . Theo nh ngha ai lng

goi la van toc goc trung bnh trong khoang t : t

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Gia tr cua bieu th goc quay trung bnh trong n v thi gian. Neu cho t 0 th van toc goc cua chat iem tai thi iem t la :

(1.40)

= lim
quay.

t 0

Vay, van toc goc co gia tr bang ao ham bac nhat theo thi gian cua goc

d = dt t

(1.41)

n v o cua la rad/s. Noi chung = (t) oi vi chuyen ong tron eu th = const, ngi ta nh ngha chu ky la thi gian chat iem i c mot vong : 2 2 T= hay = (1.42) T Tan so la so chu k trong mot n v thi gian :

Chuyen ong quay c ac trng bang truc quay, chieu quay va o ln cua van toc goc. Qui c : Neu ban knh vevtor R va v quay theo chieu van inh oc thuan r th inh oc tien theo chieu . Gia s chat iem dch chuyen c cung ds trong khoang dt, ta co :

1 = = 2 T 2

(1.43)

r
d M

Hnh 1.6

r v

ds = R d
ds d =R = R dt dt Vay, t nh ngha tch hu hng cua hai vector, ta co : v=
(1.44)

r r dR r r v= = R dt (R)2 = R . 2 v2 an = = R R

(1.45) (1.46)

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r R

r v
r r

Hnh 1.7

Khi goc O cua vector R trt tren truc quay ta van co :

r r dr r r v= = r dt

(1.47)

b) Gia toc goc

e ac trng cho s thay oi cua vector van toc goc, ngi ta a vao khai niem gia toc goc. Gia thiet trong khoang thi gian t = t t van toc goc cua
'

chuyen ong tron bien thien mot lng = . Theo nh ngha la gia toc goc trung bnh trong khoang thi gian t va k hieu :

'

goi t

Neu cho t 0 th gia toc goc cua chat iem tai thi iem t la :

(1.48)

d d 2 = lim = = 2 t 0 t dt dt

(1.49)

Vay, gia toc goc co gia tr bang ao ham cua van toc goc oi vi thi gian va bang ao ham bac hai cua goc quay oi vi thi gian. n v cua gia toc goc la rad/s2. Khi > 0, tang, chuyen ong tron nhanh dan. < 0, giam, chuyen ong tron cham dan = 0, = Const, chuyen ong tron eu. Trng hp = Const, ta co chuyen ong tron bien oi eu. Ta co the chng minh c cac he thc : = t + 0 (1.50)

1 2 t + 0 t + 0 2

(1.51)

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2 2 = 2( 0 ) 0
Neu ta chon goc toa o khi t = 0 co 0 = 0 th :

(1.52)

(1.53 ) Thng ngi ta bieu dien gia toc goc bang mot vector goi la vector gia toc goc. Vector nay co tnh chat : - Nam tren truc cua qu ao tron. r r - Cung chieu vi khi > 0 (nhanh dan) va ngc chieu vi khi < 0 (cham dan). - co gia tr bang . Vay co the viet he thc vector sau :

2 2 = 2 0

Vay gia toc goc bang ao ham bac nhat theo thi gian cua vector van toc goc, xac nh bien thien van toc goc. Lay ao ham theo thi gian ta co : r r r r dv d r r d r r dR a= = R = R + (1.55) dt dt dt dt

r r d = dt

(1.54)

Ta co :

Ta co the viet :

r r d = ; dt

r r r r dR = R v= dt

]
(1.56) (1.57) (1.58)

r r r a = a + an

Trong o :

r r r a = R , a = . R

r r r r r r a n = [ v] = R , a n = R2

[ [

]]

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r r
r R

r R

r a

r
tang

r a

giam

r r Thanh phan a co phng cua v goi la gia toc quay, thc chat la gia toc
tiep tuyen trong chuyen ong tron cua chat iem tren ng tron tam O. r Thanh phan a n hng vao truc quay, thc chat la gia toc hng tam trong chuyen ong tron cua chat iem tren ng tron tam O, con goi la gia toc hng tam.

Hnh 1.8

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CHNG II: ONG LC HOC

Trong chng trc, chung a nghien cu phng phap mo ta chuyen ong cua chat iem ma khong xet en nguyen nhan gay nen chuyen ong. ong lc hoc chat iem nghien cu en tac nhan lam thay oi chuyen ong va cac qui luat chi phoi chuyen ong. Quan sat va nghien cu chuyen ong cac vat the ta thay cac vat ch bat au chuyen ong hoac thay oi chuyen ong khi chu tac dung cua nhng vat khac. Cac nh luat ong lc hoc xac nh moi quan he gia chuyen ong va nguyen nhan gay ra hoac lam thay oi chuyen ong. Cac nh luat ong lc hoc la nhng nh luat ve quan he gia lc tac dung len vat va chuyen ong cua vat. C s cua ong lc hoc la ba nh luat Newton va nguyen ly tng oi Galileo. Chung ta se nghien cu ba nh luat nay trong trng hp chat iem.

2.1 nh luat I Newton

2.1.1 Lc va chuyen ong Trong t nhien co nhieu loai lc : lc hap dan, lc t trng, lc hat nhan trong chng nay chung ta e cap chu yeu en lc c hoc. Lc (c hoc) la mot ai lng vat ly ac trng cho tng tac c hoc gia cac vat. Hay, lc c hoc la nguyen nhan vat ly lam bien dang hoac lam thay oi trang thai chuyen ong cua cac vat. Ve mat c hoc, ta co the phan cac lc lam hai loai, loai th nhat gom cac lc xuat hien khi co tiep can gia cac vat tng tac nh lc an hoi, lc ma sat... ; loai th hai gom cac lc xuat hien khi cac vat tng tac khong tiep can vi nhau, s phan chia nh vay ch mang tnh chat qui c. Trong c hoc chung ta ch chu y xet trong tng trng hp cu the co nhng lc nao xuat hien, o ln cua cac lc o va anh hng cua chung oi vi chuyen ong. Tac dung cua lc c ac trng bi bon yeu to : iem at, phng, chieu va cng o. Tac dung ong thi nhieu lc len mot chat iem tng ng vi tac dung cua mot lc duy nhat bang tong hp vector cua cac lc noi tren. Lc la mot ai lng vector, c bieu dien bang mot vector va tuan theo cac qui tac bien oi ve vector. Ngoai lc tac dung vao mot vat co anh hng en toc o chuyen ong cua vat, nhng noi rang van toc cua vat t le vi lc la khong chnh xac. Khi nghien cu quan he gia lc tac dung va chuyen ong, Newton a phat bieu ba nh luat c ban sau ay cua ong lc hoc, phan anh ay u moi quan he gia lc tac dung va chuyen ong.

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2.1.2 nh luat I Newton Khi nghien cu chuyen ong cua chat iem, au tien ta nghien cu chuyen ong cua chat iem t do (chat iem co lap). Quan sat nh luat chuyen ong cua chat iem t do trong nhng he qui chieu khac nhau la khac nhau. Tuy nhien, van ton tai he qui chieu ma trong o chat iem t do hoac ng yen, hoac chuyen ong thang eu t mot v tr ban au bat k vi mot van toc nao o, goi la he qui chieu quan tnh. He nhat tam con c goi la he qui chieu Copecnic, goc tam mat tri va ba truc hng ve ba ngoi sao co nh, vi o chnh xac kha cao co the c xem la he qui chieu quan tnh. Moi he qui chieu chuyen ong thang eu tng oi vi nhau eu la nhng he qui chieu quan tnh. nh luat I Newton phat bieu : Trong he qui chieu quan tnh chat iem

khong chu tac dung cua ngoai lc se gi nguyen trang thai ng yen hoac chuyen ong thang eu.
nh luat I Newton ung cho moi he qui chieu chuyen ong thang eu oi vi he qui chieu quan tnh. Noi mot cach khac, moi he qui chieu chuyen ong thang eu oi vi he qui chieu quan tnh eu la nhng he qui chieu quan tnh. 2.1.3 He qui chieu trai at He qui chieu Copecnic ch thuan tien trong viec nghien cu chuyen ong cua thien the, hoac cua con tau vu tru... ma khong thch hp cho viec nghien cu cac chuyen ong tren trai at. oi vi nhng chuyen ong nay, ngi ta thng dung mot he qui chieu gan vi trai at. Do trai at quay quanh truc cua no va chuyen ong chung quanh mat tri, nen trai at chuyen ong co gia toc, khong phai la chuyen ong thang eu. Vay, noi that chat che th he qui chieu gan vi trai at ma chung ta thng dung khong phai la he qui chieu quan tnh. Tuy vay, chung ta hay khao sat mot he qui chieu gan vi trai at trong chng mc nao th co the c xem la he qui chieu quan tnh. Do s quay cua trai at quanh truc cua no va s chuyen ong cua no quanh mat tri, xch ao gia toc hng tam cua mot iem tren mat at la :

2 a = .R = 86400 s
2

. 6,4 .108 cm 3,4 cm 2 s

Gia toc cua trai at chuyen ong quanh mat tri la :

oan Trong Th

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C hoc

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v 2 (30 Km / s )2 = = 6.10 6 Km 2 a= 8 s R 1,5 . 10 Km

Gia toc nay be hn rat nhieu so vi gia toc ri t do tren mat at, v vay co the bo qua trong nhieu th nghiem, nhieu bai tnh c hoc. Cac iem khac nhau tren trai at co vector van toc khac nhau va luon bien oi. Tuy nhien s bien oi cua van toc ay, ve o ln va ve phng la nho va cham. Do o, trong nhng chuyen ong thong thng cua vat, khi ma gia toc c 3,4 cm/s2 co the bo qua c va trong khoang thi gian chuyen ong cua vat khong qua vai gi th he qui chieu gan lien vi trai at gan ung c coi la he qui chieu quan tnh.

2.2 Nguyen ly tng ng

Mac du toa o va van toc cua chat iem t do trong nhng he qui chieu quan tnh K va K la khac nhau nhng gia toc cua no trong he K va K eu bang khong :

Trong y ngha nay, ta noi rang moi he qui chieu quan tnh la tng ng vi nhau oi vi nh luat chuyen ong thang eu cua chat iem t do. Moi chuyen ong c hoc, cung nh moi hien tng vat ly va t nhien khac, eu xay ra giong nhau, theo nhng qui luat nh nhau trong nhng he qui chieu quan tnh khac nhau. Noi cach khac, khong co mot hien tng vat ly hay t nhien nao co the cho chung ta kha nang phan biet c cac he qui chieu quan tnh vi nhau : chung hoan toan tng ng, hoan toan bnh ang. o la noi dung cua nguyen ly tng oi chuyen ong. Ket hp vi tien e ve khoang thi gian troi qua trong moi he qui chieu quan tnh la nh nhau ( t=t ) vi nguyen ly tng ng ta co nguyen ly tng oi Galileo : Tat ca cac nh luat c hoc eu giong nhau trong moi he qui chieu

r r d2 r d2 r ' = 2 =0 dt 2 dt

(2.1)

quan tnh.

Xet he quan tnh K chuyen ong thang eu oi vi he quan tnh K vi van v toc V . Gia s ban au he K trung vi he K :

oan Trong Th

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y Hnh 2.1 O K z z

y M
r r ro = OO' = Vt

Vay :

Neu K chuyen ong thang eu oi vi K doc theo truc x ; ta co :

r r r r ' = r V t ' t = t

(2.2)

x ' = x V t ' y = y ' z = z t ' = t

hay

x y z t

= x' + V t = y' = z' = t'

(2.3)

Cac cong thc (2.2) hay (2.3) goi la cac cong thc bien oi Galileo. Chu y dt = dt ta co :

r r r dr r dr ' Trong o : v' = va v = lan lt la van toc cua chat iem M oi vi dt dt

he qui chieu quan tnh K va K. Cac phng trnh mo ta mot nh luat c hoc trong he quan tnh K va trong he quan tnh K la co dang giong nhau. Vay co the phat bieu nguyen ly tng oi Galileo mot cach khac : Cac nh luat c hoc co ien la bat bien oi vi cac phep bien oi Galileo. Khi chuyen t he quan tnh K sang he quan tnh K cac ai lng sau ay la bat bien :

r r r v' = v V

(2.4)

r r r dv' dv r = =a Gia toc cua chat iem : a' = dt dt

V tr tng oi gia hai chat iem :

(2.5)

r r r r r r r '12 = r '2 r '1 = r2 r1 = r12

(2.6)

Van toc tng oi cua hai chat iem : oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 35 -

r r r r r r v'12 = v'2 v'1 = v 2 v1 = v12

2.3- nh luat II Newton

(2.7)

nh luat II Newton mo ta tac dung cua lc len chuyen ong cua vat. Chung ta khao sat trong he qui chieu quan tnh : 2.3.1 Lc va gia toc : Khi chu tac dung cua ngoai lc, chuyen ong cua vat thay oi, noi cach khac vat nhan mot gia toc. Thc nghiem chng to rang trong mot he qui chieu quan tnh lc tac dung len mot chat iem lam thay oi trang thai chuyen ong cua chat iem o, nghia la lam cho vector van toc cua chat iem thay oi. Hay noi cach khac : trong mot he

qui chieu quan tnh lc tac dung len mot chat iem lam cho chat iem o chuyen ong co gia toc. Thc nghiem chng to rang : Gia toc ma mot vat thu c tai tng thi iem t le vi lc tac dung len vat tai chnh thi iem ay.
Vay neu mot lc tac dung len mot chat iem gay ra vector gia toc a th :

r r a~F

2.3.2 Khoi lng : Thc nghiem chng to rang cung mot lc F khi tac dung len cac chat iem khac nhau se gay ra nhng gia toc tng ng khac nhau. Vay gia toc chuyen ong cua chat iem con phu thuoc vao mot tnh chat vat ly cua ban than chat iem o. Tnh chat nay c ac trng bi mot ai lng m goi la khoi lng cua vat. Thc nghiem cho ta ket qua : Vi mot lc tac dung xac nh, gia toc chuyen ong cua chat iem t le nghch vi khoi lng cua no. Tc :

V gia toc ac trng cho s thay oi trang thai chuyen ong, vay khi khoi lng m cua chat iem cang ln th gia toc a cang nho nghia la trang thai chuyen ong cua chat iem thay oi cang t. Khoi lng xac nh theo gia toc ma vat thu c di tac dung cua mot lc la khoi lng quan tnh. Hay khoi lng quan tnh la mot ai lng ong lc hoc ac trng cho kha nang thu gia toc cua vat. Ngi ta nhan thay ch khi vat chuyen ong vi van toc (v) nho so vi van toc (c) cua anh sang th khoi lng cua cac vat the la mot ai lng khong oi. Khi vat chuyen ong vi van toc rat ln, so sanh c vi van toc anh sang, th khoi lng cua vat phu thuoc vao van toc :

1 m

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m=

m0 v2 1 2 c

(2.8)

m0 : khoi lng cua vat khi van toc bang khong, goi la khoi lng ngh. Van toc co gia tr tng oi tuy thuoc he qui chieu. Do khoi lng phu thuoc vao van toc, nen oi vi cac he qui chieu khac nhau gia tr cung khac nhau. TRONG CAC CHUYEN ONG C HOC THNG GAP TRONG KY THUAT TH V << C. VAY MOT CACH GAN UNG CO THE XEM KHOI LNG LA TUYET OI KHONG PHU THUOC HE QUI CHIEU.
2.3.3 nh luat II Newton

TRONG MOT HE QUI CHIEU QUAN TNH, VECTOR GIA TOC CHUYEN ONG CUA MOT CHAT IEM T LE VI LC TAC DUNG VA T LE NGHCH VI KHOI LNG CUA CHAT IEM O.

r F r a =k m

(2.9)

K LA HE SO T LE PHU THUOC VAO N V DUNG E O KHOI LNG, GIA TOC VA LC. Trong he SI, n v gia toc la m/s2, n v khoi lng la Kg th k = 1. Vay cong thc (2.9) tr thanh :

r r F = ma

(2.10)

CONG THC NAY CON C GOI LA PHNG TRNH C BAN CUA ONG LC HOC. Lc la mot ai lng dan xuat, n v o lc la Newton (N). Newton la lc truyen cho vat co khoi lng 1kg nhan c gia toc 1m/s2. Trong trng hp chat iem chu tac dung ong thi cua nhieu lc, ta van co r phng trnh dang (2.10) trong o F la tong hp cac lc tac dung len chat iem. 2.3.4 Dang khai quat nh luat II Newton TRONG TRNG HP TONG QUAT, KHOI LNG THAY OI THEO VAN TOC. DI TAC DUNG CUA MOT NGOAI LC, KHONG NHNG VAN TOC CUA CHAT IEM THAY OI, MA DO VAN TOC THAY OI NEN KHOI LNG CUNG THAY OI, TRANG THAI CHUYEN ONG CUA CHAT IEM THAY OI. E AC TRNG CHO TRANG THAI oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 37 -

CHUYEN ONG C HOC TRONG TRNG HP NAY NGI TA DUNG AI LNG ONG LNG. ONG LNG CUA MOT VAT CHUYEN ONG TNH TIEN LA MOT AI LNG VECTOR VE TR SO BANG TCH SO CUA KHOI LNG VI VAN TOC, CO PHNG VA CHIEU TRUNG VI PHNG VA CHIEU CUA VAN TOC.

r r P = mv

(2.11)

TRONG HE SI, N V ONG LNG LA KG.M/S. TONG QUAT :

r P=

r m 0v v2 1 2 c

(2.12)

Khi v << c th :

r r P m 0v

(2.13)

La m r y ao har hai ve (2.13) va chu y rang theo nh luat II Newton dv r = m 0 a = F ta thu c : m0 dt r

dP r =F dt

(2.14)

VAY, AO HAM CUA ONG LNG CUA CHAT IEM THEO THI GIAN BANG LC TAC DUNG LEN NO. Trong trng hp tong quat co the viet :

r r d v F= m0 dt v2 1 2 c

(2.15)

Khi noi nh luat II Newton, neu biet dang cua ham F bieu dien tng tac gia chat iem va cac vat the xung quanh, va biet ieu kien au, tc v tr va van toc cua chat iem thi iem ban au, th phng trnh chuyen ong se cho phep xac nh v tr va van toc cua chat iem thi iem t bat ky, nghia la cho phep xac nh qui ao cua chuyen ong.

r r F r dv r r dv = a dt = dt Ta co : a = dt m

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VAY, VAN TOC CHAT IEM THI IEM T BAT K :

Ma d r = v . dt , chung ta xac nh c r thi iem t :

t r r r r (t ) = v . dt + r0 0

1 tr r r v( t ) = F . dt + v 0 m0

(2.16)

(2.17)

2.4. nh luat III Newton

TREN AY CHUNG TA CH MI XET EN MOI LIEN HE GIA LC TAC DUNG VA GIA TOC MA VAT CHU TAC DUNG THU C. THC RA KHI CAC VAT BEN NGOAI TAC DUNG LEN CHAT IEM TH CHAT IEM CUNG TAC DUNG LEN VAT NGOAI. MOI S THAY OI TRANG THAI CHUYEN ONG TRONG CAC HE QUI CHIEU QUAN TNH EU XAY RA DO KET QUA TNG TAC GIA CAC VAT. nh luat III Newton xet en s tng tac gia cac vat :

cung tac dung len chat iem A mot lc FBA cung phng, ngc chieu va cung o ln.

Khi chat iem A tac dung len chat iem B mot lc FAB th chat iem B

r r FAB = FBA

(2.18)

NH LUAT III NEWTON KHONG CHA AI LNG NAO MI, THC NGHIEM XAC NHAN AY U S UNG AN CUA NH LUAT NAY. AY CUNG LA NH LUAT C BAN CUA ONG LC HOC. Trng hp tong quat : Xet mot he chat iem co lap, ngha la mot he khong chu tac dung cua cac ngoai lc, trong he ch co cac noi lc tng tac gia cac chat iem cua he. Neu xet tng oi chat iem cua he th tong hai lc tng tac gia chung bang khong. Neu lay tong cua tat ca cac lc o, ta c : Tong hp cac noi lc cua mot

he chat iem co lap (he kn ) bang khong.

