Et Text Book - Rajput

eel ieal ehnolo J
(F , G.J.U. and K.U., Haryana)
~I
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""'" ~ Nprod..-J, .to,..d ill 01' ItUn$mitkd In. Oil,. fhrm <Il' by 4Il]I ",......, .kM:01!U:, m~. ruordl"ll or ~rwitlt UliIMId 1M priD~ wnlten permi¥loll
rtclNrnU O'~ pMtocopyins. of liae publl$hu:
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Ra. 195.00 O~,..
Fim Edition : 2O().l IUprint : 2006
~:
IacU.
• BaDpJ ...... (P1kIM: OBO-266115 61) • ChomDal (Ph"".,. : 0«.24 34 "7 26) • Cochiu (P~ : 0484-,239 7(04) • Gtttnlhatl (Pho".,.. : 0361·254 36 69. 251 38 81) • 1I)odenbd. (J'hoM : 040-24 15 02 "7) • J.taDdhar City (J'ho1!t : 0181·222 12 72) • Kolkata (Phon-Q : 113S·22 27 37 73, 22 21 ~2,'7) • Luc:lmow (J'~ : 01122·220 915 18)' • Mambal U'ho1!t. : 1122-24 91 114 15, 24 92 78 69) • RImcld. U'~ : 0661·230 77 64) BET'-0622-195-ELECTRICAL Typact <II : Gonnoml ~Ion, TECHNOLOGY
DeDd. (HR)
USA
• Bo.tou 11. Leavitt Stnlet, Hlnaham. MA 112043. USA !'hom; 781·74Q...«87
C-lSllMlOMO Prinud <II : /II..".. 0IIie1 PrMo. Ne. DeIhL
Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"
CONTENTS
Chapun
n e erocHl'm
AND NETWORK ANA,I,ysIS
ld7_
L
2.
1!leIin;tioQ'
it
d.
KJrrhbafft., J awe
] I' mitflti
of importru>t, T.........
iii
1
1 2.
OIl
pi Ohm!g l.aw
Appli."tl<ms of K;tcliholl"a Laws 41 'Bra 11 ch-a. runt metbod 4.2. Mnxw~ll'.loop (or mesh) ClIJTIlQI method 4.3, Nod.l voltaire methlld Solving Eq""tiOI!8 by DetcnnllUU1I:a-CI'!WIOr'. RuJc Superpc.!tiOQ Theorem
ThryfU'!in~§
Thoorem
Nort.il@TbetJrem
'Maxim om ,Pp.wgr Transfer 'Theon ro Deltn Star 'Trnnsforrustion, Compen"atiOn Thowram RocipfOcity Theorem
Mj!lmDn~fi
Theorem
HighIilliUo 041",11"" TYpe QIUlBlion. Thggrytirni QuestWIIS Un.olved Kramp/.s A.C.
CIRCUITS
nnd Cm-r"ntg
~
4II !III
Intrnduotion to Aioomating Cunent G~n"rIltion Bad Equations of Altomntlng Vol•• Alternating Volt.a.Reand Curront, Sinsi9·phnse Ciroults 4. L through P"'" ohmic re&stanCl! alone 4.2. A.C. 'thn>u$ pun> induct&> ... iii""" 4.3. A.C. through pure capacltaru:e """'" 4.4. PhwlOT "-'Il"hrn 4-lj- A C. ieiies dm,i115 4.6. ,A. . parallel cil'OUits C 'l'IllnlIiJmt!I 5,1. General ",.peota 52 0 C tmnairmts rj 3, A, C tml1si(mt's Highlinhls o.bi~ti vll' T7pe QlJ.eSUOM Thwrot'.,d Q .... lwns Un.oIo«l &:umpl ••
III
54 M Ii5 61
'''''c.
sa
ill J.lfi 117 116 121 l2.2
za sa
12& ill
Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia
(x;
) p.- es
3..
THREE. PHASE A C NETWORK Intmd ""'"jan Advo ""tagOS of Polypha •• SVsUlms G."".ation ofTh"' ....phu •• ,Vnllage. Phruu. Seque • .., nod Numbering' of Phllse.
In ....r-ronn i'diaD QrThlTn Pha see
~
l2!I
1.
~
a.
5....
2.
ua
ill lliZ
J.:l2 ill
Lall
a.
~
6. 7..
Stnr or Wro tV) CoanocUon DfIl'ta. iAl flt 'MftSh C.t:Innmicro Comp!lri""o bel .... "" Star and Doll4 System. M~tlSurall'lant of Power in 3-pha..sa circuit
9] 9
9
lill
liB
Tb rp.e:wattrruu,ers
One-wsttmfifpr
mpJ hod
10. Mca!luJ'pmgntorRcaeti,,~ Valt AmMJ'es 1L 'l'ypos .rEnern MOl ... 11 1 Malar m Men
'2 MOTor-driyen 'm r I M'!=Wf] tt~b DU'Lmeter 11.3. Induct) on 'type w3 tt--hour In ~tf:r 11.4. Indu<:l;inn,typo .ingl.".ph.s. onemy ",ow", P",,'er ,FaeUlr improvement Earthing and" Ground;" g 13.1" General a.peel, 13.2. Ohio.'" of e"rthing 13.3, Specific.lion.required [0," earthing •• po:r" LS J_ 13.4, Method, nf e.rthing 13.(;", S~ .f earth ""1"(1 nod IIorlh plow fo, dam"",,, and mut.er in ita IJ 0 tiPDS 13.6. lndi "" electricity 'rules 13.1. NCMllrome.t .(coxEh rooistanco by earth tcstar 111.a. Earthing of a .. wor ..... \Om HiglJightB
]J
Twa-wnttmalii m methnd
m
l!II
WI 155 l!ili
!Jill
en ad
l.OO
lfi!!
lJll Ifil.
1M
l2.
13.
iez 1fi1 lllB iaa iaa III III ill U5 116 l7Ji iza
l8D l.M",,2Sll
Objedi"" 7)11"' T~Q"".<tioJu