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CHNG III

C HOC HE CHAT IEM CAC NH LUAT BAO TOAN

3.1 Khoi tam
3.1.1 nh ngha Gia s co mot he gom hai chat iem M1 va M2 khoi lng tng ng la m1 va m2 at trong M1 G M2 trong trng eu. Trong lc tac dung len cac chat iem M1 va M2 r r la hai vector m 1g va m 2 g song

r m1g

r m 2g

song cung chieu. iem at cua

tong hp hai trong lc o la mot iem G nam tren M1M2 sao cho : Hnh 3.1

Hay :

M1G m g m = 2 = 2 M 2G m1g m1 m1 M1G + m 2 M 2 G = 0

(3.1) (3.2) (3.3)

Co the viet (3.2) di dang vector :

m1 M1G + m 2 M 2G = 0

iem G thoa man (3.3) c goi la khoi tam cua he hai chat iem M1M2. Trng hp tong quat, ta nh ngha khoi tam cua he nh sau : Khoi tam cua mot he chat iem M1, M2, , Mn lan lt co khoi lng m1, m2, , mn la mot iem G xac nh bi he thc :

m1 M1G + m 2 M 2G + ... + m n M n G = 0
Hay :
i =1

(3.4) (3.5)

m i MiG = 0

Hay xac nh toa o khoi tam G oi vi goc toa o O nao o ta co : Nhan hai ve (3.6) vi mi roi cong cac phng trnh nhan c ve vi ve t 1 en n ta c :

OG = OM i + M i G

(3.6)

oan Trong Th

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C hoc
n n n m i OG = m i OM i + m i M i G i =1 i =1 i =1

- 40 -

(3.7)

Hay theo (3.5 ) :

n mi i =1
Suy ra :

n OG = m i . OM i i =1

OG =

i =1

m i . OM i
i =1

mi

(3.8)

th (3.8 ) tr thanh :

r r at OG = R vi ba toa o X, Y, Z ; OM i = ri vi ba toa o la xi, yi, zi

m .r r i1 i i = R= n mi
i =1

(3.9)

Neu chieu tren ba truc toa o :

X=

i =1 n

m i xi
i =1

mi

Y=

i =1 n

mi yi
i =1

mi

Z=

i =1 n

mi zi
i =1

mi

(3.10)

Cac cong thc (3.9) hay (3.10) cho phep ta tnh toa o khoi tam cua mot he chat iem. 3.1.2 Van toc cua khoi tam Vector van toc cua khoi tam c xac nh :

Hay theo (3.9) :

r r dR V= dt

(3.11)

oan Trong Th

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C hoc
n

- 41 -

r V=

i =1

mi
i =1

d ri dt
(3.12)
i

r d ri r Trong o : = v i : vector van toc cua chat iem Mi . dt

Vay : Mat khac tam la :

r V=

i =1

r m i . vi

m
i

r r . v i = p i la tong ong lng P cua he, do o van toc khoi

i

i =1

(3.13)
i

r V=

r P mi
i

(3.14)

r r P = mi V T (3.14) suy ra : i

(3.15)

VAY TONG ONG LNG CUA HE BANG ONG LNG CUA MOT CHAT IEM AT TAI KHOI TAM CUA HE, CO KHOI LNG BANG TONG KHOI LNG CUA HE VA CO VAN TOC BANG VAN TOC KHOI TAM CUA HE. oi vi he chat iem co lap, tong ong lng cua he bao toan :

r V = const Vay theo (3.14) :

r P = const

KHOI TAM CUA MOT HE CHAT IEM CO LAP CO VECTOR VAN TOC KHONG OI. Th du, xet mot sao kep tc la mot he hai sao chuyen ong quanh khoi tam cua chung; neu chung kha xa cac sao khac th co the coi nh chung hp thanh mot he co lap, do o khoi tam cua chung hoac ng yen hoac chuyen ong thang eu. Cac quan sat thien van chng to co nhng sao kep nh vay.

oan Trong Th

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3.1.3 Phng trnh chuyen ong cua khoi tam Gia thiet cac chat iem M1, M2, , Mn cua he lan lt chu tac dung cua cac r r r : F1 , F2 , ... , Fn va chuyen ong vi nhng vector gia toc (3.16)

lc

r r r a1 , a2 , ... , a n thoa man cac phng trnh : r r r r r r m1 a1 = F1 , m 2 a2 = F2 , ... m n a n = Fn

e tm phng trnh chuyen ong cua khoi tam, ao ham (3.13) theo t

r dV = dt

r dv i 1 m i dt i=
n i =1

mi
r m i ai =
i

(3.17)

r dV = Hay : m i dt i
Hay :

r Fi
i

(3.18) (3.19)

Trong o =

r r m i = Fi i r i
r

: Khoi tam cua mot he chuyen ong nh mot chat iem co khoi lng bang

dV la vector gia toc cua khoi tam. T (3.19) co the ket luan dt

tong khoi lng cua he va chu tac dung cua mot lc bang tong hp ngoai lc tac dung len he. Chuyen ong khoi tam cua he c xem la chuyen ong toan the
cua he.

3.2 Chuyen ong cua vat ran

Vat ran la mot he chat iem trong o khoang cach gia cac chat iem luon luon khong oi. Ngi ta chng minh c rang chuyen ong cua vat ran bao gi cung co the qui ve tch cua hai chuyen ong c ban : Chuyen ong tnh tien va chuyen ong quay. 3.2.1 Chuyen ong tnh tien Khi vat ran chuyen ong tnh tien, moi chat iem cua no chuyen ong giong nhau; tai moi thi iem, cac chat iem cua vat ran eu co cung vector van toc va r vector gia toc. Gia thiet a la vector gia toc chung cua cac chat iem M1, M2, , Mn cua vat ran, lan lt co khoi lng m1, m2, , mn va lan lt chu tac dung cua r r r nhng ngoai lc F1 , F2 , ... , Fn . Theo nh luat II Newton ta co :

oan Trong Th

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C hoc

- 43 -

r r m1 a = F1 , r r m 2 a = F2 , r r m n a = Fn ...

(3.20)

chuyen ong tnh tien. T (3.20) ta co :

r r Cac phng trnh nay chng to nhng ngoai lc tac dung len vat ran r F1 , F2 , ... , Fn song song va cung chieu, ay la ieu kien can e mot vat ran

r mi a = i

Fi
i

(3.21)

o la phng trnh chuyen ong cua vat ran tnh tien; no giong nh phng trnh chuyen ong cua mot chat iem co khoi lng bang khoi lng tong cong cua vat ran va chu tac dung mot lc bang tong ngoai lc tac dung len vat ran. ay cung la phng trnh chuyen ong cua khoi tam vat ran. Vay, muon khao sat chuyen ong tnh tien cua mot vat ran ta ch can xet chuyen ong cua khoi tam cua no. 3.2.2 Chuyen ong quay Khi mot vat ran chuyen ong quay chung quanh mot truc co nh th :

rr

r r
at

r v

Hnh 3.2

oan Trong Th

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C hoc

- 44 -

a/ Moi iem cua vat ran vach nhng vong tron co cung truc . b/ Trong cung mot khoang thi gian moi iem cua vat ran eu quay c cung mot goc . c/ Tai cung mot thi iem, moi iem cua vat ran eu co cung van toc goc

d/ Tai mot thi iem, vector van toc thang va vector gia toc tiep tuyen cua mot chat iem bat ky cua vat ran cach truc quay mot khoang r c xac nh bi :

d d d 2 = 2 . = va cung gia toc goc = dt dt dt

r r r at = r

r r r v = r

(3.22) (3.23)

3.3 nh luat bien thien va bao toan ong lng

3.3.1 Khai niem He gom nhieu chat iem hoac nhieu vat tng tac vi nhau c goi la mot he chat iem, hay mot c he. Th du, he mat tri la mot c he gom mat tri va cac hanh tinh tng tac vi nhau bang lc hap dan. Lc tng tac gia cac vat trong mot c he c goi la noi lc hay lc trong. Lc tng tac gia mot vat trong c he va cac vat ngoai c he c goi la ngoai lc hay lc ngoai. He ch gom cac vat tng tac vi nhau, c goi la mot he kn hay he co lap. Moi lc tng tac trong mot he co lap eu la noi lc. 3.3.2 nh luat bao toan ong lng cua mot c he Ta biet ong lng cua mot chat iem co lap la bao toan. Xet mot he gom nhieu chat iem khoi lng m1, m2, m3, ... co van toc lan r r r r r r lt la v1 , v 2 , v 3 , ... Tong cac ong lng p1 , p 2 , p 3 cua cac chat iem trong c he c goi la ong lng toan phan cua c he : (3.24) *- Ta chng minh rang, ong lng cua mot he co lap la bao toan. Ap dung nh luat II Newton oi vi tung chat iem trong c he :

r r r r r r r P = p1 + p 2 + p 3 + ... = m 1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + m 3 v 3 + ...

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 45 -

Cong ve vi ve tat ca phng trnh (3.25) :

r r r dp1 d r = (m1v1 ) = F21 + F31 + ... dt dt r r r dp 2 d r = (m 2 v 2 ) = F12 + F32 + ... dt dt r r r dp 3 d r = (m 3v3 ) = F13 + F23 + .. dt dt
r r r d r ( p1 + p 2 + p 3 + ... ) = Fij dt i j i

(3.25)

(3.26)

Ve trai chnh la ao ham theo thi gian cua ong lng c he, ve phai la tong cac lc tac dung trong he co lap nen chung bang 0. Vay :

r r r r P = p 1 + p 2 + p 3 + ... = const (3.27) ong lng toan phan cua mot he co lap la mot vector khong oi. Hay : ong lng toan phan cua mot he co lap c bao toan.
V ong lng toan phan la vector khong oi, nen cac thanh phan cua ong lng theo cac phng cung khong oi.

Tc la :

r dP =0 dt

oi vi trng hp he khong co lap, co phng trnh :

r r dPx = 0 Px = const dt r r dPy = 0 Py = const dt r r dPz = 0 Pz = const dt

(3.28)

r r r r d r ( p1 + p 2 + p 3 + ... ) = Fij + Fin dt i i j i r Tong cac noi lc bang khong : Fij = 0

i i j

(3.29)

Tong cac ngoai lc : Vay :

F
i

rn
i

r = Fn
(3.30)

r dP r n =F dt

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 46 -

ao ham theo thi gian cua ong lng toan phan mot c he, bang tong cac ngoai lc tac dung len he. 3.3.3 Xung lng cua ngoai lc Ta co the bieu dien nh luat II Newton di dang :

r r Fdt c goi la xung lng cua lc F trong khoang thi gian dt. No ac r trng cho tac dung cua lc F trong khoang thi gian dt.
t2 t1

r r dP = Fdt

(3.31)

r t2 r dP = F dt
t1 t2 t1

r r P2 P1 =

r r F dt = A

(3.32)

r r P2 P1 la o bien thien cua ong lng trong khoang thi gian t t1 t2 r r en t2. Con Fdt = A la xung lng cua lc tac dung trong khoang thi gian t t1
t1

t2 . Co the phat bieu : O BIEN THIEN ONG LNG CUA CHAT IEM TRONG MOT KHOANG THI GIAN BANG XUNG LNG CUA LC TAC DUNG VAO CHAT IEM TRONG KHOANG THI GIAN AY. oi vi mot c he, theo (3.30) :

r rn dP = F dt
t2 t1 t1

r t2 r n dP = F dt
t2 r t1

(3.33)

r r P2 P1 =

r F n dt = A

Vay : o bien thien ong lng toan phan cua mot c he trong mot

khoang thi gian bang tong xung lng cua cac ngoai lc tac dung len he trong khoang thi gian ay. 3.4 Chuyen ong cua vat co khoi lng thay oi
Thc te ta thng gap nhng he co khoi lng bien oi theo thi gian : Khoi lng cua ten la ang chuyen ong, khoi lng cac thien the khi tiep nhan cac oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 47 -

thien thach ... Ngi ta thng dung nh luat III Newton va nh luat bao toan ong lng e giai thch cac chuyen ong phan lc. Chung ta hay thiet lap phng trnh chuyen ong cua ten la. Gia thiet co mot vat cha mot hon hp kh nong, ban au ng yen. Neu hon hp kh c phut ra pha sau th vat se tien len pha trc. Goi khoi lng tong cong ban au cua ten la la m0. Trong qua trnh chuyen ong, ten la luon phut kh r ra pha sau, khoi lng giam dan va van toc tang dan. Hay tnh van toc v cua ten r r la khi khoi lng cua no la m. ong lng cua ten la luc o la p1 = mv . Sau thi gian dt ten la phut ra khoi lng kh dm. Xem van toc phut kh oi vi ten la luon r khong oi va bang u th van toc phut kh oi vi he qui chieu ang quan sat bang r r u + v va ong lng cua kh phut ra la :

r r dm (u + v)

Sau khi phut kh, khoi lng ten la giam i con (m dm), van toc cua no r r tang len thanh (v + dv) , vay ong lng ten la sau khi phut kh r r la (m dm) (v + dv) . ong lng cua he sau khi phut kh la :

r r r r r p 2 = dm (u + v ) + (m dm)(v + dv )
Gia s khong co thanh phan lc tac dung theo phng chuyen ong, theo r r nh luat bao toan ong lng : p1 = p 2 . Vay :

r r r r r dm (u + v ) + (m dm) (v + dv) = mv v Bo qua so hang vo cung be bac hai dmdv , co : r r mdv = u dm

V cac vector eu cung phng nen ve gia tr :

(3.34) (3.35)

mdv = - udm dm dv = u m

(3.36)

Tch phan (3.36), chu y en ieu kien ban au, t = 0 co v = v0 va m=m0 ta thu c :

v v o = u ln

mo m v = v o + u ln o m m

(3.37)

Cong thc nay lan au tien do K.E.Xionkopski lap nen. Vay muon van toc ten la ln th van toc phut kh (oi vi ten la) u phai ln va t so

ln. Phng phap c dung hien nay la xay dng ten la nhieu tang, loai bo dan nhng thiet b a lam xong nhiem vu e giam nhanh hn khoi lng con lai m.

m0 cung phai m

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 48 -

3.5 Momen lc va momen ong lng

3.5.1 Momen lc

Momen cua mot lc F , oi vi mot goc O chon trc, la mot vector c xac nh :

r r r = r F (3.38)
Trong o (r) la ban knh vector vach t O en iem at c xac nh theo qui tac van r nut chai, o ln cua la :

r r
h

r F

r cua F . Phng va chieu cua

Hnh 3.3 (3.39)

r r r Trong o la goc tao bi r va F ; h la hnh chieu cua r len phng vuong r goc vi F . r T (3.38) ta suy ra rang momen cua lc F khong thay oi khi iem at A
cua lc dch chuyen doc theo phng tac dung cua lc. r r r r r Neu F = F1 + F2 + .... Fn = Fi th t tnh chat a biet cua tch
i

= rFsin = hF

vector, ta co :

r r r r r r r r r = r F = ( r F1 ) + ( r F2 ) + ... ( r Fn ) r r r = ( r Fi ) = i
i i

(3.40)

Vay, momen oi vi iem O cua nhieu lc tac dung ong thi bang tong hnh hoc cua cac momen cac lc thanh phan oi vi iem o. r Momen cua lc F , oi vi mot truc Oz nao o, la thanh phan z tren truc Oz r cua vector momen lc oi vi mot iem O. Ta thay rang momen lc oi vi mot iem la mot vector, con momen cua cung lc o oi vi mot truc bat ky i qua iem tren la mot vo hng. Ngi ta chng minh c rang : trong mot he chat iem hay vat ran tong momen cua cac noi lc

rt

- con c goi la momen tong hp cua cac noi lc -

oi vi mot iem bat k, luon luon bang khong.

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 49 -

3.5.2 Momen ong lng Momen ong lng L cua mot chat iem co khoi lng m, chuyen ong vi v van toc v , oi vi iem O nao o, la mot vector c xac nh bang bieu thc : Trong o r la ban knh vector vach t O en v tr cua chat iem. p = mv la ong lng chat iem. Momen ong lng, oi vi mot truc Oz nao o, la thanh phan Lz tren truc r Oz cua momen ong lng L oi vi iem O. r Momen ong lng toan phan L cua mot he chat iem hay vat ran, oi vi r mot iem O nao o, la tong hnh hoc cac vector momen ong lng L oi vi O cua cac chat iem mi trong he :

r r r r r L = r mv = r p

r r r r r r L = L i = ri p i = (ri mv i )
i i i

(3.41)

r r r r r r r dr r Ta co : p = (v p) = (v mv) = m(v v) = 0 dt r r dp =F Va dt r Trong o F la lc tac dung len chat iem, th : r r dp r r r ( r ) = ( r F) = r dt dL r Vay : = (3.42) dt ao ham theo thi gian cua momen ong lng cua chat iem oi vi mot iem co nh O bang momen oi vi O cua lc tac dung len chat iem.
Khi momen lc r c dung len chat iem bang 0 th : ta

*- nh luat bien thien va bao toan momen ong lng : - oi vi chat iem : r r dL d r r d r r r dp = ( r p) = r p + r T (3.41) ta co : dt dt dt dt

r dL = 0 L = const r dt Ngha la L khong oi theo thi gian.

(3.43)

Vay ta co nh luat bao toan momen ong lng : Momen ong lng cua

chat iem oi vi mot chat iem co nh, khong thay oi theo thi gian neu momen lc oi vi iem ay luon luon bang khong.
oi vi he chat iem hay vat ran : oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 50 -

Ta co :

Vay, ve phai cua phng trnh tren la tong cac momen lc tac dung len c he, nh ta biet la tong r momen cua cac ngoai lc tac dung len he, th : Trong o Fin la tong cac ngoai lc tac dung len chat iem th i va la tong cac momen ngoai lc tac dung len c he. ao ham theo thi gian cua tong momen ong lng cua mot he chat iem hay mot vat ran, oi vi mot iem co nh O, bang tong cac momen ngoai lc oi vi O. r - Trng hp rieng neu = 0 th :

Trong o i la momen lc tac dung len chat iem th i.

r r r dL d = (ri p i ) = dt dt i

dt (r p ) =
i i i i

d r

dL r r r = ( ri Fin ) = dt i

(3.45)

Ta co nh luat bao toan momen ong lng oi vi he chat iem : MOMEN ONG LNG CUA MOT HE CHAT IEM HAY MOT VAT RAN OI VI MOT IEM CO NH O KHONG THAY OI THEO THI GIAN, NEU TONG MOMEN CAC NGOAI LC OI VI IEM O BANG KHONG. Momen ong lng cua mot vat ran quay quanh mot truc co nh : Trc het ta hay xet trng hp cua mot he chat iem, sau se xet trng hp rieng ac biet o la trng hp cua vat ran. Xet chat iem khoi lng m quay theo ng tron tam O ban knh r vi van toc v, vay momen ong lng cua chat iem oi vi truc quay vuong goc vi mat phang quy ao la :

r r dL = 0 L = const dt

(3.45)

l = mvr

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 51 -

r v
O O

r r

Hnh 3.4

Neu goi la van toc goc th :

M rong ket qua nay cho trng hp mot he chat iem, momen ong lng cua he oi vi truc bang :

v = r l = mr2
L = m i ri2
i

(3.46)

Trong o tong c lay theo moi chat iem cua he. Do nh nhau vi moi chat iem. Vay :

L = m i ri2 = I
2 ii
i

(3.47)

Vi I = m r goi la momen quan tnh cua he oi vi truc quay . Theo (3.47) th momen ong lng cua he oi vi truc quay bang momen quan tnh cua he oi vi truc quay ay nhan vi van toc goc cua he. Co the thay :

Vay ao ham theo thi gian cua momen ong lng cua he bang momen cua ngoai lc oi vi truc quay. Trng hp rieng neu momen ngoai lc oi vi truc quay bang 0 th momen ong lng bao toan. Trng hp vat ran quay quanh mot truc co nh, th do vat ran co the xem la oi vi iem O mot he chat iem co ket nen momen quan tnh I cua he la khong oi va phng trnh (3.48) tr thanh :

dL d = (I) = dt dt

(3.48)

d = I = dt

(3.49)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 52 -

r r Xet ve gia tr vector : I =

VAY, TCH CUA MOMEN QUAN TNH CUA VAT RAN OI VI MOT TRUC QUAY CO NH VI GIA TOC GOC BANG MOMEN CUA NGOAI LC OI VI TRUC QUAY. ay la nh luat c ban ve chuyen ong quay cua vat ran quanh mot truc quay.

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 53 -

CHNG IV: TRNG LC THE TRNG HAP DAN

4.1 Khai niem va tnh chat cua trng lc the
Mot chat iem c goi la chuyen ong trong mot trng lc neu tai moi r v tr cua chat iem eu co mot lc F tac dung len chat iem ay. r Lc F tac dung len chat iem noi chung phu thuoc vao v tr cua chat r iem, F la mot ham cua toa o cua chat iem va cung co the la mot ham cua thi r gian t. ay ta ch xet trng hp F ch phu thuoc vao v tr cua chat iem ma khong phu thuoc vao thi gian. r r r r F = F ( r ) = F ( x, y, z ) (4.1) Khi chat iem chuyen ong trong trng lc t v tr M en v tr N bat ky r th cong cua lc F bang :

A MN

r r = Fd s
MN

Trong trng hp cong AMN cua lc F khong phu thuoc ng dch chuyen r MN ma ch phu thuoc v tr cua iem M va iem N th ta noi rang : F la lc cua mot trng the. V du : trng tnh ien Coulomb; Trong trng eu la nhng trng hp cua trng lc the. a) Xet trng hp trng tnh ien Coulomb Tai iem O co nh, at mot ien tch +q, ien tch nay se sinh ra mot ien trng chung quanh no. Mot ien tch q0 tai v tr bat ky cach q mot khoang r. ien r tch q0 se chu tac dung mot lc ien coulomb F co phng la ng thang noi qq0, va co o ln :

F=k
r

Gia s q0>0 : F se la lc ay. Gia s q0 dch chuyen t M en N, ta tnh r cong cua lc ien coulomb F trong dch chuyen nay. Cong vi phan trong chuyen di nho AB = ds la :

qq 0 r 2

(4.2)

r r dA = F d s = F.AB.cos = F.AH r AH la hnh chieu cua AB len phng cua F .