4. TRANSFORMERS
Q"".'i"".
Uf!_.<dved Emmpk.
a
~
1. 2..
!l. .5..
O."".al Alloo<ts B:u;i e De6nj tinn;;; Working PrinelDI. Dfn Tran.;j"ormu Trnn.formcr Rntiogn Kjnds n(TmneJmrmers
Trn nafQmJcr CQJJ :;tntctiQn
1M
lll5
1M ias
iaa llI1
IJI1
1.
C." ... tYlle transformer Sholl 'ype lran.fonner Spiral tronsformer Trn a.formor WindingS, Terminal>;, Toppings" and aushi ag" 7.1. Tra!l5fbrmer windi DgS 12 'T,onn;no hii 0 Del IC!ld" 7.3. Tappi Pgs 1.4. B...rungs
6.1. 6.2. ,6.3,
""'0
188 100 100

L!!Q
W lJl2 L!l2
Urheberrec htlich gcsc hutztes Materia
(xii
Chapters
~
111.2:
l!l2 DsfonTIernJ) GnnBPrvnwrand b[JrmU",r
I!..
Tron.fo"""" Cool in g 8..1. Cooling methods

B2 83
TrIM
ll!:I
lIM
It
Singl. phasoTro"sformel· 9.1. ElnmO-fi""n' thooIT of 0n ilieillrnn,fonn"r !i:2:E.M.F. equation imnsl""i-ine •. 9.3, Vcdtage- t:-'!"nnsfennauIJn J'Hti'n. flO 9.4. 1'rnn.formor with losso. but no ltUI1l!!.tiol.nlmS" 9.5, RL1$isu_o ~ and m:a.gnclic laak.a,ge: 9.6. Trnnsfo""er with moillt."n .. nnd loalru.gc re"ttIlnt. 9.7. ,EqU:fyn1cnt J"Ciiil:st.:lnooand rnnctanc8 9.8. T'ollli v.l.toll" drop ina tronsfOlOl or 9_9. Eauivnhmt dN::uit·
oro
L9li LII!i
iss
iaa 200
aea
9 1n
2.Il! 2!l5 2117 2Il9
Tn nsfanD pr Te-sts,
9.11,
9.1:2,
9
J';J
Rcgu I ation f.I r n tl'nn.sfomt~l" Perc.otago rogj~UlD cc and r.actan""

TmnSrdrmpr lossru}
211
213 ill .2.l..5 216
9.14. fun.former efficienIT 9.16, AU-dar .mcl"ney 9 16 Trnn!5formu nolsel

9 J7 A ntn-trnnsfQnDtr
2Ii3
ill 2M 2Ii6.
2lill
lll:.
Thoo!',etical Qurstions
U" ",1!Jed Eran",I •• 5.. L
9.18. Polariw nf tmnsform.crn Throo phaS(! transformer 10.1. n....... ph"s.':rnn.r.,.,."er oo"n""tiofl!3 10.2. Tflree..phn •• trnn.rormor oO".-tru.OtiOD 10.3. PamU"l oPl'ratioD "rS'phase trnn,rnm" ... , Wg!dight·" Obi£cti"" Typo Quoslion.
2fiO 2G5: 2li6. 267 2l!1
213
m
w..,....t5.O. oro C m!1rhjnes
ROTATING I\IACHINES Dir",,! Ourrnnt m.C) Macl!Un~"