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 54 -

r F
H
M A

q0

r ds

s r
O Gb +q0

r r r + dr
Hnh 4 1

AH OB OA = dr

OA = r ; OB = r + dr OH ;

dA = Fdr =

Cong cua lc ien coulomb trong qua trnh dch chuyen cua q0 t M en N :

kqq 0 dr 2 r
N

AMN = A MN = Fdr =
M

rN

rM

qq0 dr r 2
(4.3)

A MN = k

qq 1 1 qq qq0 k 0 = k 0 rM rN rN rM

trng tnh ien Coulomb la mot trng the.

Ta thay cong AMN ch phu thuoc v tr hai iem au va cuoi MN : Vay

b) Trng hp chuyen ong di tac dung cua mot trong trng eu Xet mot chat iem m luon luon chu tac dung cua trong lc :

r r P = mg

Trong pham vi khong gian khong ln, g luon luon thang ng hng xuong va co o ln khong oi, luc nay ta co trong trng eu. en N : Ta hay tnh cong cua trong lc P khi chat iem m chuyen ong t iem M

(4.3)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 55 -

r A MN = Pd s
M

Nr

(4.4)

z zM z z+dz 4.2 zN

M A r ds

Hnh

r P

B N

Cong vi phan :

r ds Trong chuyen di nho AB =

r r dA = Pd s = P.AB.cos

dA = P.AC = -Pdz

dA>0.

dz = zB zA dau tr ve th hai co ngha khi dz<0 (o cao giam) th

Cong cua trong lc khi dch chuyen t M en N la :
N

A MN = Pdz = P(z M z N )
M

AMN = mg(ZM - ZN)

(4.5)

Ta thay cong AMN ch phu thuoc ZM va ZN ngha la ch phu thuoc v tr cua M, N ma khong phu thuoc ng dch chuyen. Vay trong lc eu la mot trng

lc the. 4.2- The nang va c nang cua trng lc the

Trong trng lc the, khi mot chat iem dch chuyen t v tr M sang v tr N th cong AMN cua trng lc ch phu thuoc vao v tr cua M, N. Lc tac dung vao chat iem trong trng hp nay ch phu thuoc vao v tr cua chat iem, ta goi la lc bao toan. Cong cua lc bang hieu so gia hai so hang Ep(x,y,z) phu thuoc vao v tr iem au va iem cuoi. Mot cach tong quat ta viet :

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 56 -

r A MN = Fd r = E P ( M ) E P ( N )
M

Nv

(4.6)

ai lng EP(x,y,z) goi la the nang cua chat iem. The nang cua mot chat iem trong trng lc the la mot ham EP(x,y,z) phu thuoc v tr cua chat iem sao cho : (4.7) Noi cach khac : The nang la mot ham so cua toa o, sao cho hieu so gia tr cua no v tr au va v tr cuoi trong mot trng lc the bang cong cua trng lc thc hien khi lam dch chuyen chat iem t v tr au en v tr cuoi. T nh ngha nay ta thay rang neu ong thi cong EP(M) va EP(N) vi cung mot hang so th he thc (4.7) van khong oi : The nang cua mot chat iem tai mot v tr c nh ngha sai khac mot hang so. V du : Trong trong trng eu, da vao bieu thc (4.5) ta suy ra bieu thc the nang cua chat iem tai v tr co o cao z : Trong ien trng coulomb da vao bieu thc (4.3) ta suy ra bieu thc the nang cua ien tch q0 tai v tr cach q mot khoang r :

AMN = EP(M) - EP(N)

EP(z) = mgz + C

EP ( r) = k

Vay the nang tai mot v tr c xac nh sai khac mot hang so cong nhng hieu the nang gia hai v tr th hoan toan xac nh. Gia cong cua trng lc va the nang co he thc sau :

q0 q +C r

A MN =

MN

r r Fd s = E P (M) E P (N)

Neu cho chat iem dch chuyen theo mot vong tron kn (iem M trung vi N) th he thc tren tr thanh :

A MN =

MN

r r r Fd s = Fd v = 0 s

(4.8)

*- Y ngha cua the nang :

The nang la mot dang nang lng ac trng cho tng tac, v du dang the nang cua chat iem trong trong trng cua Qua at la nang lng ac trng cho tng tac gia Qua at vi chat iem. The nang cua ien tch q0 trong ien trng coulomb cua ien tch q la the nang tng tac gia q va q0. 4.2.1 nh luat bao toan c nang trong trng lc the Khi mot chat iem khoi lng m chuyen ong t v tr M en v tr N trong mot trng lc the, th cong cua trng lc la (theo 4.7) : oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 57 -

AMN = EP(M) EP(N)

Neu chat iem ch chu tac dung cua trng lc the, ta co : Vi M la iem au, N la iem cuoi cua qua trnh dch chuyen. Vay :

AMN = Ek(N) - Ek(M)

Vi (Ep + Ek)M la tong the nang va ong nang cua chat iem tai v tr M trong trng lc. ai lng (Ep + Ek) c goi la c nang cua chat iem bang tong ong nang va the nang cua chat iem tai v tr ang xet, ky hieu E : T (4.9) ta co the phat bieu :

EP(M) EP(N) = Ek(N) - Ek(M) Hay EP(M) + Ek(M) = Ek(N) + EP(N) (EP + Ek)M = (EP + Ek)N

(4.9)

E = (EP + Ek) = EP(x,y,z) + mv2/2

(4.10)

Khi mot chat iem chuyen ong trong mot trng the (ma khong chu tac dung cua mot lc nao khac) th c nang cua chat iem la mot ai lng bao toan.
V du trong trng hp chat iem ri t do trong trong trng eu, c nang cua chat iem m tai o cao z la : (4.11) Tai v tr z0 gia s van toc ban au cua chat iem bang khong, tai mot v tr co o cao z ta co theo (4.11) : Hay :

E = mgz + mv2/2

Mgz0 = mgz + mv2/2 v2 = 2g(z0 - z) = 2gh

TRONG TRNG HP CHAT IEM CHUYEN ONG THANG, THE NANG CH PHU THUOC MOT BIEN SO TOA O TRONG TRNG LC. TA XET TOA O X CHANG HAN, C NANG BAY GI VIET THEO (4.10) : Vi E la c nang, la mot hang so. Trong chuyen ong thang v=dx/dt, (4.12) c viet :

E = mv2/2 + EP(x)
2

(4.12)

1 dx E = m + E P (x) 2 dt

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 58 -

Suy ra :

dx 2 = [E E P ( x)] dt m

1/ 2

(4.12)

Phng trnh nay cho phep ta thu c he thc lien he gia toa o x va thi gian t :

dx

2 [E E P (x)] m

1/ 2

= dt = t
0

(4.13)

4.2.2 S o the nang The nang EP cua mot chat iem trong trng lc the la ham cua toa o c bieu dien : EP(x,y,z). Trong trng hp the nang ch phu thuoc vao mot toa o (x chang han) th : Ta co the ve o th cua ham EP(x) theo x; o th o la s o the nang. Khao sat s o the nang cua chat iem trong trng lc the ta co the suy ra mot so ket luan nh tnh ve chuyen ong cua chat iem o. Trc het ta xac nh gii han cua chat iem, gia thuyet c nang cua chat iem trong trng lc the co mot tr so xac nh bang E : V mv /2 0 nen ta co ieu kien EP(x) E (4.15). Bat ang thc (4.15) co ngha la trong qua trnh chuyen ong, chat iem ch i qua nhng v tr ma tai o the nang cua chat iem khong vt qua c nang cua no. (4.15) xac nh gii han cua chuyen ong. Xet trng hp ng cong the nang EP = EP(x) co dang nh hnh ve :

EP = EP(x)

mv2/2 + EP(x) = E = const

2

(4.14)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 59 -

EP (4)

E4

K H I

E3 E2
E1

M2 C D F

(3) (2)

E
O A

Ek

M3

(1)

Ep

M1
B Hnh 4.3 x

Tai bat ky v tr cua chat iem, ta co Ek = E Ep la ong nang cua chat iem. Tren s o cac ng nam ngang bieu dien c nang E, ta lan lc xet cac c nang co gia tr tai E1, E2, E3, E4. Trng hp c nang cua chat iem E=E1, ng thang E1 cat ng bieu dien cua the nang tai hai iem A va B. Tai hai vung tren, ng the nang ben trai cua A va ben phai cua B ta co Ek = Et - Ep < 0; nhng v Ek=mv2/2 > 0 do o chat iem ch dao ong trong vung co toa o A va B. Tai cac iem x=A va x=B van toc triet tieu. Cac iem nay goi la iem lui. Trng hp E=E2 ta thay co hai vung chat iem co the chuyen ong o la vung CD va FG. Lu y rang chat iem khong the di chuyen t vung nay sang vung kia, v nh the chat iem se vt qua vung DF, tai ay ong nang co gia tr am la vung b cam. Ta noi hai vung CD va FG b phan ly bi mot hang rao the nang tng hp E=E3. * Chat iem dao ong trong vung HI : Neu E=E4 chat iem khong con dao ong ma chuyen ong t iem k en vo cung. Tren s o cac iem M1, M2, M3 the nang co gia tr cc ai hoac cc tieu, tai o dEp/dx=0, do o F=0 chnh la nhng v tr can bang cua chat iem. Tai cac iem M1 va M3 the nang co gia tr cc tieu, cac v tr o la nhng iem can bang ben. Tai M2 the nang co gia tr cc ai, la iem can bang khong ben.

oan Trong Th

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4.3 Trng hap dan

Nhieu hien tng t nhien chng to rang cac vat co khoi lng luon luon tng tac len nhau nhng lc hut. Trong lc la lc hut cua Qua at oi vi cac vat chung quanh no. Qua at quay chung quanh Mat tri la do lc hut cua Mat tri; Mat trang quay chung quanh Qua at la do lc hut cua Qua at. Moi vat trong vu tru eu hut lan nhau, goi la lc hap dan van vat. Newton la ngi au tien neu len nh luat c ban ve lc hap dan van vat, vi nh luat nay a giai thch c ba nh luat Kepler, ba nh luat nay a ra sau khi phan tch nhieu so lieu o ac thien van trong Thai dng he. Ba nh luat Kepler : I- Quy ao cua cac hanh tinh la nhng elipse, ma Mat tri la mot tieu iem. II- Dien tch quet bi ban knh vector ve t Mat tri en hanh tinh la bang nhau trong nhng khoang thi gian bang nhau (con goi la nh luat dien tch). III- Bnh phng chu ky quay cua hanh tinh ty le vi tam tha ban knh truc cua quy ao. 4.3.1 : nh luat hap dan van vat :
r F r F'

ln

m m

hnh 4.4 Hai chat iem co khoi lng m va m at cach nhau mot khoang r se hut nhau bang nhng lc co phng la ng thang noi lien hai iem o, co cng o ty le thuan vi tch hai khoi lng m va m va t le nghch vi bnh phng khoang cach r :

F = F = G
van vat.

G la mot hang so t le, phu thuoc vao cac n v, goi la hang so hap dan Trong he SI, thc nghiem cho ta gia tr: G = 6,67.10-11Nm2/kg2

mm' r2

(4.16)

Cong thc (4.16) ch ap dung cho trng hp nhng chat iem. Muon tnh lc hap dan van vat gia cac vat co kch thc, ta phai dung phng phap tch phan. Ngi ta a chng minh c rang v ly do oi xng, nen cong thc (4.16)

1 10-9 Nm2/kg2. 15

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C hoc

- 61 -

cung ap dung c cho hai qua cau ong chat, khi o r la khoang cach gia hai tam cua hai qua cau o. Nhieu th nghiem a tien hanh nham kiem chng s ung an cua nh luat sau khi Newton cong bo nh luat nay vao nam 1687. Th nghiem kiem chng au tien c tien hanh phong th nghiem do Cavendish thc hien. Ngay nay, nh luat hap dan van vat la cong cu het sc quan trong trong thien van hoc, vu tru hoc va giai thch nhieu hien tng cung nh tnh toan cac ac trng cua cac hanh tinh. Cac nh luat cua Kepler ve chuyen ong cua cac hanh tinh trong Thai Dng He c chng minh mot cach de dang thong qua lc hap dan van vat. *- Vai ng dung :
a) S thay oi gia toc trong trng theo o cao :

Xet mot vat co khoi lng m tren mat at, gia s Qua at hnh cau ban knh r va kch thc cua vat khong ln lam so vi ban knh r cua Qua at. Lc do Qua at tac dung vao vat la : F = GmM/R2 (M : khoi lng trai at) (4.17). Lc hap dan nay chnh la lc trong trng at len vat m : F = P = mg0 (4.18) Vi g0 goi la gia toc trong trng mat at. T (4.17) va (4.18) ta co:

g0 = GM/R2

(4.19)

Gia tr g0 c o bang thc nghiem, phu thuoc v o cua ni o, neu lay gia tr trung bnh g0 = 9,8m/s2, ban knh Qua at R = 6,37.106m.
G=6,67.10-11m3kg-1s-1 (hay Nm2kg-2) ta tnh c khoi lng cua Qua at : T (4.19) ta co :

Tai mot iem cach mat at o cao h, lc trong trng tac dung len vat khoi lng m tnh bi : P = GmM/(R+h)2 = mg (4.20) Suy ra gia toc trong trng tai o cao h :

M = g0r2/G 5,98.1024kg

g = g0 (

(4.19) va (4.21) cho :

R 2 ) R+h

(4.21)

g = g0 (

Do h<<r, suy ra h/r<<1; do o (1+h/r)-2 1 2h/r , (4.22) tr thanh : g = g0(1 2h/R) (4.23) oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

R 2 1 2 h ) = g0 ( ) = g 0 (1 + ) 2 h R+h R 1+ R

(4.22)

C hoc

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Cong thc (4.23) cho thay cang len cao, g cang giam. Cong thc nay ch ung khi h<<R.
b) Tnh khoi lng cua thien the :

Ta co the tnh khoi lng cua Mat Tri thong qua lc hap dan. Goi R la khoang cach t tam Qua at en tam Mat Tri, gia s trai at quay quanh Mat Tri theo quy ao tron, goi M la khoi lng Trai at, M0 la khoi lng Mat Tri. Trai at quay quanh Mat Tri do lc hap dan cua Mat Tri len Trai at, lc hap dan ay la : F = GMM0/R2 (4.24) Lc nay ong vai tro la lc hng tam. Trong chuyen ong tron eu ta a biet lc hng tam la : F = MV2/R (4.25) V : la van toc cua Qua at tren quy ao, lien he vi chu ky quay T cua Qua at : V = 2R/T (4.26) 2 2 2 Suy ra : GMM0/R = M(2R) /RT (4.27) Suy ra khoi lng Mat Tri : Tnh cu the bang so ta c M0 2.1030kg. 4.3.2 Trng hap dan e giai thch lc hap dan, ngi ta cho rang chung quanh mot vat co khoi lng ton tai mot trng hap dan, tng t chung quanh mot vat mang ien tch ton tai ien trng. Bat ky mot vat nao co khoi lng at tai mot v tr trong khong gian cua mot trng hap dan mot vat khac, eu chu tac dung cua lc hap dan. Trng hap dan cua Qua at chnh la trong trng cua no. ai lng ac trng cho trng hap dan la cng o trng hap dan tai mot iem trong khong gian. Xet mot chat iem khoi lng m, cng o hap dan tai mot iem trong khong gian cach chat iem m mot khoang r c xac nh nh sau : m Hnh 4.5 at vao trng hap dan cua m mot chat iem khoi lng m cach m mot khoang r. lc hap dan do m tac dung len m la :
r H

M0 = 42.R3/T2G

r ur

r mm' r F = G 2 u r r

oan Trong Th

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C hoc

- 63 r U r la vector n v co phng trung vi ng thang noi mm va chieu

hng ra xa m. r Cng o trng hap dan tai iem P ni at m ky hieu H , co o ln: H = F/m = Gm/r2 (4.28) Bieu dien bang vector :

Bieu thc (4.29) la vector cng o trng hap dan tai iem P do m gay ra. r r Biet c H ta co the xac nh c lc hap dan F tac dung len m tai mot v tr r cach m : (4.30) n v cua H la N/kg hoac m/s co cung th nguyen vi gia toc. Tai mot iem P trong khong gian, neu co nhieu trng hap dan do nhieu chat iem gay ra th cng o trng hap dan tong cong bang tong vector cng o trng hap dan do tng chat iem tao nen :
2

r mr v F = G 2 u r H= r m'

(4.29)

r r F = m H

r r r r m 'r H = H 1 + H 2 + + H n = -G 2i u i
i

ri

(4.31)

Do o lc hap dan tong cong se la :

r F

r r r r = m H 1 + m H 2 + + m H n = m H

(4.32)

a) Bao toan moment ong lng trong trng hap dan :

Xet mot chat iem khoi lng m at trong trng hap dan cua mot chat iem khoi lng M at tai iem O co nh la goc toa o :
r L

r F

r P

Hnh 4.6

Ap dung nh ly moment ong lng ap dung cho chat iem m oi vi iem O, ta co :

Lc F

r dL luon luon hng tam do o =0 dt

r dL r r = rXF dt

(4.33)
(4.34)

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C hoc r

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Suy ra L khong oi. Vay khi mot chat iem m chuyen ong trong trng hap dan cua mot chat iem M th moment ong lng cua m la mot ai lng bao toan, tc la gia tr cua r moment ong lng khong oi va vector L co phng, chieu cung khong oi trong khong gian. Chat iem chuyen ong trong mot mat phang, mat phang o thang goc r vi vector L . Qua at chuyen ong chung quanh Mat tri di tac dung cua lc hap dan cua Mat tri nen quy ao cua Qua at la mot quy ao phang. Bieu thc moment ong lng cua Qua at cho bi : L = mr2 = const (4.35) Chng to khi chuyen ong gan mat tri (r giam), van toc goc cang ln va ngc lai.
b) The nang hap dan

Ta biet rang lc hap dan thuoc loai lc xuyen tam, ch phu thuoc khoang cach, v vay the nang hap dan c xac nh qua bieu thc :

Vi U r la vector n v co chieu ngc chieu vi F . Xet mot chat iem m chuyen ong trong trng hap dan do M tao ra, di chuyen t A en B nh hnh ve : A

r Ep r F= ur r

(4.36)
r

P
r r r F

r r r + dr

B Cong cua lc F trong chuyen di vi phan dS = PQ

r r r

r r r dA = F dS = F.PQ = F.PQ.cos
dA = - F.PH

P).

T hnh ve ta co : PQ.cos = - PH ; ( PH la o dai ai so, chieu dng O Vay (4.37)

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at

OP = r , OH OQ = r + dr

Va PH = OH OP = r + dr r = dr Mm dA = - Fdr = - G 2 dr r Cong cua lc F trong chuyen di m t A en B :

A AB = Fdr = G
rA rA

rB

rB

Mm dr r2

A AB = G

Mm Mm G rB rA

A AB = G

Mm Mm ( G ) rA rB

(4.38)

Cong cua lc hap dan F ch phu thuoc v tr iem au A va iem cuoi B. vay trng hap dan cua M la mot trng the. Theo nh ngha cua the nang, ta co the xac nh the nang cua chat iem m trong trng hap dan cua M tai v tr A :

Ep(A) = - G
Tai B :

Mm +C rA

(4.39)

Ep(B) = - G
Thoa man he thc :

Mm +C rB

(4.40)

Tong quat, the nang cua m tai mot v tr cach O mot khoang r :

ABA = Ep(A) Ep(B)

Ep(r) = -G
Ep() = C

C la hang so tuy y, co gia tr bang the nang tai vo cung : Trng hap dan la mot trng the, do o khi m chuyen ong, c nang bao

Mm +C r

(4.41)

toan :

E = Ep + Ek

Mm mv2 + E=-G = const , chon C = 0 r 2

(4.42)

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4.4 Chuyen ong trong trng hap dan

Ta biet rang, trng hap dan la mot trng the. Do o, c nang bao toan theo (4.42). ta co c nang cua chat iem m chuyen ong trong trng the gay bi chat iem M la :

E=

Neu m chuyen ong vi quy ao tron th lc hng tam se la : F=mv2/r , vi r : khoang cach t m en M.