J]
28J.
CgDst"Ivi'aD
1.2. 1.3. 1.4, 15
E,m,[. "'lUBlin" Qr Bg""omtor Types orD.C, Generators P,rnlIei "perob"n "[D.C. JI"""rnto ..
Direct
MI~n'l motor
28.l
26l! l!92 2.!!Il 2f!B
:a..
ii.
Synchroo",,", Mnihi """ 2., L Synch"'M". generator 2.,2. Synchronous m. tor Poiwha.e indlletion. Mowr S,I. Gonor.,1 aspeots,
:3
or alternator
a32
aa2
:wi .'lM aM
W;S l!I'i5
GIAMifiratjQD orA C mollllS Cqnsttn
J ,8
~,4. 3.6.
a.5.
3.7,
a8
Prndu~lion .[rotatinG' ",all!lctio field TheGn' ofo1?£ration of nn induction motor Sllp FteC'u,l'en cy or I'otcr eUf1""Clnt
Rotor'
Ii
rt,
onO] d etni Is
ass
0 nd
rotor en neat
1162 iW3 aM alii
Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes M aleria
Lxiii)
C'hap'"'s Tnrque and. !>Ow •• Effe1:t of change in Gup.pl, ·voltage on otartlng torque Effe1:t of eIlan", in ""pply ""Ita!!" on torque and .lip Full·lond torquo and "".ldllllUII un·quo Start] rtf: torque; and ma:d.mum tOn]1.le ToE9ue-slip find t2rgu .... pccd C<lI"VCS Operating chara.lenni .. of a. 3-pwe oquirrel-cage induction .motor Operating eharaeteristies ora wound.rowr (~Up rinJr) indUotiOll motor Starting of induetiO'O mQtonI Squi ..... l""'@molors-advnntnll'¥'. disadvanl!lgel3nd applicatio,," Wound rotor (or "lip nnS) induetion motarG-adv~ntalle., disadva.ntag •• and app1icatiWlll 3.20. Compan!lOn of a squirrel-age and a .lip ring (or phase wound) induction motors Single Ph as e Motor. 4.1. General Blp<eUI 4.2. Types ohingl ... phase motor 4.3_ Sin g}c- phaso indutti Iln mntoJ"5 u. Split.pha~emOI.On! 4.5. Sin gl ,,"phase tommutntor mot.", 4.6. Single-pha ••• ,nchronolll moto .. In ouIating 'l'II"Lo";4b nntiog and Heating of D.C. Machin". 6.1. Ratl!lS 6.2 HM.ung 6.3. Solcctinn of D.C. generators Ilnd motcea 6.4. Typeo of D.C. machine enelosuree Rating Spooinontions of A.C.. Machines Du~ybya~ Cooling of Elru:trlonl 1I.1nchio.. Hiohlighu-D.C. Maolw.u. Ob1tell.." 7'yM: Q".slion.~ ThcomiI:cIl Q~stw"" UMOlfltd &tnmpl •• Highlighls-Sy"ch ... aa~811fruhin •• 06 i<c!ill •. l'yp<! Q"".I;"". T~liI:cIJ. QIa$IUm.. UIlfU}JlJI!d ezampl ... Highlighl..<-l'o/.)'ph"". 1 Mu,lion MOler Ob"iectfueTyp" Q" •• ti.altll TJU!tJrdic<J Q"••I;oo"
H H .
Ptr",~ il1iEi 367 361
3.9. 3.10. 3.11. 3.12. 3_l3. 3.14. 3.15. 3.16. 3.17. ·3.18. 3.19.
aas
ass
aas
il'l.l
370
aza
a82
4.
11..
6.
a a.
1..
HighliGhls-Sinsle p~ Mota,.,. Obj •• ll"" DpeQ" ••limu TI_~lical Qu.s""""
Uaso/lled
Examples
n.MBMlIJUNGINS'I'RllMEN'l'S
L 2..
i!,. Inlrnihu~t,jQn And CI ill!::si
n ~ntion
El"""".oaI Priodp 1"" ofOper-atioo Electrloal [ndiontlng Instruments ;) 1 _Essential_n·", b nys
U rheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes M a\eria
(.clu)
4.
;).2. Doncelin! device a.a. Controlling de",,,,,. 3.4. Damping dcvi.= Moving-lron'lnstruments (Ammeten and Voltmeters) 4.1., Attraction type ·1.2. R..euloion ty]?!! 4.3. Advnnbl gl!S and dl."dven!.9.ges of moving-iron Insirumen1.9,
44 Smlrce;"o£'errt)f'A
e; 1..
M""ing.Coillnstn!ments 5.1. P"-""oncnt-mngn,,t movi.ng_il 5.2. Elootrodyru!!!!io or dy!!""""".tcr B Il£r; 6 pr I n sIn', m ents
W':nttmcie[S
type (PMMC) instrument.. iDStnlml!nt.s
7.J.
7
Dynamomclcr
In
d.
Irt; P'D WjJJttmQt,crB
wattmeter
Integra 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8-4.

8_5. Mea 91 92
tins: Moten; IEnergy Mota .. ) E.. entia 1 waro .t"ri.l;i<s or,energy mete .. Types of ""ergy 'meterl! Motar meters MQ\{Jr-driven melel'-W"tt-bou. meter !"duct! on typ:ta wott,....hour mc't.cr
t_ o[_Rpprj!lim ore Vn!tmEtgr.:amnu:tet method
9!1TpmeO
9.3., ill 12.
Snoot' l! I tj on method Measurem"n. of resist an .. by the ",beam!.n.
bridge
U.
Meggs. In.tru.mont Tron.former,s

1'2 1
Po r&D! tal
'-'t8 n !frO rmers r P T' )
] 2 2 Curroni trg,nsOtrmers (C T ) High/in/u. Th«Jrwll:ol 9"".1;""" UMOII.I<ld ihtlmplu
'l.
L
MISCEIJ
Cbomet:pristirs
ANY
.tlI!l:dIlI5
;l!IIl
1.1. 1.2. 1.3.

1.4.
oro C f"...pneratorg Sepnrn lei>, '~xdled p:enerator Building up the voltsgo ofBelf -e ~citod Bhunt generator Shunt generator charaC\eristia
Series gnncrat.ol"
ill
493
49-(
Compou nd wound generator AppIi""tlons of D.C. genemtors Control orD.C. Motom FnttJ>ro controlling th~ .peed 22 Fic! d rnntrnl meW ad 2. '3 Rheos-tat-je cot!!tmt '24. Volk!gc contra-I EI""trom""han i<al En~'l!Y Convc,..ion
3
1
1.5. 1.6. Speed 2.1.
4!llI 501
ooa
Iill7_
Cillli Jillli aia
ill
If'!trod, ict.ion
3.2. 3.3.
Prin~iple of aD e_tBYcon'vcrslnn Faraday's laws of eleetnlmagnetic
induction
520 52lI 6lll 522
U rheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M ateri"
(%II )
Pages
3.4. Singly and mllitiply:aclted magnetio fleld "yale"'" 3.5. Torque product! on in roto.ti"!l" machine. 3.S. anal,m of electl"Dttlecl>anieal "J'l'tem High/isM. 523
G.""""
526
527
5:1.(
UIIsolVM Emmpk.
MISCm.w.NEOUS
LABORATORY
ElW'dIlII.A1'IONS' QU£STIONg....;WlTH
SOLUTIONS
EXPElUMENT8
637-66'1 569-619
Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia
(..___T_O_ALMI_. _G_HTY
1
D.C. Circuits and Network Analysis
I. ,Dcliniliofll cfimporwn,t ti.mtIS.. 2. Limitations QfOhm',lIlaw. 3_ Kin:hbofP~ Iaw •. 4..Appl iCLlti~n:l! or Kirdlho!f .... Drancb""'""nlll",~,od-Maxw.II'.l""l' I.r ,",,.,.hlo\l"i'.mtn",thod-N<>d.ol YDI:tage IJU!:tbod.. 5. Salving !."CIua.tion:lll dennin.a.nt3-=Cramer't b:y .tde. 6. SUpc1"pOiilion th~~ 7. Tbcv • .,iII'.lheorem. S. Norton'. theorem. 9. Mo:<imwn power lraD.rer sheorem, 10. o.luo "UOr tn,n,afonnntion. II. <::o.Jn'~tio.n th,-OQ'rt'tn. 12, lWcip:roc:ity thoorc-sl}_ J3. Milhnan's thooromHigbJigjlt..-Obj«tivoType QU""tion_ Th..... tioal Q"",tion_Un""l.ed Examples.
w.~,
1. DEFINITIONS
OF lMPORTANT
TERMS
<'I! rren t either now. or is intended to is called a circuit. The vnrious elements of on eleetrie ciraJ.it arc coiled paNlIlu:,tel"8 (e.g. reeistance, inductance and capacitance). These parameters mDY be du:lrwutcd or lu",~. 2. Linear eil'1mlL Tho circuit whoso pnrnmcters ore co""lont ('.e. they do not change with yoltagll or current) i. tailed a linear drcuit. 3. Non-Unearcireuit. The circuit whose parametcrsdultlgo with voltage Or current is called D non·linear circuit: 4, Unilateral circuit. A unilnt<lrnl circuit is one whose properties Or c"lIrllcteristil!8 ehanga with the direction of its operation (e.g. diad. rectifier). 6. Bnateral cireult. It is that circuit whose properti"" or characterlstlcs are same in either direction f.1I.lJ. tl"llMmiaBion Ii",,). 6 .. Elec.trlc network.. An electri c network arises when II nu mbcr of paramete rs or electric elements eeexist or combine' in any manner er arrangement, 7. Activo network.. An acli"" "e/,oork is one which contains, on. or more thlln one sources of
naw