1 Mm mv2 G 2 r

(4.42)

mv2 Mm =G 2 Ta co : r r

(4.42) tr thanh :

Mm mv2 =G Do o : 2r 2
E = -GMm/2r

(4.43) (4.43) chng to rang c nang co gia tr am. Tong quat, cac chuyen ong trong trng hap dan vi quy ao la elipse th c nang co gia tr am. Trong trng hp c nang E>0 : Trng hp nay Ek>Ep. xet khi r tien en vo cung. Luc nay t (4.42) ta co :

E = mv2/2

(4.44) Hay v = 2E / m Quy ao cua m bay gi la mot hypecbol. Trong trng hp E = 0 : trng hp nay, tai vo cung, chat iem m co van toc triet tieu (v=0) quy ao cua m la mot parabol (xem hnh). E<0 E>0 Ek Hnh 4.8 E=0 Ek

0 Ek

r 0
Mm r2

E p = G

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m M Elipse

m M M

Hyperbol

Parabol

Trng hp ac biet oi vi viec phong ve tinh Qua at : tai mot iem o cao h so vi mat at, ve tinh c phong ra vi van toc ban au v0 vuong goc vi ng thang ng. Tuy thuoc vao c nang E cua ve tinh ma no se co quy ao elipse, hyperbol hay parabol, trong o tam Qua at la mot tieu iem cua quy ao. Goi v0 la van toc ban au c nang cua ve tinh se la, theo (4.42) :

E = mv20/2 + (- G
v0

Mm ) R+h

E>0 Hyperbol E=0 Parabol E<0 Elipse Hnh 4.9

* Van toc vu tru cap I : Gia s ve tinh c phong mot o cao khong ln so vi ban knh Qua at h << R ( vi R co gia tr trung bnh c : 6378km) ta co the xem ban knh quy ao cua ve tinh bang ban knh R cua Qua at. Van toc vI cua ve tinh trong chuyen ong tron co lien he vi gia toc hng tam :

a0 = g0 = v2/R

(4.45)

suy ra vI = g 0 R ; lay g0 = 9,8m/s2 Thay so ta thu c : vI = 7,9 km/s 28.440 km/h Neu van toc ban au v0 < vI ve tinh se ri xuong Qua at. Neu v0 > 7,9 km/s (nhng nho hn van toc cap hai vII) th ve tinh se chuyen ong xung quanh Qua at theo quy ao elipse. * Van toc vu tru cap II :

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Trong trng hp nay c nang cua ve tinh E 0; van gia s rang ve tinh xuat phat tai ni cach tam Qua at mot khoang R bang ban knh Qua at, ta co : V GMm/ = 0 ; mV2/2 0, do o : Theo (4.19) : g0 = GM/R2 Do o : V0

mV20/2 + (- GMm/R) = mV2/2 + (-GMm/) mV20/2 GMm/R

2Rg 0

(4.46) (4.47)

Gia tr toi thieu cua V0 chnh la van toc vu tru cap II.

VII =
Gia tr cu the :

2g0 R

VII = 11,2 km/s 40.320 km/h.

oan Trong Th

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C hoc

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CHNG V C HOC CHAT LU

5.1 ai cng ve c hoc chat lu
CHAT LU BAO GOM CAC CHAT LONG VA CHAT KH. VE MAT C HOC, MOT CHAT LU CO THE QUAN NIEM LA MOT MOI TRNG LIEN TUC TAO THANH CAC CHAT IEM LIEN KET VI NHAU BANG NHNG NOI LC TNG TAC. CAC CHAT LU CO NHNG TNH CHAT TONG QUAT SAU : 1. Chung khong co hnh dang nhat nh nh mot vat ran. 2. Cac chat lu bao gom cac chat lu de nen (chat kh) va cac chat lu kho nen (chat long). 3. Khi mot chat lu chuyen ong, cac lp cua no chuyen ong vi nhng van toc khac nhau, nen gia chung co nhng lc tng tac goi la lc noi ma sat hay lc nht. Chat lu ly tng : mot chat lu goi la ly tng khi chat ay hoan toan khong nen c va trong chat ay khong co cac lc nht. Mot chat lu khong ly tng goi la chat lu thc. Theo nh ngha tren ay, moi chat lu eu la chat lu thc. Tuy nhien mot chat long rat lu ong (khong nht) co the tam coi nh mot chat lu ly tng.

5.2 Tnh hoc chat lu

5.2.1 Ap suat Xet trong long chat lu mot khoi chat lu c bao quanh bi mot mat kn S (mat S co tnh chat tng tng), goi dS la mot dien tch vi phan bao quanh mot iem bat ky tren mat S. r S M dF dS Hnh 5.1 Thc nghiem chng to rang phan chat lu ben ngoai mat S tac dung len dS r mot lc dF goi la ap lc (lc nen) tren dS. Trong trng hp chat lu nam yen, r dF vuong goc vi dS ta co the nh ngha ap suat tai iem M.

p=

Thc nghiem cung chng to rang vi chat lu ly tng, ap suat p tai M la mot ai lng xac nh (ch phu thuoc v tr iem M) khong phu thuoc hng cua r dF . oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

dF dS

(5.1)

C hoc

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5.2.2 Cong thc c ban cua tnh hoc chat lu Xet mot chat lu nam yen trong trong trng. Lay mot khoi chat lu nam trong hnh tru thang ng co o cao dz ay la dS. Goi ap suat ay di la p, ay tren la p + dp. Tong ap lc nen vao hai ay khoi chat lu la :

pdS (p + dp)dS
z

(5.2)

z+dz

dS p+dp

Hnh 5.2 o cung la ap lc cua chat lu nen vao hnh tru (v tong ap lc nen vao mat ben triet tieu nhau) khi chat lu nam can bang, tong ap lc nen vao khoi chat lu phai can bang vi trong lc cua chat lu. Goi dm la khoi lng chat lu cua khoi chat lu hnh tru :

(dm)g = ( dS.dz )g

Trong o la khoi lng rieng cua chat lu; dS.dz la the tch cua khoi chat lu co chieu cao dz va mat ay dS. Ta co phng trnh :

pdS (p + dp)dS = dSdz.g dp = - gdz

(5.3) (5.4)

(5.4) la cong thc c ban cua tnh hoc chat lu. * He qua : neu trong chat lu can bang co hai iem o cao z0 va z. Hai iem ay co ap suat lien he nhau bi phng trnh :

p(z) p(z0) = - gdz

z0

(5.5)

Neu chat lu hoan toan khong nen c ( khong oi) va gia toc trong trng khong oi ta co : Hay Hay

p(z) p(z0) = - g(z-z0)

(5.6) (5.7)

p(z) = p(z0) - gz
p(z) + gz = p(z0) + gz0

Nh vay nhng iem nao cang di ap suat cang ln. * T (5.7) suy ra :

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a- Hai iem trong chat lu tren cung mot mat phang ngang (z = z0) th ap suat tng ng bang nhau (mat ang ap). b- Mat thoang (p = hang so) cua mot chat long nam yen phai la mat phang ngang (z = hang so) (nguyen tac bnh thong nhau). Tuy nhien ket qua nay ch ung vi mat thoang co dien tch khong ln (mat thoang cua ai dng uon cong theo hnh dang qua at) mat thoang cua cac chat lu ng trong cac ong nho, do hien tng mao dan cung khong co cung chieu cao.

5.3 ong hoc chat lu ly tng

53.1 nh luat bao toan dong Khi khao sat chuyen ong cua mot chat lu quan niem nh mot moi trng lien tuc, ta co the xet theo hai cach : a- Theo doi tng chat iem cua khoi chat lu : nghien cu quy ao, van toc, gia toc cua tng chat iem ay, phng phap nay c tien hanh bi J.Lagrange. b- Lay mot iem M mot v tr xac nh trong chat lu, xet cac chat iem khac nhau i qua iem M tai nhng thi iem khac nhau tai moi thi iem t, van r r toc cua khoi lu chat i qua M la v = v (M,t). r Neu v ch phu thuoc M ma khong phu thuoc t ta co chat lu chuyen ong dng. Trong chng nay ta ch xet chuyen ong dng cua chat lu. Quy ao cua cac chat iem cua chat lu chuyen ong c goi la ng dong. o la nhng ng cong ma tiep tuyen tai moi iem co cung phng vi vect van toc cua chat iem cua chat lu tai iem ay. Cac ng cong ta tren mot ng cong kn tao thanh mot ong dong.

S1

r v1

S2

r v2

Hnh 5.3 Xet mot chat lu chuyen ong trong mot ong dong rat nho : goi S1 va S2 la hai tiet dien thang bat ky cua ong dong. Trong mot n v thi gian, lng chat lu chay qua S1 va S2 (lu lng) la S1V1 va S2V2, vi V1,V2 lan lt la van toc chuyen ong cua lu chat tai v tr S1 va S2 v chat lu ly tng, ngha la hoan toan khong nen c nen ta co : (5.8) CONG THC TREN BIEU TH NH LUAT BAO TOAN DONG CHAT LU. * He qua : S cang nho th van toc dong chay v cang ln.

V1S1 = V2S2

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5.3.2 nh luat Bernoulli Trong chat lu ly tng, che o dng, xet mot ong dong co tiet dien kha nho nh hnh ve. p 1 S1 h1 l 1 V1 S1 S2 V2 S2 p2

Hnh 5.4

h2

Xet the tch lu chat chay qua tiet dien S1 va S2 trong mot khoang thi gian t, the tch lu chat nay i qua ong dong tiet dien S1 se di chuyen en S1 va S2 di chuyen en S2 trong khoang thi gian t vi cac oan dch chuyen lan lt la l1 va l2. Do chat lu ly tng nen the tch chat lu i qua S1 va S2 trong khoang thi gian t phai bang nhau : (5.9) Trong trong trng, cac hat trong lu chat co c nang bang tong ong nang va the nang trong trng, gia s ong dong va l u nho sao cho moi chat iem i qua oan l co van toc la nh nhau. Goi h1, h2 lan lt la o cao cua V1 va V2 v1, v2 lan lt la van toc chat lu trong V1, V2. o tang c nang cua khoi lu chat t V1 en V2 la : E=( V.v22/2 + Vgh2)( V.v12/2+ Vgh1) (5.10) Trong o la khoi lng rieng cua lu chat. Trong chat lu ly tng khong co lc ma sat, do o o tang c nang E phai bang cong cua ap lc hai the tch V1, V2. Ap lc hai ben thanh ong dong vuong goc vi ng dch chuyen cua chat lu nen ap lc nay khong sinh cong. Theo nh luat bao toan c nang ta co A = E . Vay cong tao bi ap lc hai au tiet dien S1 va S2 la : T (5.10) va (5.11) sau khi kh V va sap xep lai ta co :

V1 = V2 = V

A= p1S1l1 p2S2 l2 = (p1 p2)V

(5.11) (5.12)

v12/2 + gh1 + p1 = v22/2 + gh2 + p2

Do S1, S2 c chon bat ky do o ta co the viet tong quat phng trnh (5-12)

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v2/2 + gh + p = khong oi

(5.13)

Phng trnh (5.13) c goi la nh luat Bernouilli cua mot chat lu l tng chuyen ong trong trong trng eu. * Vai he qua cua phng trnh Bernouilli : a) Trng hp chat lu chay trong mot ong nam ngang h1 = h2 phng trnh (5.12) cho ta.

v12/2 + p1 = v22/2 + p2

(5.14)

Goi tiet dien cua ong hai v tr (1) va (2) lan lt bang S1 va S2. Lu lng cua lu chat khong oi va bang : Phng trnh (5.14) co the viet :

Q = v1S1 = v2S2

Q2/2S12 + p1 = Q2/2S22 + p2

(5.15)

Neu S1 > S2 th p1 > p2. Vay khi chat lu chay trong ong nam ngang co tiet dien thay oi th cho nao co tiet dien ln, ap suat cung ln va ngc lai (hien tng Venturi). b) Cong thc Torricelli Xet mot bnh ng lu chat, gan ay bnh co mot lo nho, tai o chat long chay ra, ay ong dong mot au la mat thoang va mot au la lo nho ni lu chat chay ra vi van toc v. Van toc cua cac hat trong lu chat tren mat thoang xem nh bang khong. Phng trnh (5.12) tr thanh :

gh1 =

v2 2

+ gh 2

(5.16)

Ta bo qua p1 = p2 v ap suat kh quyen bang nhau neu chieu cao cua bnh khong ln lam. at h = h1 h2 la chieu cao t lo nho en mat thoang, c lt so hang , ta co :

v = 2gh
Cong thc (5.17) goi la cong thc Torricelli.

(5.17)

h h1 h2

Hnh 5.5

Cong thc nay trung vi cong thc cua vat ri t do trong chan khong. Do o, van toc cua dong chay thoat ra t mot lo cua bnh co o cao h tnh t mat thoang bang van toc cua mot vat ri t do trong chan khong di tac dung cua trong lc, co cung chieu cao h. ieu nay ch ung neu chat lu ly tng. Trong thc te vi chat oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

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lu thc con co hien tng ma sat nht nen van toc thu c se nho thua van toc (5.17).

5.4 Hien tng noi ma sat (nht)

5.4.1 Hien tng noi ma sat va nh luat newton Trong muc nay ta xet trng hp chat lu thc. Gia s mot dong lu chat chuyen ong trong mot ong hnh tru co tiet dien eu. Song song vi truc Ox nh hnh ve. z u+du dz O u

r F

Hnh 5.6 Truc Oz hng vuong goc vi thanh ong. Van toc nh hng cua lu chat trong ong thc nghiem cho thay, cac phan t cang gan truc cua ong co van toc ln hn cac phan t cua lu chat gan thanh ong. Nh vay, hnh thanh nhng lp lu chat co van toc khac nhau, chung trt len nhau, xay ra hien tng ma sat noi gia cac lp o lam ngan can chuyen ong cua lu chat trong ong. Lc ma sat noi nay nam theo phng tiep tuyen cua mat tiep xuc gia hai lp. Thc nghiem chng to rang lc ma sat noi F gia hai lp chat lu : - Vuong goc vi Oz. - Cng o t le vi o bien thien van toc nh hng theo phng z, (du/dz). - T le vi dien tch tiep xuc S gia hai lp. - Phu thuoc ban chat cua lu chat.

F =

: la he so t le goi la he so ma sat noi hay he so ma sat nht. Trong he n v SI, tnh ra N.s/m2 = Kg/m.s hay Pa.s ( oc la Pascal-giay). Cong thc (5.18) goi la nh luat Newton. * -S chay thanh lp va s chay hon loan : Trong lu chat khi chuyen ong neu cac lp lu chat di chuyen khong tron lan vao nhau, chung chay thanh tng lp, cac ong dong co hnh dang nhat nh, cac phan t cua lu chat co quy ao la nhng ng cong khong cat nhau ta co che o chay thanh lp. Ngc lai khi van toc lu chat u ln hay tiet dien dong chay thay oi ot ngot ve o ln, trong lu chat xuat hien hien tng chay hon loan, trong lu chat khong con cac lp di chuyen on nh, quy ao cac phan t cua lu chat hnh thanh nhng xoay roi. Lu chat khong con che o dng. oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

du S dz

(5.18)

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e xac nh trang thai cua lu chat theo che o chay thanh lp hay chay hon loan, Reynolds a ra ai lng goi la so Reynolds. Khi lu chat co so Reynolds nho s chay thanh lp la chu yeu, bat au t mot gia tr nao o cua so Reynolds th xuat hien s chay hon loan. So Reynolds c xac nh nh sau :
: Khoi lng rieng cua lu chat.

R e = vl/

(5.19)

v : Van toc trung bnh cua dong chay. l : o dai ac trng cua tiet dien ngang, vi tiet dien co dang ng tron ban knh R th l = R. : He so nht cua lu chat. Hai ai lng phu thuoc ban chat cua lu chat va co the gop thanh t so :

= /
goi la o nht ong, (5.19) tr thanh :

(5.20) (5.21)

Re = vl/
5.4.2 S chay cua lu chat trong mot ong tru

Xet mot ong hnh tru ban knh R, trong o co mot lu chat ang chay che o chay thanh lp. Ta hay tnh s phan bo cua van toc theo v tr ke t tam ong en thanh ong. Fr
r

p1

p2

l
Hnh 5.7

Ta hay xet mot the tch chat lu hnh tru nam trong lu chat ban knh r < R, chieu dai l; p1, p2 la ap suat hai au ong. Lc tac dung vao lu chat : (p1 p2) r2 (5.22) Lc tong hp nay nam doc theo phng cua dong chay. Lc ma sat noi, tac dung len lu chat trong hnh tru theo (5.18) la :

dv 2rl dr

(5.23)

Theo ieu kien cua che o chay dng ta phai co :

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

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(p1 p2) r2 =

dv 2rl dr

(5.24)

V van toc giam khi r tang t truc ong ra thanh ong do o :

dv dv = . T (5.24) ta co : dr dr dv = (p1 p2)r/2l dr

(5.25) (5.26)

Hay dv = -(p1 p2)rdr/2l Tch phan (5.26) ta c :

(5.27) Hang so C c xac nh bi khi r = R th v = 0 vi R la ban knh cua ong. Phng trnh (5.27) tr thanh :

v = -(p1 p2)r2/2l + C

C = (p1 p2)R2/4l
p1 p 2

(5.28) (5.29)

v=

Van toc cua lu chat truc cua ong la :

4l

r2 R (1 2 ) R
2

v0 = v(o) =

p1 p 2

a v0 vao (5.29) ta thu c phng trnh phan bo van toc

4l

R2

(5.30)

Ta thay vi che o chay thanh lp van toc cua dong chay thay oi khi tang khoang cach t truc cua ong theo ng Parabol.

r2 v(r) = v0 (1 2 ) R

(5.31)

Hnh 5.8

Lu lng cua lu chat trong ong tru. Cong thc Poiseuille Xet trng hp che o chay thanh lp, ta hay tnh lng lu chat i qua tiet dien cua ong trong mot n v thi gian, lng lu chat o goi la lu lng cua lu chat Q . Gia s ong tru co ban knh R ta xet mot dien tch vi phan dS cua tiet dien,

oan Trong Th

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tiet dien vi phan co dang mot hnh vanh khan ban knh nho la r, ban knh ln r + dr nh hnh ve. R Hnh 5.9 dr r

Dien tch vi phan dS = 2rdr Van toc cua lu chat tai v tr r theo (5.31) la : Do o lu lng dQ = vdS Lu lng cua lu chat :
R R

v(r) = v0(1-r2/R2)

dQ = v0(1- r2/R2)2rdr

(5.32)

T phng trnh (5.33) ta thay van toc trung bnh cua lu chat bang mot na van toc cc ai cua dong chay tai tam ong. Ket hp (5.33) va (5.30) ta i en cong thc cua lu lng chat lu. Cong thc nay goi la cong thc Poiseuille. Theo cong thc nay ta thay lu lng cua lu chat trong ong t le bac bon vi ban knh cua ong; t le nghch vi chieu dai cua ong va t le nghch vi he so nht cua lu chat. Can lu y rang cong thc nay ch ung khi lu chat che o chay thanh lp. Cong thc (5.34) dung e xac nh he so nht cua mot lu chat xac nh. (5.35) = (p1 p2)R4/8Ql Trong o cac ai lng Q, l, R va ap suat p1, p2 eu co the xac nh bang thc

r2 Q = dQ = v0 (1- 2 ) 2rdr R 0 0 1 1 Q = R2v0 = Sv0 2 2

(5.33)

Q = (p1 p2) R4/8 l

(5.34)

nghiem.

oan Trong Th

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CHNG VI CHUYEN ONG TNG OI

6.1. Tnh bat bien cua van toc anh sang
Trong mot thi gian dai, c hoc Newton hay c hoc co ien a chiem moi v tr thong tr trong s phat trien cua khoa hoc. Tren c s c hoc Newton a hnh thanh nhng quan niem ve khong gian, thi gian va vat chat. Theo nhng quan niem o th khong gian, thi gian va vat chat khong phu thuoc chuyen ong, ngha la khoang thi gian cua mot hien tng xay ra, kch thc cua mot vat va khoi lng cua no eu nh nhau trong moi he quy chieu ng yen hay chuyen ong. Nhng en cuoi the ky 19 au the ky 20, khoa hoc va ky thuat phat trien rat manh, a co the tiep can vi nhng van toc c van toc anh sang. Khi o xuat hien s mau thuan vi cac quan iem cua c hoc Newton, cu the la: khong gian, thi gian, khoi lng eu phu thuoc vao chuyen ong. Nhng kho khan o c hoc Newton khong giai quyet c. T o rut ra ket luan la: C hoc Newton ch ap dung c cho nhng vat chuyen ong vi van toc nho so vi van toc anh sang (v << c). Nh vay, can phai xay dng mot mon c hoc tong quat hn ap dung c cho tat ca vat chuyen ong vi van toc v vao c c va coi cac trng hp cac vat chuyen ong vi van toc v << c nh mot trng hp gii han. o la mon c hoc tng oi tnh hay con goi la thuyet tng oi hep Einstein. Cac tien e Einstein: e xay dng nen thuyet tng oi, nam 1905 Einstein a a ra hai nguyen ly sau: 6.1.1 Nguyen ly tng oi Moi nh luat vat ly eu nh nhau trong cac he quy chieu quan tnh. 6.1.2 Nguyen ly ve s bat bien cua van toc anh sang Van toc anh sang trong chan khong eu bang nhau oi vi moi he quan tnh. No co gia tr c 3.108m/s va la gia tr van toc ln nhat trong t nhien. ay can phan biet vi nguyen l tng oi Galile trong c hoc co ien. Theo nguyen l nay ch cac nh luat c hoc la bat bien khi chuyen t he quy chieu quan tnh nay sang he quy chieu quan tnh khac. ieu o co ngha la phng trnh mo ta mot nh luat c hoc nao o, bieu dien qua toa o va thi gian se gi nguyen dang trong tat ca cac he quy chieu quan tnh. Nh vay, nguyen l tng oi Einstein a m rong nguyen l tng oi Galile t cac hoat ong c hoc sang cac hoat ong vat ly noi chung.

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Trong c hoc co ien Newton, tng tac c mo ta da vao the nang tng tac. o la mot ham cua toa o nhng hat tng tac, t o suy ra cac lc tng tac gia mot chat iem nao o vi cac chat iem con lai, tai mot thi iem ch phu thuoc vao v tr cua cac chat iem tai cung mot thi iem o. S thay oi v tr cua mot chat iem nao o trong he chat iem, tng tac se anh hng ngay tc thi en cac iem khac tai cung thi iem. Nh vay tng tac truyen i tc thi, hay noi cach khac van toc truyen tng tac la vo han. Tuy nhien, thc nghiem a chng to, trong t nhien khong ton tai nhng tng tac tc thi. Neu tai mot chat iem nao o cua he co xay ra mot s thay oi nao o, th s thay oi nay ch anh hng en mot chat iem khac sau mot khoang thi gian t 0 nao o. Nh vay van toc truyen tng tac la hu han. Theo thuyet tng oi cua Einstein van toc truyen tng tac la nh nhau trong tat ca cac he quy chieu quan tnh. No la mot hang so pho bien. Thc nghiem chng to van toc khong oi nay la cc ai va bang van toc anh sang truyen trong chan khong (c 3.108m/s). Trong thc te hang ngay, ta thng gap cac van toc rat nho so vi van toc anh sang (v << c). Do o, trong c hoc co ien ta co the coi van toc truyen tng tac la vo han ma van thu c nhng ket qua u chnh xac. Nh vay, ve mat hnh thc co the chuyen t thuyet tng oi Einstein sang c hoc co ien bang cach cho c trong cac cong thc c hoc tng oi tnh.

6.2. ong hoc tng oi tnh phep bien oi Lorentz

6.2.1 S mau thuan cua phep bien oi Galile vi thuyet tng oi Einstein Theo phep bien oi Galile, thi gian dien bien cua mot qua trnh vat ly trong cac he quy chieu quan tnh K va K eu nh nhau: KHOANG CACH GIA HAI IEM 1 VA 2 NAO O TRONG CAC HE K VA K EU NH NHAU: l = x2 x1 = x2 x1 (CAC AI LNG CO DAU PHAY EU C XET TRONG HE K). Van toc tuyet oi cua chat iem bang tong vect cac van toc tng oi v va van toc V cua he quan tnh K oi vi he K:

t = t

Tat ca nhng ket qua o eu ung vi cac chuyen ong cham (v<<
c) nhng chung mau thuan vi cac tien e cua thuyet tng oi Einstein. Thc vay, theo thuyet tng oi thi gian khong co tnh chat tuyet oi, khoang thi gian dien bien cua mot qua trnh vat ly phu thuoc vao he quy chieu. ac biet hien tng xay ra ong thi trong he quan tnh nay se khong xay ra ong thi he quan tnh khac. e minh hoa ta xet v du sau:

r r r v = v'+ V

(6.1)

oan Trong Th

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Gia s co hai he quan tnh K va K vi cac truc toa o tng ng (x,y,z) va (x,y,z) he K chuyen ong thang eu vi van toc V so vi he K theo phng x: y y

K o

<B A

->
C

x, x

T mot iem A bat ky, tren truc x co at mot bong en phat tn hieu sang theo hai pha ngc nhau cua truc x. oi vi he K bong en la ng yen v no co cung chuyen ong vi K. Do van toc tn hieu sang truyen theo moi phng eu bang c, nen trong he K cac tn hieu sang se en cac iem B va C cach eu A cung mot luc. Nhng cac tn hieu sang se en B va C se xay ra khong ong thi trong he K. Thc vay, theo nguyen l tng oi Einstein van toc cua tn hieu sang trong he K van bang c; nhng v oi vi he K, chuyen ong gap tn hieu sang gi t A en B con iem C chuyen ong ra xa t tn hieu gi t A en C. Do o trong he K tn hieu sang se ti iem B sm hn. nh luat cong van toc (6.1) he qua cua nguyen l tng oi Galile cung khong ap dung c ay. Thc vay, theo nguyen l nay van toc truyen anh sang theo chieu dng cua truc x se la c + v va theo chieu am cua truc x se la c v ieu o mau thuan vi thuyet tng oi Einstein. 6.2.2. Phep bien oi Lorentz QUA TREN TA NHAN THAY, PHEP BIEN OI GALILE KHONG THOA MAN CAC YEU CAU CUA THUYET TNG OI. PHEP BIEN OI CAC TOA O KHONG GIAN VA THI GIAN KHI CHUYEN T HE QUAN TNH NAY SANG HE QUAN TNH KHAC, THOA MAN CAC YEU CAU THUYET TNG OI EINSTEIN, DO LORENTZ TM RA C MANG TEN ONG. Xet hai he quy chieu quan tnh K va K noi tren. Gia s ban au O va O trung nhau. He K chuyen ong so vi K vi van toc V theo phng x. Goi (x, y, z, t) va (x, y, z, t) la cac toa o khong gian va thi gian lan lt xet trong cac he K va K. V theo thuyet tng oi thi gian khong co tnh chat tuyet oi, trai lai phu thuoc vao he quy chieu nen thi gian troi i trong hai he la khac nhau. Gia s toa o x lien he vi x va t theo phng trnh. oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

t = t

C hoc

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(6.2) E TM DANG CUA PHNG TRNH F(X,T) CHUNG TA VIET PHNG TRNH CHUYEN ONG CUA CAC GOC TOA O O VA O TRONG HAI HE K VA K. OI VI HE K, GOC O CHUYEN ONG VI VAN TOC V TA CO: (6.3) Trong o x la toa o cua O xet vi he K. Con oi vi he K goc O la ng yen. Toa o x cua no trong he K bao gi cung bang khong. Ta co MUON CHO PHNG TRNH (6.2) AP DUNG UNG CHO HE K, NGHA LA KHI THAY X= 0 VAO (6.2) TA PHAI THU C (6.3), TH F(X,T) CH CO THE KHAC (X VT) MOT SO NHAN NAO O. (6.4) oi vi he K goc O chuyen ong vi van toc V. nhng oi vi he K goc O ng yen lap luan tng t nh tren ta co. TRONG O LA HE SO NHAN. Theo tien e th nhat cua Einstein, moi he quan tnh eu tng ng nhau, ngha la t (6.4) ta co the suy ra (6.5) va ngc lai bang cach thay the V V, x x, t t . Ta de dang rut ra: = . Theo tien e th hai, ta co trong he K va K: Neu x = ct th x = ct, thay vao (6.4) va (6.5) ta thu c:

x = f (x,t)

x Vt = 0 x = 0

x= (x Vt)

v = (x + Vt)

(6.5)

=
Nh vay ta co:

1 1 V c2
2

(6.6)

x' =

x Vt V2 1 2 c
,

x=

x'+ Vt ' V2 1 2 c

V x c2 t' = V2 1 2 c t

V x' 2 c t= V2 1 2 c t '+

oan Trong Th

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V K CHUYEN ONG DOC THEO X NEN Y = Y, Z = Z. TOM LAI, TA THU C CONG THC BIEN OI LORENTZ:

x' =

x Vt

V2 1 2 c
(6.7)

VA PHEP BIEN OI T HE k SANG HE k:

V x c2 t' = V2 1 2 c t

y = y z = z

x=

x'+ Vt '

Y = Y (6.8) z = z

V2 1 2 c

Cac phep bien oi (6.7), (6.8) c goi la phep bien oi Lorentz. Qua o ta thay c moi lien he mat thiet gia khong gian va thi gian. T cac ket qua tren ta nhan thay rang khi c hay khi thc tren tr thanh:
V 0 th cac cong c

V x' 2 c t= V2 1 2 c t '+

x = x Vt y = y z = z t = t

x = x + Vt y = y z = z t = t

oan Trong Th

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Ngha la chuyen ve cac cong thc cua phep bien oi Galile. ieu kien c tng ng vi quan niem tng tac tc thi, ieu kien th hai V/c 0 tng ng vi s gan ung co ien. Khi V >c trong cac cong thc tren cac toa o x, t tr nen ao, ieu o chng to khong the co cac chuyen ong vi van toc ln hn van toc cua anh sang. Khong the dung he quy chieu chuyen ong vi van toc bang van toc anh sang. V khi o mau so trong cac cong thc (6.7), (6.8) se bang khong. 6.2.3. Cac he qua cua phep bien oi Lorentz
a/ Khai niem ve tnh ong thi va quan he nhan qua

Gia s rang trong he quan tnh K co hai hien tng (bien co) hien tng A1(x1y1z1t1) va hien tng A2(x2y2z2t2) vi x1 x2 chung ta hay tm khoang thi gian t2 t1 gia hai hien tng o trong he K chuyen ong vi van toc V doc theo truc x. T cac cong thc bien oi Lorentz ta c.
' t '2 t 1 =

t 2 t1

V (x 2 x 1 ) c2 V2 1 2 c

(6.9)

T o suy ra rang cac hien tng xay ra ong thi trong he K (t1 = t2) th se khong ong thi he K va t2 t1 0. Ch co mot trng hp ngoai le la khi ca hai bien co xay ra ong thi tai nhng iem co cung gia tr x (toa o y co the khac nhau). Nh vay khai niem ong thi ch la mot khai niem tng oi, hai bien co co the ong thi trong mot he quy chieu nay noi chung co the khong ong thi trong mot he quy chieu khac. Cong thc (6.9) cung chng to rang oi vi cac bien co ong thi trong he, dau cua t2 t1 c xac nh bi dau cua bieu thc (x2 x1)V. Do o trong cac he quan tnh khac nhau ( vi cac gia tr khac nhau cua V), hieu t2 t1 khong nhng khac nhau ve o ln ma con khac nhau ve dau. ieu o co ngha la th t cac bien co A1 va A2 co the bat ky (A1 co the xay ra trc A2 hay ngc lai). Tuy nhien ieu va trnh bay khong c xet cho cac bien co co lien he nhan qua vi nhau. Lien he nhan qua la mot moi lien he gia nguyen nhan va ket qua. Nguyen nhan bao gi cung xay ra trc ket qua, quyet nh s ra i cua ket qua. Th du vien an c ban ra (nguyen nhan), vien an trung ch (ket qua). Th t cac bien co co quan he nhan qua bao gi cung c am bao trong moi he quan tnh. Nguyen nhan xay ra trc, ket qua xay ra sau. Ta xet chi tiet hn v du va neu. Goi A1 (x1; t1) la bien co vien an c ban ra va A2(x2; t2) la bien co vien

oan Trong Th

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an trung ch. Coi hai bien co eu xay ra truc x. Trong he K, t2 > t1 goi v la van toc vien an va gia s x2>x1, ta co: THAY BIEU THC NAY VAO (6.9) TA C.

x1 = vt1 , x2 = vt2

Ta luon luon co v < c, do o neu t2 > t1 th cung co t2 > t1 ngha la trong ca hai he K va K bao gi bien co vien an trung ch cung xay ra sau bien co vien an c ban ra. Th t nhan qua bao gi cung c ton trong.
b/ S co ngan Lorentz

Vv (t 2 t1 ) 1 2 ' c t '2 t1 = V2 1 2 c

Bay gi ta da vao cac cong thc (6.7) hoac (6.8) e so sanh o dai cua mot vat va khoang thi gian cua mot qua trnh trong hai he K va K. Gia s co mot thanh ng yen trong he K at doc theo truc x, o dai cua no trong he K bang: Goi l la o dai cua thanh trong he K. Muon vay ta phai xac nh v tr cac au mut cua thanh trong he K tai cung thi iem. T phep bien oi Lorentz ta viet c:

l 0 = x2 x1

Tr hai ang thc tren ve theo ve, chu y rang t1 = t2 ta c:

' x '2 x 1 =

V x2 2 t 2 c x '2 = V2 1 2 c

' x1 =

x1

V t 2 1 c V2 1 2 c

x 2 x1

V2 1 2 c

SUY RA:

V2 l = l0 1 2 (6.10) c VAY: O DAI (DOC THEO PHNG CHUYEN ONG) CUA THANH TRONG HE QUY CHIEU MA THANH CHUYEN ONG NGAN HN O DAI THANH TRONG HE MA THANH NG YEN.
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

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- 85 -

Noi mot cach khac, khi vat chuyen ong, kch thc cua no b co ngan lai theo phng chuyen ong. TH DU QUA AT CHUYEN ONG QUANH MAT TRI VI VAN TOC KHOANG V=30KM/S, NG KNH CUA NO (SAP X KHOANG 12.700KM) CH CO NGAN 6,5CM. NHNG NEU MOT VAT CO VAN TOC V=260000KM/S TH: 2

Khi o l =0,5l0, kch thc cua vat se co ngan i mot na. Neu quan sat mot vat hnh hop vuong chuyen ong vi van toc V ln, ta se thay no co dang mot hnh hop ch nhat, mot khoi cau chuyen ong nhanh nh vay ta se thay no co dang mot elipsoide tron xoay. Nh vay kch thc cua vat se khac nhau tuy thuoc vao cho ta quan sat no trong he ng yen hay chuyen ong. Khong gian co tnh chat tng oi, phu thuoc vao chuyen ong. Cung t cac cong thc phep bien oi Lorentz, chung ta tm c khoang thi gian cua mot qua trnh trong hai he K va K. Gia s co mot ong ho ng yen trong he K. Ta xet hai bien co xay ra tai cung mot iem A co cac toa o (x, y, z) trong he K. Khoang thi gian gia hai bien co tren trong K bang t = t2 t1. Bay gi chung ta tm khoang thi gian gia hai bien co cung tren he K.

V 0,5 c2

t2 =

t '2 +

V x' 2 2 c V2 1 2 c

t1 =

t '1 +

V x' 2 1 c V2 1 2 c

Do x2 = x1 nen:

t = t 2 t1 =

t '2 t '1 V2 1 2 c
(6.11)

Hay

KET QUA O C PHAT BIEU NH SAU: KHOANG THI GIAN T CUA MOT QUA TRNH TRONG HE k CHUYEN ONG BAO GI CUNG NHO HN KHOANG THI GIAN T XAY RA CUNG QUA TRNH O TRONG HE k NG YEN. NEU TRONG HE k CHUYEN ONG CO

V2 t = t 1 2 < t c

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 86 -

GAN MOT ONG HO VA TRONG HE k CUNG CO GAN MOT ONG HO TH KHOANG THI GIAN CUA CUNG MOT QUA TRNH XAY RA C GHI TREN ONG HO CUA HE k SE NHO HN KHOANG THI GIAN GHI TREN ONG HO CUA HE k. TA CO THE NOI ONG HO CHUYEN ONG CHAY CHAM HN ONG HO NG YEN. NH VAY KHOANG THI GIAN E XAY RA MOT QUA TRNH SE KHAC NHAU TUY THUOC VAO CHO TA QUAN SAT QUA TRNH O TRONG HE NG YEN HAY CHUYEN ONG. Neu V = 260.000km/s th t =t/2 khoang thi gian e xay ra mot qua trnh neu tnh trong he con tau ang chuyen ong la 5 nam, th trong he quy chieu gan lien vi mat at la 10 nam. ac biet neu nha du hanh vu tru ngoi tren con tau chuyen ong vi van toc rat gan vi van toc anh sang V=299.960km/s khi o
1 V 10-2 trong mi nam e en hanh tinh rat xa th tren Trai at a 1.000 2 c

nam troi qua va neu nha du hanh quay tr ve en Trai at, th ngi o mi gia them 20 tuoi nhng tren Trai at a 2.000 nam troi qua.
c/ nh ly tong hp van toc

Gia s u la van toc cua mot chat iem oi vi he O. u la van toc cua chat iem o oi vi he O. Ta hay tm nh ly tong hp van toc lien he gia u va u. T (6.7) ta co:

dx ' =

dx Vdt 1 V c2
2

dt ' =

dt

V dx 2 c V2 1 2 c

Vay:

u 'x =

dx ' dx Vdt ux V = = dt ' dt V dx 1 V u 2 2 x

c
c
V2 uz 1 2 c u'z = V 1 2 ux c

(6.12)

TNG T TA CO:

V2 uy 1 c u'y = V 1 2 uy c
oan Trong Th

(6.13)

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 87 -

Cac cong thc (6.12) va (6.13) chnh la cac cong thc bieu dien nh ly tong hp van toc trong thuyet tng oi. T cac cong thc nay ta co the suy ra tnh bat bien cua van toc anh sang trong chan khong oi vi he quan tnh. Thc vay neu ux = c th t (6-12) ta tm c. y y u u

u' x =

cV =c V 1 2 c c

x O

O x

Ta hay tm cong thc cho biet s thay oi hng van toc khi chuyen t he nay sang he khac. Ta hay chon cac truc toa o sao cho luc ang xet van toc cua chat iem nam trong mat phang xy. Theo hnh ve ta co.

T (6.12) VA (6.13) TA RUT RA CAC BIEU THC.

ux = ucos uy = uSin

ux = ucos uy = usin

CAC CONG THC NAY CHO BIET S THAY OI HNG CUA VAN TOC KHI CHUYEN HE QUY CHIEU. 6.2.3 ong lc hoc tng oi tnh
a/ Phng trnh c ban cua chuyen ong chat iem:

V2 V2 u' 1 2 Sin' u'. 1 2 Sin' c sin = c ; tg = V u'.Cos + V u(1 + 2 u'.Cos' ) c

(6.14)

THEO THUYET TNG OI, PHNG TRNH BIEU DIEN NH LUAT NEWTON HAI:

mo ta chuyen ong, can phai co phng trnh khac tong quat hn. Theo thuyet tng oi, phng trnh o co dang:

r r dv F=m khong the mo ta chuyen ong cua chat iem vi van toc ln. e dt

TRONG O M LA KHOI LNG CUA CHAT IEM:

r d r F = (mv) dt

(6.15)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 88 -

m=

m0 v2 1 2 c

(6.16)

m la khoi lng chat iem o trong he ma no chuyen ong vi van toc V c goi la khoi lng tng oi; m0 la khoi lng cung cua chat iem o trong he ma no ng yen (V = 0) c goi la khoi lng ngh. TA THAY RANG THEO THUYET TNG OI, KHOI LNG CUA MOT VAT KHONG CON LA HANG SO NA, NO TANG KHI VAT CHUYEN ONG; GIA TR NHO NHAT KHI NO NG YEN. CUNG CO THE NOI RANG: KHOI LNG CO TNH TNG OI; NO PHU THUOC HE

QUY CHIEU.
PHNG TRNH (6.15) BAT BIEN VI PHEP BIEN OI LORENTZ VA TRONG TRNG HP V<< C NO TR THANH PHNG TRNH BIEU DIEN NH LUAT TH HAI CUA NEWTON.
b/ ong lng va nang lng.

Theo (6.16) ong lng cua mot vat bang:

r r m 0v r P = mv = v2 1 2 c
r r dp F= dt

(6.17)

Khi V<<c ta thu c phng trnh co ien c ban (6.15) co the viet:

r r p = m0 v. Nh vay phng trnh

TA HAY TNH NANG LNG CUA VAT. THEO NH LUAT BAO TOAN NANG LNG, O TANG NANG LNG CUA VAT BANG CONG CUA NGOAI LC TAC DUNG LEN VAT :

dW = dA
e n gian, ta s dung F cung phng vi chuyen di
THEO (6.15) TA CO:

r r dW = dA = F d s = Fds

r ds .

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 89 -

d m0v dw = ds 2 dt v 1 2 c
m 0 dv m 0 v2 dv + dw = ds 2 dt v 2 3 / 2 dt v c 2 (1 2 ) 1 2 c c
Nhng
DO O:

ds dv ds = dv dt dt

= vdv

m 0 vdv m 0 vdv v2 dw = 1 + = 2 2 v 2 c 2 (1 v ) (1 v )3 / 2 1 2 c2 c2 c
Mat khac (6.16) ta co:

dm =

SO SANH HAI BIEU THC TREN TA RUT RA:

m 0 vdv v2 3/ 2 2 c (1 2 ) c

dW = c2dm
2
2

C = 0. Vay: W = mc He thc nay thng goi la he thc Einstein.

c/ Cac he qua

Hay W = mc + C Trong o C la mot hang so tch phan. Do ieu kien m = 0 th W = 0 ta rut ra (6.18)

T he thc Einstein ta tm c nang lng ngh cua vat. Ngha la nang lng luc vat ng yen (m = m0):

Luc vat chuyen ong, vat co them ong nang Ek.

oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

W = m0c2

C hoc

- 90 -

1 1 2 2 2 EK = mc m0c = m0c v2 1 2 c

(6.19)

BIEU THC NAY KHAC VI BIEU THC ONG NANG CUA VAT THNG GAP TRONG C HOC CO IEN. KHI V << C:

1 v2 1 2 c
DO O:
2

1+

v2 2c 2

Ta lai tm c bieu thc ong nang trong c hoc co ien.

Bnh phng bieu thc (6.18) ta c :

v2 m 0 v2 E k m 0 c (1 + 2 1) 2 2c

m20c4

W.v 2 v2 = W(1 2 ) = W 2 c c
2

Thay W = mc vao bieu thc tren, va chu y

r r p = mv

ta co:

(6.20) o la bieu thc lien he gia nang lng va ong lng cua vat.
Ta hay ng dung cac ket qua tren vao hien tng phan ra hat nhan:

W2 = m02c4 + p2c2

Gia s mot hat nhan phan ra thanh hai hat nhan thanh phan. Theo nh luat bao toan nang lng ta co:

W = W1 + W2
Vi W la nang lng cua hat nhan trc khi phan ra. W1 va W2 la nang lng cua hai hat thanh phan. Thay (6.18) vao bieu thc tren ta se c:
2 2 1 2

mc =

m1c

v 1 c

m 2 c2 v2 2 1 2 c
(6.21)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 91 -

Trong o, ta a xem hat nhan nh khong chuyen ong trc khi phan ra, con m1, m2, m la khoi lng ngh cua cac hat, v:

m1c2 1
2 v1

> m 1c2

va

m 2 c2 v2 2 1 2 c

> m 2 c 2 nen t (6.21) ta rut ra:

c2

m > m1+m2
Ngha la khoi lng cua hat nhan trc khi phan ra ln hn tong khoi lng cua cac hat nhan thanh phan. Theo cong thc Einstein phan nang lng ng vi o hut cua khoi lng nay bang:

W = (m (m1 + m2))c2 = mc2

Phan nang lng nay thng c toa ra di dang nhiet va bc xa.
*- Y ngha triet hoc cua he thc Einstein:

Nh chung ta a biet, vat chat ton tai khach quan, khoi lng va nang lng ch la hai ai lng vat ly ac trng cho quan tnh va mc o van ong cua vat chat. Khong co g chng to vat chat mat i ma tnh chat cua no van ton tai. Do o, ieu khang nh vat chat bien thanh nang lng la vo can c. He thc Einstein khong phai noi lien vat chat vi nang lng ma noi lien hai tnh chat cua vat chat: quan tnh va mc o van ong. He thc cho ta thay ro, trong ieu kien nhat nh, mot vat co khoi lng nhat nh th cung co nang lng nhat nh tng ng vi khoi lng o. Thuyet tng oi hep cua Einstein a a khoa hoc vat ly tien them mot bc mi. Ve sau, nam 1915 Einstein a phat trien sau them mot bc na cua thuyet tng oi va a ra thuyet tng oi rong. Thuyet tng oi rong ap dung cho cac he qui chieu chuyen ong co gia toc, giup ta nghien cu trng hap dan. Thuyet tng oi rong giup ta hieu biet mot cach sau sac hn s lien he gia khong gian va thi gian vi vat chat trong trng hap dan gay ra bi mot vat co khoi lng ln, khong gian b cong i. Cac vat chuyen ong theo quan tnh trong khong gian nay khong con chuyen ong thang na ma chuyen ong theo ng cong. Thi gian ni trng hap dan manh th troi cham hn so vi thi gian ni trng hap dan yeu. Nh co thuyet tng oi rong, trong thien van ngi ta giai thch c nhieu s kien quan trong trong vu tru.

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 92 -

6.3 Lc quan tnh

6.3.1- Khong gian va thi gian trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh

He quy chieu khong quan tnh la he quy chieu chuyen ong co gia toc so vi he quy chieu quan tnh. Cac dang n gian nhat cua he quy chieu khong quan la he quy chieu chuyen ong thang co gia toc va he quy chieu chuyen ong quay. e mo ta cac nh luat c hoc trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh, chung ta phai lam ro cac tnh chat khong gian va thi gian trong he nay. Khong gian va thi gian trong he quy chieu quan tnh la ong nhat, n v thi gian va n v o dai la bang nhau khap moi ni. Con trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh, van e lai khac han. Theo thuyet tng oi, khoang thi gian va o dai cua vat the phu thuoc vao toc o chuyen ong nen n v thi gian va n o dai trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh noi chung phu thuoc vao toa o va thi gian (v du trong he quy chieu quay cac n v nay phu thuoc vao khoang cach t iem quan sat en tam quay). Ta goi khong gian va thi gian trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh la khong ong nhat v vay van e o lng thi gian va khong gian trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh gap phai nhng kho khan ve mat nguyen tac. e khac phuc trnh trang nay, ngi ta ch tien hanh o lng cac ai lng vat ly noi chung va o lng khong gian va thi gian noi rieng tai tng mien vo cung nho cua he quy chieu khong quan tnh va sau o phat trien chung sang cac mien hu han. Cach nay phai s dung en cac cong cu toan hoc phc tap ma ay chung ta se khong xet en. Cach th hai la gia thuyet toc o va gia toc cua he quy chieu khong quan tnh u nho sao cho ta co the bo qua cac hieu ng cua thuyet tng oi. Cach nay cho phep ta de dang mo ta cac nh luat c hoc, nhng phai m rong khai niem ve lc, ben canh lc tng tac gia cac vat the chung ta phai a them vao lc quan tnh do chuyen ong co gia toc cua he gay ra.
6.3.2- Lc quan tnh TRONG HE QUY CHIEU QUAN TNH, NGUYEN NHAN DUY NHAT E VAT THE CHUYEN ONG CO GIA TOC LA DO VAT THE KHAC TAC ONG LEN NO MOT LC NAO O. NH VAY GIA TOC VA LC LA KET QUA CUA S TNG TAC GIA CAC VAT THE. trong cac he khong quan tnh, cac vat the co the nhan c mot gia toc nao o ma khong can chu tac dung cua mot lc nao ca, v du oi vi mot toa tau bat au chuyen ong th tat ca cac vat the trong vu tru eu nhan c mot gia toc tng ng so vi con tau. Ro rang la ay khong co mot vat cu the nao tac ong len cac vat trong vu tru o ca. Nh vay gia toc ma cac vat the nhan c trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh khi chung khong b tac ong bi mot vat nao khac th ch c xac nh bi chnh tnh chat cua he quy chieu. Gia toc nay ng vi mot lc ac biet goi la lc quan tnh. oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 93 -

Nh vay trong cac he quy chieu khong quan tnh nh luat th nhat va th ba cua Newton khong con thch hp na. nh luat th hai co the phat bieu nh sau:

r r r ma' = F + Fq

(6.22)

r r xac nh bi lc tng tac F ' va lc quan tnh Fq .

Ngha la gia toc cua vat the trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh

r a'

Khi lc quan tnh bang khong, he tr thanh quan tnh, th gia toc cua vat the ch chu tac dung cua lc tng tac:

r r ma = F (6.23) T cac cong thc (5.78) va (5.79) ta suy ra bieu thc cua lc quan tnh: r r r Fq = m (a'a) (6.24)

6.3.3- Lc quan tnh trong he quy chieu chuyen ong thang co gia toc GOI K LA HE QUY CHIEU QUAN TNH, K LA HE CHUYEN ONG CO GIA TOC DOC THEO TRUC X CUA HE K (HNH 6.3) THEO PHEP BIEN OI GALILEO: Y Y

O O X0

X X

X X

HNH 6.3

Trong o x, y, z va t la toa o va thi gian cua mot chat iem trong he K, con x0 la toa o cua iem goc O trong he K. Lay ao ham (6.25) theo thi gian ta c:

x = x0 +x y = y z = z t = t

(6.25)

v = v0 + v
oan Trong Th

(6.25)
Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 94 -

Trong o cac ai lng :

v=

TNG NG C GOI LA VAN TOC TUYET OI, VAN TOC KEO THEO VA VAN TOC TNG OI. DE DANG NHAN THAY RANG TOC O TUYET OI LA TOC O CUA CHAT IEM OI VI HE QUAN TNH K, TOC O TNG OI LA TOC O CUNG CUA CHAT IEM OI VI HE KHONG QUAN TNH K, CON TOC O KEO THEO LA TOC O CUA HE K OI VI HE K. Tiep tuc lay ao ham (6.25) theo thi gian ta c:

dx dt

; v0 =

dx 0 dt

v' =

dx' dt

Trong o cac ai lng :

a = a0 + a ; a0 = dv0 dt ; a' =

(6.26)

a=

tng ng c goi la gia toc tuyet oi, gia toc keo theo va gia toc tng oi. Thay (6.26) vao (6.24) ta c:

dv dt

dv' dt

Fq = - ma0 Hay la di dang vect: r r Fq = ma

Tc la lc quan tnh hng ngc chieu vi gia toc keo theo cua he quy chieu khong quan tnh. Sau ay chung ta xet mot vai v du minh hoa lc quan tnh nay. Mot toa tau chuyen ong thang nhanh dan eu vi gia toc a0 oi vi Trai at, Trai at tam thi c xem la mot he quy chieu quan tnh, toa tau la mot he quy chieu khong quan tnh.
r N

(6.27)

r Fq

r p
Hnh 6.4

Gia s ban au toa tau ng yen, moi ngi cung ng yen tren toa tau, luc o toa tau chuyen ong nhanh dan, moi ngi phai bam chac vao toa tau e c ng yen oi vi toa tau, neu khong th b ay lui ngc hng vi chieu chuyen ong nhanh dan cua toa tau. That vay, khi toa tau la mot he quy chieu khong quan

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 95 -

tnh, moi ngi eu chu tac dung cua mot lc quan tnh

r r Fq = ma0 , trong o m
r F
sao cho

la khoi lng cua ngi. Chnh lc quan tnh ay ngi lui ngc hng gia toc. Khi ngi bam chac vao toa tau, toa tau tac dung len ngi mot lc that

r r F + Fq = 0

khi o theo (6.21) gia toc cua ngi oi vi toa tau a0 = 0 va ngi

ng yen oi vi toa tau. Mot vat nang khoi lng m, treo au mot si day moc tren tran toa tau. r Luc toa tau chuyen ong co gia toc a , v tr can bang cua si day treo vat lech mot goc so vi phng thang ng trong toa tau (hnh 6.4). oi vi he quy chieu khong quan tnh la toa tau, vat nang chu tac dung cua

r r r r can bang khi tong hp cua ba lc nay bang khong P + N + Fq = 0 luc ay: Fq a = arctg = -arctg 0 (6.28) Fq Ptg ; g P

3 lc: trong lc

r P

cua vat, lc cang

r N

cua si day va lc quan tnh

r Fq , vat the

Gia toc cua toa tau a0 cang ln, muon gi c the can bang goc cang phai ln, ngha la day treo vat cang b lech khoi phng thang ng. Xet mot vat khoi lng m at au mot lo xo nam doc theo phng chuyen ong. Khi lo xo dan mot oan x, lo xo tac ong vao vat mot lc F=kx ay k la he so an hoi cua lo xo (hnh 6.4): Khi toa tau chuyen ong vi gia toc a0, lo xo dan ra mot oan x. Bay gi

r quan tnh Fq

vat nang trang thai can bang v chu tac dung cua hai lc: lc an hoi

o dan cua lo xo t le vi gia toc cua con tau. Da theo nguyen tac tren ngi ta a che tao mot kieu may o gia toc.
6.3.4- Lc quan tnh trong he quy chieu chuyen ong quay: GOI K LA HE QUY CHIEU QUAN TNH (HE NG YEN) VA K LA HE QUY CHIEU CHUYEN ONG QUAY QUANH TRUC OZ CUA HE K VI TOC O . NH VAY TRONG HE TOA O CC, TA CO PHEP BIEN OI TOA O CUA HE NH SAU:

r r khi o F + Fq = 0 va: ma0 x = k

r F

va lc

(6.29)

(6.30) TRONG O R, , T LA TOA O VA THI GIAN CUA MOT CHAT IEM NAO O TRONG HE K ; R, , T LA TOA O VA THI GIAN CUNG CUA CHAT IEM AY TRONG HE K.
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

r = r , = + t

, t = t

C hoc

- 96 -

Lay ao ham (6.30) theo thi gian ta c:

r = r'

; = ' +

(6.31)

e tnh vect toc o cua chat iem trong he K, chung ta phai lay ao ham r cua vect ban knh theo thi gian. V r la ham cua cac toa o r, nen:

r r r d r r dr r d + = dt r dt dt

(6.32)

Chu y rang:

r r r = er r

r r r , = re

(6.33)

Ta co the viet (6.32) di dang sau:

r r dr la van toc cua chat iem a cho trong he K. Trong o v = rdt r e bieu dien v qua v' tc la qua van toc cua chat iem trong he K chung ta lam nh sau. Thay (6.31) vao (6.34) ta c: r r r r dr = & ' e r + & ' e + re r r dt
Chu y rang: Ta co: v

r r r & & v = re r + re

(6.34)

r r r = v'+[ r ]

r r r r r & & v' = &' e r ' + r' ' e ' = & e r + r ' e r r
(6.35)

r r r [ r ] = re chnh la van toc cua he K so vi K tai iem r.

Tiep tuc lay ao ham (6.35) theo thi gian ta c:

Trong o v la van toc cua chat iem a cho trong he K, con

r r dv dv' d r r = + [ r ] (6.36) dt dt dt Neu gia thiet =const, tc la he K quay eu so vi he K, ta c: r r r dv dv ' r d r = + [ ] (6.37) dt dt dt LAM TNG T NH CACH TNH CONG THC (6.35) TA C: r dv r r r = a'+[ v] (6.38) dt
Trong o:

r r r && a' = (&& r 2 )e r + (&& r ' )e r & r

(6.39)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 97 -

La gia toc cua chat iem trong he K hay con goi la gia toc tng oi cua chat iem o. Thay (5.95) va (5.92) vao (5.94) ta c:

con goi la gia toc tuyet oi cua chat iem o. Vect:

r r r r a = a'+ ah + ac (6.40) r r dv Trong o vec t a = la gia toc cua chat iem a cho trong he K hay dt
r r r r r ah = [ r ] = 2 r
r r r ac = 2[ v' ]
(6.41)

Hng vao tam quay va c goi la gia toc hng tam. Vect: (6.42) Hng vuong goc vi van toc cua chat iem va c goi la gia toc Coriolit. Thay (6.40) vao (6.23) ta c lc quan tnh tac dung len chat iem a cho trong he K.

r r r Fq = ma h mac

(6.43) (6.44)

Trong o lc:

Tac dung len chat iem va hng t tam quay ra ngoai, c goi la lc quan tnh ly tam (hay goi tat la lc ly tam). Lc:

r r r Fl = ma h = m2 r

r r r Fc = ma c = 2m[ v' ]

(6.45)

c goi la lc quan tnh Coriolit (hay lc Coriolit).

* SAU AY TA XET MOT VAI V DU MINH HOA CAC LC QUAN TNH NAY. Ta hnh dung he quy chieu quay la mot a phang nam ngang. Tren a doc theo mot ban knh co treo nhng qua cau co khoi lng nh nhau. Khi a quay vi van toc =const th trong he quy chieu ng yen ta thay qua cau treo ung tam a van ng yen con tat ca cac qua cau khac chuyen ong tron eu, vach tren nhng ng tron co tam tren truc quay va qua cau nao cang xa tam th day treo cua no cang lech so vi phng thang ng ban au, ta giai thch chuyen ong tron nay la do co lc hng tam tac ong len moi qua cau. Lc hng tam nay la tong hp lc cua trong lc qua cau va lc cang cua day treo.

xuat hien lc quan tnh ly tam F1 , lc nay can bang vi trong lc cua qua cau va lc cang cua day treo

Song oi vi ngi quan sat ng trong a quay th tat ca cac qua cau eu ng yen. S d nh vay v trong he quy chieu khong quan tnh gan vi a quay co

r N

r P

(hnh 6.5).

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 98 -

Neu bay gi ta at mot qua cau tren mot mat a quay, gia s ta khong at tai chnh tam quay va ma sat gia qua cau va a quay la khong ang ke. Trong trng hp o qua cau ch b tac dung mot lc quan tnh ly tam nh ta a biet va no bat au chuyen ong vang ra ngoai. Nhng sau o lai khong tiep tuc chuyen ong doc theo ban knh ma vach nen mot quy ao cong tren a quay. Nh vay chng to rang ben canh lc quan tnh ly tam con co mot lc khac tac dung len vat va vuong goc vi toc o

r r v cua no, lc nay chnh la lc quan tnh Coriolit Fc (hnh 6.6) r Fc

Hnh 6.5
r Fl

r N

r v

r Fc

r P

Hnh 6.6

6.4 Nguyen ly tng ng

6.4.1 Trang thai khong trong lng E MO TA TRANG THAI KHONG TRONG LNG TA XET MOT HE GOM MOT BUONG KN, TRONG O CO TREO MOT CON LAC GOI LA CON LAC LIUBIMOV.
r Fq

r Fq

r Fh

r v
r Fh

A)

B)

C)

Hnh 6.7
Th nghiem vi con lac Liubimov c tien hanh nh sau. Khi buong ng yen so vi mat at, con lac thc hien dao ong rieng xung quanh v tr can bang (hnh 6.7a). Khi buong ri t do th chuyen ong phu thuoc vao pha cua dao ong tai thi iem buong bat au ri. Neu buong bat au ri tai thi iem con lac at
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 99 -

c o lech cc ai (hnh 6.7b) th v tr o se khong thay oi trong suot qua trnh buong ri. Neu buong bat au ri thi iem con lac khong v tr lech cc ai. V du khi no va ra khoi v tr can bang (hnh 6.7c) th con lac tiep tuc chuyen ong tron eu xung quanh iem treo. Th nghiem tren co the giai thch nh sau: Khi buong ri t do, lc quan tnh tac dung len con lac can bang vi lc hut cua Trai at, ket qua hai lc nay can bang vi nhau. Bay gi ch co lc cang cua day treo ong vai tro lc hng tam gi con lac chuyen ong tron eu quanh tam la iem treo cua con lac, lc nay bang mv2/R, trong o R la o dai cua day treo va v la van toc cua con lac so vi buong. Van toc nay bang van toc cua con lac khi buong bat au ri. Trong trng hp hnh 6.7b van toc nay bang khong nen con lac ng yen so vi buong, tc la luon luon v tr lech cc ai trong suot qua trnh buong ri. Trong th nghiem tren, lc quan tnh va lc hut cua Trai at can bang nhau, ket qua la con lac trang thai khong trong lng. Trang thai nay rat giong trang thai cua vat the trong cac con tau ve tinh cua Trai at. Trong cac con tau nay, moi vat chu tac dung cua hai lc la lc hut cua Trai at va lc quan tnh ly tam. Hai lc nay can bang nhau va cac vat the trong con tau trang thai khong trong lng. Cac nha du hanh vu tru neu khong bam chac lay con tau se b l lng trong con tau.
6.4.2 Nguyen ly tng ng TRONG CAC TH NGHIEM VI CON LAC LIUBIMOV, VA VI CAC CON TAU VE TINH CUA TRAI AT, CHUNG TA THAY RANG LC QUAN TNH VA LC HAP DAN BANG NHAU VE GIA TR TUYET OI VA NGC CHIEU NHAU:

r r Fq + Fh = 0

(6.46)

V rang khoi lng quan tnh va khoi lng hap dan c gia thiet la bang nhau nen t o suy ra gia toc quan tnh va gia toc hap dan cung phai bang nhau ve o ln va ngc chieu nhau: r r aq + a h = 0 (6.47)
KET QUA LA HE QUY CHIEU TR THANH QUAN TNH VA VAT THE TRONG HE TRANG THAI KHONG TRONG LNG. Lap luan tren cung chng to rang, neu ta chon he quy chieu sao cho gia toc cua no bang gia toc cua trng hap dan th moi hien tng xay ra trong he giong nh trong trng hap dan. Noi mot cach khac, trng quan tnh xuat hien trong he se tng ng vi trng hap dan a cho. S tng ng gia trng quan tnh va trng hap dan ve mat c hoc la hien nhien. Tong quat hoa ieu khang nh o oi vi moi hien tng vat ly goi la nguyen ly tng ng. Nh vay nguyen ly tng ng khang nh rang trong mot he quy chieu bang cac th nghiem vat ly khong the phan biet c trng hap dan va trng quan tnh. oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 100 -

Trong thc te trng hap dan thng khong ong nhat. V vay noi chung ta khong the chon c mot he quy chieu co trng quan tnh tng ng. Tuy nhien ieu o co the lam c oi vi mot vung nho be cua khong gian, trong o trng hap dan c xem la ong nhat. V du tai mot ia iem nao o cua Trai at (trong th nghiem vi con lac Liubimov) hoac tren mot quy ao nao o (trong th nghiem vi con tau ve tinh). V ly do o nguyen ly tng ng gia trng hap dan va trng quan tnh ch co tnh chat ia phng va ngi ta thng goi no la nguyen ly tng ng nh x.
6.4.3 Ly thuyet tng oi rong CONG CUOC TM KIEM CAC HE QUA TOAN HOC CUA NGUYEN LY TNG NG A DAN EN S RA I CUA MOT HOC THUYET MI: LY THUYET TNG OI RONG. LY THUYET NAY C EINSTEIN PHAT MINH RA NAM 1916 VA CHU YEU DUNG E GIAI THCH CAC HIEN TNG HAP DAN VU TRU. SAU AY LA MOT SO HIEU NG MA LY THUYET TNG OI RONG CO U THE HN HAN SO VI LY THUYET HAP DAN NEWTON: - Hieu ng th nhat la s dch chuyen iem can nhat cua sao Thuy trong trng hap dan cua Mat tri. Nhng quan sat thien van t gia the ky 19 cho thay rang chuyen ong cua cac hanh tinh xung quanh Mat tri khong phai la mot ng elip khep kn hoan hao ma la mot ng elip h. iem can nhat cua quy ao cac hanh tinh luon luon chuyen ong lt ve pha trc, do o truc chnh cua quy ao khong co nh ma co tham gia mot chuyen ong quay. oi vi sao Thuy la sao gan Mat tri nhat, chuyen ong quay nay nhanh hn ca, c 100 nam truc chnh cua no lai quay c mot goc = 43. oi vi cac hanh tinh khac goc quay nay nho hn nhieu. V du, oi vi Trai at goc quay nay la = 3,8. C hoc Newton khong the giai thch c s quay nay mac du a co gang xet en tat ca cac nhieu loan do cac hanh tinh khac gay ra. Ly thuyet hap dan Einstein cho cac ket qua trung vi thc nghiem kha tot: oi vi sao Thuy = 42,6; oi vi Trai at = 4. - Hieu ng th hai la s lech cua anh sang trong trng hap dan cua Mat tri. Theo nguyen ly hap dan Einstein, khong gian xung quanh vat chat b cong i, vat chat cang ln khong gian cang cong nhieu. Tia sang truyen trong khong gian gan vat chat cung b cong theo. Ngay t nam 1915 Einstein a tnh c rang anh sang cua cac ngoi sao rat xa en Trai at khi i qua gan Mat tri b lech i mot goc = 1,75. o lng tien hanh vao nam 1919 va sau o khoang mi lan na vao cac nam sau o a xac nhan ket qua tren. V du, cac so lieu o vao thi ky nhat thc nam 1952 cho ket qua o lech nay la = 1,7. Trong khi o theo c hoc Newton cac tia sang nay phai truyen theo ng thang. - Hieu ng th ba la s dch chuyen o. Noi dung nh sau: cac vach quang pho cua anh sang phat ra t cac ngoi sao nang b dch chuyen ve pha o tc oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 101 -

la ve pha co bc song dai hn so vi cac bc song cua cac nguyen t vat chat phat ra trong ieu kien Trai at. Hieu ng ngay c kiem tra trc tien oi vi sao Thien lang B (sao nay co mat o gap hang chuc nghn lan mat o cua nc va co trng hap dan tren be mat ln gap hai mi lan trng hap dan tren Mat tri) va sau o oi vi nhieu ngoi sao khac. Cac ket qua thu c eu xac nhan cac tnh toan theo ly thuyet hap dan cua Einstein, nh oi vi sao Thien lang B o dch chuyen tng oi cua tan so la

lng cho ket qua la 6,6.10-5. T nam 1959 ngi ta cung a tien hanh cac th nghiem kiem tra hieu ng dch chuyen o ngay trong pham vi phong th nghiem tren Trai at. Cac th nghiem nay mot lan na lai xac nhan ly thuyet hap dan cua Einstein. Ngoai cac hieu ng tren, ly thuyet tng oi suy rong cua Einstein con m au cho mot thi ky mi, thi ky nghien cu s hnh thanh va tien trien cua vu tru mot cach khoa hoc.

= 5,9.10 5

theo tnh toan, trong khi o o

6.5 chuyen ong quay cua Trai at

6.5.1 Gia toc trong trng MOT VAT NG YEN GAN MAT AT CHU TAC DUNG CUA LC HAP HAN HNG VAO TAM CUA TRAI AT VA BANG: r

Trong o k la hang so hap dan, M va m la khoi lng cua Trai at va cua vat, R la ban knh cua Trai at. ai lng:

r Mm R r Fh = k 2 = mg R R

Goi la gia toc hap dan hay cng o cua trng hap dan. Dau tr trc cac cong thc tren chng to rang gia toc va lc hap dan hng vao tam cua Trai at.

r M R r g = k 2 R R
r

r
r Fh

r Fl

r p

Hnh 6.8

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 102 -

ly tam:

Ngoai lc hap dan do Trai at quay, vat con chu tac dung cua lc quan tnh

Trong o la toc o goc cua Trai at, r la khoang cach t vat ti truc quay (hnh 6.8). V trong lng cua mot vat la tong cua cac lc ma Trai at tac dung len vat o, nen: Da vao hnh 6.8 ta co the tnh c ca o ln lan hng cua ai lng nay. Lc quan tnh ly tam cc ai xch ao va giam en khong hai a cc. Goi A la t so gia lc ly tam cc ai F01 va lc hap dan Fh ta c:

r r Fl = m2 r

r r r P = Fh + Fl

(6.48)

Thay cac gia tr: = 2/8,64.104s , R = 6,378.10-6m , k = 6,67.10-11m3/kg.s2 , M = 5,98.1024kg Vao bieu thc tren ta c: A 3,5.10-3 Nh vay lc quan tnh ly tam cc ai bang 0,35% lc hap dan va mot cach gan ung co the bo qua anh hng cua lc nay va xem trong lng cua vat bang chnh lc hap dan tac dung len no. Tuy nhien trong nhieu th nghiem chnh xac, ta khong the bo qua anh hng cua lc quan tnh ly tam nay. at: P = mg (6.50) Trong o: g la gia toc trong trng tai v o , g =

Fol 2 R A= = Fh kM

(6.49)

la goc gia lc hap dan Fh va trong lc P (hnh 6.8) Ket hp cong thc tren vi (6.50) ta c:

1 Fh F cos ; 1 m cos

Mat khac ta co:

1 A cos 2 g = g cos F1 sin A sin 2 = 2 Fh

(6.51)

sin =

(6.52)

Ket hp cong thc tren vi (6.50) va bo qua cac so hang nho bac hai oi vi A ta c:

g = g(1 A cos 2 )

(6.53)

Cac cong thc (6.52) va (6.53) cho ta phng va o ln cua gia toc trong trng phu thuoc vao v o , tai xch ao = 0 gia toc trong trng co gia tr be

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 103 -

nhat g0 978cm/s2. Khi v o tang, gia toc trong trng tang theo. a cc g90 981cm/s2. v o = 450gia toc trong trng co gia tr chuan g45 = 980cm/s2. Tren ay chung ta xem Trai at co dang hnh cau, trong thc te Trai at hi det hai au. Ban knh xch ao Rx = 6378km, trong khi ban knh a cc R = 6357km. V vay ban than lc hap dan cung tang theo v o. Ket qua la gia toc trong trng tang theo quy o nhanh hn theo cong thc (6.53). a cc gia toc nay la g 0 = 983cm/s2 .
90

GIA TR CUA GIA TOC TRONG TRNG NOI TREN LA GIA TR TRUNG BNH. TRONG THC TE DO CAU TAO KHONG ONG EU CUA CAC LP AT A TRONG VO TRAI AT NEN GIA TOC TRONG TRNG CHU NHNG THANG GIANG CO TNH CHAT A PHNG. S THANG GIANG NAY C XEM LA CAC SO LIEU QUAN TRONG E ON NHAN VE CAU TAO CAC LP AT A TAI A PHNG AY. Ngoai chuyen ong quay ngay em, Trai at con tham gia chuyen ong quay quanh Mat tri, lc quan tnh ly tam do chuyen ong nay gay ra vao khoang 0,2 lan lc quan tnh ly tam do chuyen ong quay ngay em tao ra va tai moi a phng lc quan tnh nay thay oi hng so vi lc hap dan tuy theo gi trong ngay. V vay nhng phep o g vi o chnh xac cao can lu y en s thay oi nay cua g. 6.5.2 Lc Coriolit BEN CANH LC QUAN TNH LY TAM, TRONG HE QUY CHIEU TRAI AT QUAY CON CO LC CORIOLIT, LC NAY TAC DUNG LEN CAC VAT THE CHUYEN ONG TNG OI SO VI TRAI AT. r e nghien cu lc Coriolit chung ta phan tch van toc goc cua Trai at r va van toc cua vat the chuyen ong v ra cac thanh phan phap tuyen va tiep tuyen vi mat at (hnh 6.9). r r r r r v = n + t ; v = vn + vt (6.54)

Thay (6.54) vao bieu thc cua lc Coriolit:

luon hng ve pha ben phai, con Nam ban cau lc nay luon hng ve pha ben trai. V ly do o nen cac dong song Bac ban cau lam l mon b phai, con cac dong song Nam ban cau lam l mon b trai. Hien tng mon vet cac ng ray xe la mot chieu va s lech i cua cac dong nc bien (hai lu) cung c giai
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

r r 0 ta c: r r r r r r r Fc = 2m[n v t ] 2m[t v n ] 2m[t v t ] r r Thanh phan th nhat cua lc Coriolit: 2m[n v t ] co phng tiep r tuyen vi mat at. Neu nhn theo phng cua toc o v t th Bac ban cau, lc nay
Va chu y rang [ v] =

r r r Fc = 2m[n v n ]

C hoc

- 104 -

thch tng t. Chieu cua gio mua cung do thanh phan

Coriolit tac ong. Vung xch ao b ot nong, khong kh nong boc len cac lp cao cua kh quyen va i ve pha cac a cc. B lanh tang cao no i xuong khoang cac v o 250 300, roi lai t o thoi ve xch ao. Bac ban cau, di tac dung cua lc nay luong gio b lech ve pha tay va nh vay thoi t ong bac lai. Tng t r Nam ban cau co gio ong nam.

r r 2m[n v t ]

cua lc

r t
600

r n

Hnh 6.9
Thanh phan th hai cua lc Coriolit:

phng nam ngang. Neu vat chuyen ong len cao th lc nay hng ve pha tay, con neu vat ri xuong mat at th lc nay hng ve pha ong. V vay nhng vat the ri t do eu lech ve hng ong. Khi vat ri t o cao 100m v o 600 th lech khoang 1cm. r r Thanh phan thc ba cua lc Coriolit: 2m[t v t ] hng theo phng thang ng, co chieu t tren xuong hoac t di len tuy thuoc vao chieu cua t va vt. Lc nay can chu y en khi nghien cu cac vat the chuyen ong vi khoang cach xa, v du nh chuyen ong cua ten la mat at. Cuoi cung lc Coriolit con lien quan en chuyen ong cua con lac Fuco, bang chng ve s quay cua Trai at.
6.5.3 Con lac Fuco TH NGHIEM CON LAC FUCO C THC HIEN LAN AU VAO NAM 1851 TAI PARI E CHNG MINH S T QUAY CUA TRAI AT. THIET B GOM MOT VAT NANG 28KG TREO AU MOT SI DAY DAI 70M. AU TREN SI DAY C TREO SAO CHO CON LAC CO THE DAO ONG T DO THEO PHNG BAT KY. Theo doi s dao ong t do cua con lac trong mot thi gian dai ngi ta nhan thay phng cua con lac quay theo chieu kim ong ho va quay c mot vong sau 32 gi. S quay mat phang dao ong cua con lac c giai thch nh sau:

r r 2m[t vn ]

cung hng theo

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 105 -

Gia thiet th nghiem Fuco c tien hanh bac cc. iem treo con lac nam tren truc quay cua Trai at. Ta xet th nghiem nay trong he quy chieu quan tnh ng vi cac ngoi sao ng yen. Trong he quy chieu quan tnh nay mat phang dao ong cua con lac la khong oi, con Trai at quay t tay sang ong vi chu ky quay la T=24gi. Neu bay gi ta lai xet th nghiem trong he quy chieu Trai at, coi Trai at la ng yen th ro rang mat phang dao ong cua con lac quay so vi Trai at t ong sang tay vi chu ky T=24gi. Trong he quy chieu Trai at, s quay mat phang dao ong cua con lac c giai thch la do tac dung cua lc Coriolit. Ro rang lc nay phai hng theo phng nam ngang, va v toc o cua con lac cung hng theo phng nam ngang (do day treo dai va dao ong vi bien o nho) nen theo muc tren ta co lc tac dung len con lac la:

r r r r r F = 2m[n v t ] = 2m[n v ]

Lc nay Bac cc lam mat phang dao ong cua con lac quay vi toc o goc n = va do o chu ky quay la 24 gi. Neu th nghiem c tien hanh v o th lc tren lam mat phang dao ong cua con lac quay vi toc o n = sin (hnh 6.9) ng vi chu ky quay la

T=

gi phu hp vi thc nghiem. Mac du vi toc o goc va chu ky quay nh a xac nh, quy ao chuyen ong cua con lac Fuco co the khac nhau phu thuoc vao trang thai ban au cua no. Tuy theo cac trang thai ban au ma con lac co the co nhng quy ao khac nhau (hnh 6.10a, b). S khac nhau o c giai thch nh sau:

24 gi. Pari co v o = 48051 nen T 32 sin

a)

Hnh 6.10

b)

Neu con lac c a ra khoi v tr can bang va buong ra vi toc o ban au bang khong, th no se bat au chuyen ong ve pha v tr can bang. Tuy nhien lc Coriolit lam lech no ve ben phai va do o no khong i qua tam can bang. Ket qua la quy ao con lac co dang nh hnh 6.10a. Neu iem can bang ta truyen cho con lac toc o ban au th khi i ra khoi tam can bang lc Coriolit lam lech no ve ben phai. v tr lech cc ai toc o doc
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 106 -

theo ban knh bang khong nhng toc o vuong goc vi ban knh lai ln nhat. Ket qua la quy ao cua con lac tiep xuc vi vong tron co tam la tam can bang va ban knh la o lech cc ai cua con lac. Khi o quy ao cua con lac c mo ta tren hnh 6.10b.

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 107 -

CHNG VII DAO ONG VA SONG

7.1 Dao ong ieu hoa
7.1.1 Hien tng tuan hoan

Trong t nhien, i song va ky thuat, chung ta thng gap nhieu hien tng lap i lap lai mot cach tuan hoan, sau mot khoang thi gian xac nh, hien tng lap lai nh cu : ngay va em, bon mua Xuan Ha Thu ong lap i lap lai nam nay qua nam khac, kim ong ho quay het mot vong lai quay ve v tr cu v.v T o, ta co the nh ngha : Hien tng tuan hoan la hien tng c Khoang thi gian T nho nhat ma sau o hien tng lap lai nh cu, goi la chu ky cua hien tng tuan hoan. So chu ky trong mot n v thi gian (1 giay) goi la tan so :

sau nhng khoang thi gian xac nh, lap lai ung nh cu.

co n v la Hertz (Hz) hay s-1. Ta goi ai lng bien thien tuan hoan la x, th :

=1 T

(7.1)

Trong o n la so nguyen.
7.1.2 Dao ong ieu hoa

x = f(t) = f (t + nT)

(7.2)

Trong so nhng dao ong tuan hoan th dao ong ieu hoa n gian va rat quan trong.

Dao ong ieu hoa la mot dao ong tuan hoan trong o ai lng x bien thien theo thi gian theo quy luat hnh sin (cosin) :
Trong o : a la bien o cc ai cua dao ong; x la bien o thi iem t; la tan so goc; (t-) la pha cua dao ong. T (7.2) va (7.3) thay oi so t bi t+T , ta suy ra moi lien he :

x = asin(t - )

hay

x = acos(t-) (7.3)

T=

= 2

(7.4) (7.5)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 108 -

Xet mot chat iem M chuyen ong tren ng tron tam O, ban knh a, van toc goc . Xet hnh chieu N cua iem M tren truc Ox ta thay dao ong cua N khi M chuyen ong tren ng tron la mot dao ong ieu hoa. Toa o cua iem N : x = ON = OM.cos = a.cos(t-). Trong o = (t-) la goc hp bi OM va Ox. Tng t, co the thay hnh chieu cua M tren truc Oy cung la mot dao ong

ieu hoa bieu dien bi : y =

a.sin(t-)

7.1.3 Bieu thc toan hoc cua dao ong ieu hoa :

Dao ong ieu hoa c bieu dien bang bieu thc (7.3). Ngoai dang tren, oi khi con c bieu dien di cac dang khac. Di ay la mot vai dang thng gap : at : A = a.cos va B = -a.sin th dao ong ieu hoa co the bieu dien di (7.6) Ngc lai, cho mot dao ong co bieu thc dang (7.6) th bang cach at :
tg = B A

x = a.sin(t-) = a.sint.cos - a.costsin x = A.sint + B.cost

dang :

va a = A + B Ta co the a (7.6) ve dang (7.3) quen thuoc. Trong thc te, e thuan tien cho tnh toan, ngi ta con bieu dien dao ong ieu hoa di dang phc. T cong thc le : e = cos + i.sin Ta thay rang cac ham ieu hoa (7.3) :
i

Chnh la phan thc va phan ao cua ham phc : Ta con co the bieu dien (7.7) di dang :

x1 = a.cos(t-) va x2 = a.sin(t-) x = a.ei(t-)

-i

(7.7)

x = C.eit

Trong o C = a.e bien o phc. Bieu dien dao ong ieu hoa di dang bien o phc (7.8) thuan li khi tnh toan, muon tr ve dang ham thc (7.3) cua dao ong ieu hoa th co the tnh bien o thc a theo bien o phc C bang cach nhan bien o phc C vi lien hp phc C* cua no, ta co :

(7.8) cha ca bien o thc a va pha ban au , c goi la

C.C* = a.e-iae i = a2 a = C.C *

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 109 -

7.1.4 Phng trnh cua dao ong ieu hoa

Gia s ta co chat iem M khoi lng m dao ong theo quy luat : e xac nh phng trnh dao ong M, ta xet : Van toc cua iem M :

x = a.sin(t-)

v=

no chuyen ong :

dv = && = a2 sin(t ) = 2 x x dt r Theo phng trnh c ban cua ong lc hoc, lc F tac dung vao M lam cho a=

Gia toc cua iem M :

dx & = x = a cos(t ) dt

r r r F = m = m 2 x

Phng trnh nay chng to lc tac dung t le vi o lech x cua dao ong r va hng ngc chieu vi x tc la luon luon hng ve v tr can bang cua dao ong. Phng trnh dao ong (7.9) con c bieu dien di dang : F + kx = 0 (7.10) Hay : m&& + kx = 0 x Trong o k = +m (k>0) (7.10) chnh la phng trnh dao ong ieu hoa di dang tong quat. Nghiem cua (7.10) co dang :
2

r F

x = asin(t - )

(hoac x

= acos(t - ));

Trong o tan so goc

Vi a, la cac hang so xac nh t cac ieu kien ban au.

7.1.5 Nang lng cua dao ong ieu hoa

k m

Chat iem M dao ong quanh iem 0 co c nang nhat nh gom tong ong nang W va the nang Wt tai thi iem t ang xet. Gia s chat iem dao ong theo quy luat : Se co ong nang :

x = asin(t - )

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc
.

- 110 -

Theo nh ngha, o giam the nang cua M, khi M dch chuyen t 0 en v tr x, bang cong cua lc tac dung len M tren oan ng ay, tc :

1 1 1 & W = mv 2 = m x 2 = ma 2 2 cos 2 (t ) 2 2 2
x x

x2 Wt (0) Wt ( x) = Fdx = m xdx = m 2 0 0

2 2

Quy c chon the nang v tr can bang 0 bang khong, tc Wt(0)=0. Vay :

x2 1 Wt (x) = Wt (0) + m = Wt (0) + kx 2 2 2

2

C nang cua chat iem M la :

x2 1 Wt (x) = m = ma 2 2 sin 2 (t ) 2 2
2

1 1 ma 2 2 cos 2 (t ) + ma 2 2 sin 2 (t ) 2 2 1 1 W = ma 2 2 = ka 2 2 2

W = W + Wt =

Vay : Nang lng dao ong cua mot chat iem t le vi bnh phng

bien o cc ai.

Ta qui c goi c nang cua chat iem dao ong la nang lng dao ong va tha nhan rang nang lng cua moi dao ong ieu hoa t le vi bnh phng bien o cc ai.

7.2 V du ap dung
7.2.1 Dao ong cua mot qua nang treo au mot lo xo

Gia s co mot lo xo, mot au c co nh con au kia treo mot qua nang khoi lng m (hnh 7.1). Goi lo la chieu dai cua lo xo khi khong b bien dang va l la chieu dai cua no khi bien dang (b nen hoac keo). Khi lo xo bien dang th xuat r hien lc an hoi F co xu hng keo no ve v tr can bang (khong bien dang). r Neu o bien dang x = l lo nho th lc an hoi F t le vi o bien dang x, tc la : r r F = kx (nh luat Hooke) k goi la he so an hoi. Khi o phng trnh chuyen ong cua vat se la : m&& = kx x (7.12)

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 111 -

Can chu y rang khi dan ra phng trnh tren chung ta cha ke en tac dung cua trong lc cua vat. Tuy nhien co the thay rang trong lc khong lam thay oi dang cua phng trnh dao ong (7.12). That vay, neu ta ky hieu X la o gian cua lo xo, tc la X = l lo th khi o phng trnh chuyen ong cua he (gom lo xo va qua nang) la :

Hnh 7.1
Goi Xo la o gian cua lo xo v tr can bang (tc la o dai cua lo xo khi treo qua nang m) th khi o ta co : Hay mg = kX0 thay gia tr nay cua mg vao phng trnh chuyen ong cua he ta co phng trnh : Neu ta a vao ky hieu x = X Xo th phng trnh chuyen ong cua he lai tr ve dang (7.12). Tr lai phng trnh (7.12), neu ta at

-kX0 + mg = 0

&& mX = k ( X X 0 )

k = m 2 th (7.12) tr thanh :

Nghiem cua (7.13) nh a biet co dang (7.3). Vay qua nang treo au lo xo se thc hien mot dao ong ieu hoa : Trong o tan so goc

&& 2 x = 0 x

x = a.sin(t-)
= k m

xac nh bi bieu thc :

Con chu ky cua dao ong theo (7.4) :

T=
au.

Bien o cc ai a va pha ban au

2 m = 2 k

c xac nh t nhng ieu kien ban

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 112 -

7.2.2 Con lac vat ly

Con lac vat ly la mot vat ran co the dao ong quanh mot truc nam ngang co nh, di tac dung cua trong lc (hnh 7.2).

O y
d

x G

r p
z

d O

Hnh 7.2

Goi O la truc dao ong cua con lac, G la khoi tam cua no, P = mg la trong lng con lac, d la khoang cach t khoi tam en truc quay O, I la momen quan tnh cua con lac oi vi truc quay, la goc lech cua con lac so vi phng thang ng. Con lac chu tac dung cua hai lc : trong lng P = mg at tai trong tam G va phan lc R cua truc quay. Momen cua R oi vi O triet tieu (v R i qua O), con momen cua trong lc

r P

oi vi O la : mgdsin .

Phng trnh chuyen ong cua con lac la :

d 2 I = 2 = mgd sin dt
Neu dao ong co bien o nho ( nho) th ta co the thay sin bang va phng trnh chuyen ong tr thanh :

I&& = mgd
Hay :

&& + mgd = 0 I

Phng trnh nay co dang hoan toan giong (7.13), do o co the thay ngay nghiem cua no co dang :

=0sin(t+ )
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 113 -

Trong o tan so goc dao ong :

mgd I

(7.14)

0 va la hai hang so xac nh t ieu kien ban au. Chu ky cua dao
ong :

T=

2 I = 2 mgd

(7.15)

Neu chu ky dao ong cua con lac khong phu thuoc vao bien o th dao ong o c goi la ang thi. Chung ta thay rang vi goc lech c vai o th dao ong cua con lac vat ly la ang thi. Da tren tnh chat nay ngi ta co the dung con lac vat ly lam ong ho. Trng hp rieng cua con lac vat ly la con lac toan hoc hay goi la con lac n. Con lac toan hoc la con lac ma toan bo khoi lng cua no tap trung tai mot iem o la khoi tam G cua con lac. Trong thc te, con lac toan hoc la mot qua cau nho treo au mot si ch chieu dai l. Trong trng hp nay, ta co : d = l , I = ml2. Cong thc (7.15) tr thanh :

T = 2

(7.16)

So sanh (7.15) va (7.16) ta thay con lac vat ly se dao ong nh con lac toan hoc co chieu dai :

l=

I md

(7.17)

l c goi la chieu dai rut gon cua con lac vat ly.

Tren ng OG (hnh 7.2) ta lay mot iem O sao cho OO = l la chieu dai rut gon cua con lac vat ly. iem O c goi la tam dao ong cua con lac vat ly. o la iem ma phai tap trung toan bo khoi lng cua con lac e cho chu ky dao ong cua no khong thay oi. Theo nh ly Huyghen- Stene ta co :

I = IG + md2
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 114 -

Trong o IG la mo men quan tnh cua con lac oi vi truc i qua khoi tam G cua no. Thay bieu thc cua I vao (7.17) ta co :

l= d +

IG md

(7.18)

T (7.18) ta co the rut ra hai he qua. Th nhat la l>d, do o hai iem 0 va 0 phai nam ve hai pha oi vi tam G. Th hai co the treo con lac tai cac iem khac nhau ma chu ky dao ong cua con lac khong thay oi mien sao cac iem treo nay phai cach eu khoi tam G cua con lac. iem treo 0 va tam dao ong 0 la cac iem lien hp theo y ngha sau : neu treo con lac iem 0 th chu ky dao ong cua no van gi nguyen va iem treo ban au 0 bay gi se tr thanh tam dao ong. o la noi dung cua nh ly Huyghen. e chng minh nh ly nay, ta treo con lac iem 0. Goi khoang cach 0G = d. Khi o o dai rut gon cua con lac theo (7.18) se la :

l = d '+

IG md ' IG md

Nhng theo hnh ve ta co d= l-d va ket hp vi (7.18) ta suy ra :

d = l d =

Thay bieu thc nay vao bieu thc l, ta thu c :

l =

IG +d md

So sanh vi(7.18) ta co l=l, ngha la chu ky dao ong cua con lac gi nguyen khong oi nh khi treo no tai iem 0.

7.3 Tong hp dao ong

Mot vat ong thi co the tham gia vao nhieu dao ong khac nhau, chang han mot vat nang treo vao ba iem co nh bang ba lo xo ong se co dao ong ieu hoa bang tong hp cua ba dao ong do ba lo xo rieng biet gay ra. Van e at ra ay la dao ong tong hp se nh the nao neu biet cac dao ong thanh phan.

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 115 -

7.3.1 Nguyen ly chong chat

e nghien cu s tong hp cac dao ong, ta bieu dien dao ong bang mot vect, goc la chat iem dao ong, moun bang bien o cc ai cua dao ong, phng cua vect la phng dao ong va chieu cua vect ng vi bien o cc ai dng. Trong trng hp cac dao ong thanh phan la nho ta tha nhan dao ong tong hp tuan theo mot nguyen ly sau goi la nguyen ly chong chat.

tong hnh hoc cua cac vect tren, ngha la :

r r r v1 , v 2 ,..., v n th chat iem se co mot dao ong tong hp bieu dien bi mot vect la r r r r v = v1 + v 2 + ... + v n
(7.19)

Neu mot chat iem tham gia vao nhieu dao ong bieu dien bi cac vect

Noi cach khac viec tong hp dao ong phai thc hien theo nguyen ly cong r vect. Phep cong vect se thu ve phep cong ai so khi cac vect v co cung phng hoac khi ai lng bien thien trong dao ong ieu hoa la mot lng vo hng (v du ap suat chat kh trong dao ong am thanh).
7.3.2 Tong hp hai dao ong cung phng va cung chu ky

Ta xet trng hp hai dao ong v1 va v2 co cung phng va cung tan so (hoac cung chu ky T), khi o phep cong vect thu ve phep cong ai so. Gia s hai dao ong thanh phan la :

x1 = a1cos(t-1) x2 = a2cos(t-2)
Dao ong tong hp se la :

x = x1 + x2 = a1cos(t-1) + a2cos(t-2) = a1costcos1 + a1sintsin1 + a2costcos2 + a2sintsin2 = (a1cos1 + a2cos2)cost + (a1sin1 + a2sin2)sint
Bieu thc nay co dang :

x = Acost + Bsint
oan Trong Th

(7.20)

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 116 -

Trong o :

A = a1cos1 + a2cos2 ;

B = a1sin1 + a2sin2

Bieu thc (7.20) chng to rang dao ong tong hp cung la mot dao ong ieu hoa vi tan so nh tan so dao ong thanh phan, ngha la :

x = acos(t-)
Trong o bien o cc ai a va goc lech pha ban au Xac nh c theo cac bieu thc sau :

a2 = A2 + B2 = (a1cos1 + a2cos2)2 + (a1sin1 + a2sin2)2

2 = a1 (cos 2 1 + sin 2 1 ) + a 2 (cos 2 2 + sin 2 2 ) 2

+ 2a1 a 2 cos 1 cos 2 + 2a1 a 2 sin 1 sin 2

2 a 2 = a 1 + a 2 + 2a 1 a 2 cos( 2 1 ) 2

(7.21) (7.22)

Va : tg =

B a1 sin 1 + a 2 sin 2 = A a1 cos 1 + a 2 cos 2

Ta cung co the thu c cac ket qua tren bang phng phap o th (phng phap Frenen). Ta ve hai vect OV1 va OV2 co moun bang a1 va a2 va lam vi truc Ox nhng goc (t-1) va (t-2) (hnh 7-3). Hai vect OV1 va OV2 cung quay quanh O vi van toc goc , do o goc gia chung khong thay oi theo thi gian. Noi cach khac hnh bnh hanh OV1VV2 cung quay quanh O vi van toc goc la co ngha la OV cung quay quanh O vi van toc goc la : dao ong tong hp cung co tan so nh cac dao ong thanh phan. Bien o cua dao ong tong hp co the tnh c theo cac cong thc lng giac ap dung cho tam giac OV2V :
2 a2 = OV 2 = OV12 + OV2 + 2OV1OV2 cos(V1 , V2 ) 2 = a1 + a2 + 2a1a2 cos[(t 1 ) (t 2 ) 2 2 = a1 + a2 + 2a1a2 cos(1 2 ) 2

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 117 -

Ta lai thu c cong thc (7.21). Muon tnh goc lech pha ban au cua dao ong tong hp ta xet v tr cua ba vect OV1 , OV2 va OV thi iem t = 0 ( xem hnh 7.4)

Tai thi iem t = 0, cac vect OV1 , OV2 va OV tao vi truc 0x cac goc lan lt la -1 , -2 va - . T hnh ve ta thay ngay :

tg =

a1 sin 1 + a2 sin 2 a1 cos 1 + a2 cos 2

Ta lai thu c (7.22). Tom lai bang phng phap o th chung ta lai tm c de dang va trc quan hn cac ket qua tren. Chnh v vay phng phap o th thng c ng dung khi to hp nhieu dao ong cung chu ky va cung phng. Tr lai (7.21), ta thay bien o cua dao ong tong hp khong nhng phu thuoc vao bien o cc ai cua cac dao ong thanh phan ma con phu thuoc vao pha ban au cua chung. - Khi 2 - 1 =2n, ta noi hai dao ong thanh phan cung pha. Khi o bien o cc ai cua hai dao ong tong hp at gia tr cc ai va bang :

a = a1 + a2
- khi 2 - 1 =(2n+1), ta noi hai dao ong thanh phan ngc pha. Khi o bien o cc ai cua hai dao ong tong hp at gia tr cc tieu va bang :

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 118 -

a = a1 a2
- khi 2 - 1 =(2n+1)/2, ta noi hai dao ong thanh phan co pha vuong goc vi nhau. Khi o bien o dao ong tong hp :
2 a = a1 + a2 2

Tom lai tuy theo hieu so pha ban au cua cac dao ong thanh phan ma bien o dao ong tong hp nhan cac gia tr nam trong khoang a1 a 2 en (a1 + a2).

7.4 Tong hp hai dao ong co chu ky khac nhau chut t Hien tng phach
Ta xet trng hp chat iem tham gia hai hoat ong cung phng, nhng co cac tan so 1 , 2 khac nhau chut t :

x1 = a1cos(1t + 1) x2 = a2cos(2t + 2)
Trong o

= 1 - 2 << 12

Dao ong tong hp :

x = x1 + x2 = a1 cos(1t 1 ) + a2 cos(2 t 2 ) = a1[cos(1t 1 ) + cos(2 t 2 )] + (a2 a1 ) cos(2 t 2 ) + 2 + 2 2 t 1 2 cos 1 t 1 = 2a1 cos 1 2 2 2 2 + (a2 a1 ) cos(2 t 2 ) = 2a1 cos( t ) cos(t ) + (a2 a1 ) cos(2 t 2 ) 2 2
Trong o = 1 2 , (7.23)

1 + 2 1 + 2 va = 2 2

Bieu thc (7.23) chng to rang dao ong tong hp gom hai dao ong. Dao ong th nhat bieu dien bi so hang au ve phai cua(7.23) khong phai la dao ong ieu hoa v no la tch cua hai dao ong ieu hoa co tan so la /2 va . Tuy nhien do 1 va 2 khac nhau rat t nen rat gan 1 va 2 va ong thi /2 rat nho so vi 1 , 2 nen dao ong th nhat nay co the xem nh mot dao ong gan
oan Trong Th Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 119 -

ieu hoa vi tan so rat gan vi 1 hoac 2 va co bien o la

2a1 cos t thay oi rat cham theo thi gian. So hang th hai cua (7.23) 2 2

bieu dien mot dao ong ieu hoa tan so 2. Hnh (7.5) bieu dien s thay oi theo thi gian cua so hang th hai cua (7.23). No la dao ong vi tan so nhng co bien o bien thien mot cach tuan hoan theo thi gian vi tan so /2<<.
Hien tng bien o cc ai cua dao ong bien thien mot cach tuan hoan theo thi gian vi chu ky ln hn nhieu so vi chu ky cua dao ong goi la hien tng phach.

t
Hnh 7.5

So hang th nhat cua (7.23) bieu dien hien tng phach thuan tuy con (7.23) bieu dien phach noi chung (thong thng). at biet khi hai dao ong x1 va x2 co bien o bang nhau (a1 = a2 ) th so hang th hai cua (7.23) triet tieu va ta co phach thuan tuy. Tr lai vi hien tng phach thong thng bieu dien bi (7.23). Ta thay dao ong tong hp x cung co the viet di dang khac :

x = (a1 a 2)cos(1t - 1) + a2cos(2t - 2) + a2cos(1t - 1)

+ 2 2 1 + 2 2 x = 2a 2 cos 1 t 1 t 1 cos 2 2 2 2 + (a1 a 2 ) cos(1 t 1 )

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 120 -

Cong (7.23) va (7.24) vi nhau roi chia cho 2 ta c :

2 1 + 2 + 2 2 x = (a1 + a2 ) cos 1 t 1 t 1 cos 2 2 2 2 1 + (a1 a2 )[cos( 1t 1 ) cos(2 t 2 )] 2 t cos(t ) + (a2 a1 ) sin t sin(t ) = (a1 + a2 ) cos 2 2 2 2
Nh a biet, ro rang dao ong tong hp khong phai la mot dao ong ieu hoa. Tuy nhien theo gia thiet do rat nho so vi , th khi o trong mot khoang thi gian rat nho chng vai chu ky T =

do vay ta thay dao ong tong hp x cung co dang :

2 t ta co the coi la khong thay oi va 2 2

x = A sin(t ) + Bcos(t )
Trong o :

A = (a 2 a1 ) sin t 2 2 B = (a1 + a 2 ) cos t 2 2

Bien o cc ai cua dao ong tong hp :

a = A 2 + B2 hay la a2 = A2 + B2
2 a2 = a1 sin2 t + a2 sin2 t 2a1a2 sin2 t 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 + a1 cos2 t + a2 cos2 t + 2a1a2 cos2 t (7.26) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 = a1 + a2 + 2a1a2 cos( t ) 2

Hai bieu thc (7.25) va (7.26) cho thay rang dao ong tong hp la mot dao ong gan ieu hoa vi tan so goc :

1 + 2 2

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 121 -

Va co bien o cc ai a bien thien tuan hoan theo thi gian vi tan so goc = 1 - 2 , gia hai tr so cc ai (a1 + a2) va cc tieu (a1 - a2). Chu ky bien thien cua bien o a la :

= =

2 2 = 1 2 2 TT = 1 2 2 2 T2 T1 T1 T2
(7.27)

V T1 va T2 khac nhau rat t nen ln hn T1, T2 rat nhieu : bien o cc ai cua dao ong tong hp bien thien rat cham theo thi gian. ng bieu dien dao ong tong hp trong hien tng phach thong thng c trnh bay tren hnh (7.6). x

Hnh 7.6
Tren hnh ve cac dao ong thanh phan co tan so :
1 = 1 = 13Hz , 2 = 2 = 11Hz 2 2

Dao ong tong hp co tan so : 1 1 = = (1 + 2 ) = 12 Hz 2 2 2 Va phach co tan so : 2 = 2 Hz . = 1 2

Hien tng phach c ng dung rong rai trong ky thuat vo tuyen ien. No la c s cua phng phap oi oi tan.

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 122 -

7.5 Tong hp hai dao ong co phng vuong goc

7.5.1 Tong hp hai dao ong co phng vuong goc va cung tan so

Trong trng hp nay ta chon 0 la goc toa o va hng cac truc Ox, Oy theo phng cac vect

r r V1 , V2

la cac vect bieu dien cac dao ong thanh phan.

e thuan tien, ta co the chon goc thi gian sao cho goc lech pha ban au 1 cua dao ong th nhat bang khong, con goc lech pha ban au cua dao ong th hai la . Khi o cac dao ong thanh phan se la :

x = acost ; y = bcos(t - )
He phng trnh (7.28) chnh la phng trnh qu ao cua dao ong tong hp cho di dang tham so. e a ve dang thong thng, ta phai kh t trong hai phng trnh tren. Muon vay, ta bien oi cac phng trnh cua (7.28) ve dang :

x y = cos t , = costcos + sintsin tiep tuc bien oi : a b

x a sin = cos t sin y x cos = sin t sin b a

c : Bnh phng hai ve cua hai phng trnh tren roi cong chung lai tng ve, ta

x2 x2 y2 xy 2 2 sin + 2 cos + 2 2 cos = sin 2 ab a2 a b x2 y2 xy Hay : 2 + 2 2 cos = sin 2 ab a b

(7.29)

ay la phng trnh cua mot elipse tam 0, noi tiep trong mot hnh ch nhat ma hai canh la 2a va 2b (hnh 7.7e,g)
Vay qu ao cua dao ong tong hp V la mot hnh elipse va do o dao ong tong hp goi la dao ong elipse

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 123 -

Hnh dang cua elipse phu thuoc vao hieu so pha cua hai dao ong thanh phan. Ta xet cac trng hp rieng : a) = 2n (n la so nguyen dng hoac am). Khi o =0 va cos =1 va (7.29) tr thanh :

x y =0 a b
Hay la :

x y =0 a b a2 + b2 .

Hnh elipse suy bien thanh ng cheo th nhat cua hnh ch nhat (hnh 7.10a) va dao ong tong hp la dao ong thang co bien o :

b) = (2n+1). Khi o sin = 0 va cos = -1, phng trnh (7.29) tr thanh

x y + =0 a b
Hay la :

x y + =0 a b

Dao ong tong hp cung la mot dao ong thang cung co bien o

a 2 + b 2 , nhng hng theo ng cheo th 2 cua hnh ch nhat (hnh 7.7b).

Cac ket qua tren c tom tat hnh (7.7). y b y y y

-a

a x

a)
= 2k oan Trong Th

b)
= (2k+1)

c)
= k + /2

d)
= k + /2 Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

- 124 -

ab y y

a=b

hoac

bat ky bat ky 2 c) = (2n+1)/2. Khi o sin =1 va cos = 0, phng trnh (7.20) tr thanh:

Dao ong tong hp la mot elip co 2 truc song song vi cac canh cua hnh ch nhat. Neu a = b, elip se bien thanh ng tron (xem hnh 7.7c, d).
7.5.2. Tong hp hai dao ong vuong goc va co tan so khac nhau

x2 y2 + =1 a2 b2

Ta cung chon goc thi gian nh phan tren, tc la 1 = 0 va 2 = . Cac dao ong thanh phan se la: Trong trng hp tong quat , 1 va 2 co gia tr bat ky th quy ao cua chat iem la mot ng cong phc tap, khong khep kn nhng van noi tiep trong hnh ch nhat tam O va cac canh la 2a va 2b. Trng hp rieng, ang chu y co nhieu ng dung trong thc tien la trng hp t so 1/2 la nhng phan so n gian (ngha la t va mau so eu la nhng so nguyen nho hn 10). Li-xa-ju a khao sat trng hp nay va neu ra mot so ket luan tong quat sau ay:

x = acos1t

y = bcos(2t - )

2 1 = 1 2

2 1 = 1 3

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

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2 2 = 1 3

a) Khi t so 1/2 la mot so n gian, th quy ao cua chat iem la mot ng cong kn, co nhieu mui (mui la iem tiep xuc cua ng quy ao chat iem va 2 canh cua hnh ch nhat). T so so mui tren 2 canh song song vi truc Ox va Oy ung bang t so 2 tan so goc, tc la 1/2. b) Dang cua ng cong phu thuoc ro vao so pha . Khi = /2 ng cong nhan iem O lam tam oi xng. Khi = n th hai na ng cong nhap lam mot. Tren hnh (7.8) ve mot so ng cong ng vi mot vao gia tr cua 1/2 va . Nhng ng cong o goi la nhng ng Li-xa-ju. Hnh elip thu c khi 1=2 cung la mot ng Li-xa-ju ac biet. Ta co the quan sat c cac ng Li-xa-ju tren man hnh quang cua mot may hien song. Da tren hnh dang cua ng Li-xa-ju ta de dang xac nh c 1 trong 2 tan so 1 ,2 khi biet tan so kia va xac nh c hieu so cua 2 dao ong.

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly

C hoc

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TAI LIEU THAM KHAO

1- Lng Duyen Bnh, duc, 1998.

Vat ly ai cng.

Nha xuat ban giao

2- M. Alonso & E. J. Finn, Fundamental University Physics, Addition-wesley, Publishing company, 1973 3- I. V. Savelyev, Publishes Moscow, 1980 Physics a general course, Mir Giao trnh Thien Xerox

4- Pham Viet Trinh Nguyen nh Noan, Van, Nha xuat ban giao duc, 1986 5- K. W. Ford, Corporation, 1972

Classical and modern Physics,

6- C hoc Nguyen Hu Mnh Nxb giao duc, 1998 7- C hoc Nguyen Hu Xy Trng Quang Ngha Nguyen Van Thoa Nxb H va THCN, 1985 8- Vat ly ai cng Ngo Phu An, Lng Duyen Bnh, o Khac Chung, Le Van Ngha Nxb H va THCN , 1978 9- Giao trnh vat ly ai cng A1 Nguyen Hu Thang, oan Trong Th ai hoc a Lat, 1998

oan Trong Th

Khoa Vat Ly