1. Ci"",iL A cotldlU:ling pit/I> through which lin electric
Utl.f.
8. PllQive network. A 1'.... ioe "etwork is one which docs not contain apy SOUrce of &.mJ. 9. Nod e, A node is" junction in a circuit where lowe or more circuit elements ore connerted together. 10. Brllnch. Z. LIMITATIONS The port ofn network OF OHM'S LAW which lie" between tweJunclions
is culled bnmc.h.,
In " series cireui t orin any bran cl\ of n simple parnllel circuit the calculnti on of tho current is easily effected I:IY tho direct a pplieation of Oh m'&I B w. But sucl\ a .simplo calculation 1$ not possible irone eftho braaehes of 0 parallel circuit contain, aBOUI"Ce of e,.m.f" or eu rren t is to be ealeu lilted in a part of a network. in whith sources of e.m.f. may be present in several Or loops forming the network. The treatment of such cases is effected by the application of fundamental principles of electric cireui.t.s. These principles were correlated by Kirchhoffmany yea rs ago end enunciated in the formoftwolaw., which CIlII be eensidered a. the foundations ofciraJ'tonalysis. Other,lIIter. method.
,nho
mesh".
U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h "Illes M aleri a
havc boon developed, which when appl.icd to special censide ra bly sherton arithmetic eomputanen compared with the' r rigma] Kirchholfs method. 3. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
O"'"C"
tho lllgebm
and
• For eemplex circuit ecmputations, the following two laws f,rst stated by Gutsav Kirehh"rr n824-87) are indispensable. Pi... t law (Point Or current law). The slim o(llIe e"r, .. "Is enlcri.l!fl II,j""elion "'11fj""ilo II,e o( the cu""'nts Ihe juneti"n. Refer Fig. 1. Ifthc currents touiards ajunetion ore considered I. pcsiliL'(? and those "Wily from the same] unction ncgati~c, then this law states that tho algobrow su'" 01 all ""r· I. rl!'.nt.lll meeting at a cammon junction ,j.., zero: i.e. 1: Currents entering eurrents leaving I, + fa = 12 + 1. + h 11 (all Or 1,+is-f'l-I.-h='O U(b)1 Second low (Mesh or voltage law), Th» ... nt of the e, "'.{s (rilJl!so(pol.ntial) am"",1 aoydosed loop 01 a circuit eqllllls th. 8 .. 111 of Ih. I'o,"oli,,/ drop« it. that Juncllon /001'. Considering a rise o[potential as po.itive (+J and a drop of potential as negative (-I, the algwroic ... m of fig. I potential diffcrem:". (voltages) around D closed loop of a circuit is zero : !E- UR drops = 0 (around closed loop)
n.
""n
I""o,ng
1.2 (bl] To apply thi", !aw in practice, assume an arbitrary current direction for each branch eurreru, The end of the rosillOr through whieh the CUITcnt enters, is tben positivo. withrespect to the other end, lfille .o/ulio" {Qr the curre"t bc;"g S<>lved 111m. out lIegaU.,.:, the" Ih. direction 01 thaI current is opposite to the direcuon assumed, . . . In tra eing through any single ci reo it, whether it.is by itse!f or n pn rt of a netw ork, the following ruleg must be applied : 1. A valtag'" drop exists when trad.og through a resistance wilh or ill the same di",otion, a. th. current, or through 0 battery or generator against thcir'Voltllge, Illat is frornl'osililJ.I+J 10 nega:lil)C I-I. Refer Fig. 2.
L
i:e. or
~ Potential
!E " UR rises = 1: potential drops
I)! (a)]
FIlfI In YOIIage, I-v} o~
e ~+I~-
~M
FaHh YOItage (-€)

FIg. 2 2. A voltage rise exists when tl"llci.ng through a resistance again.t or ill opposiu direcliol1 to 1/", cum",t or threugh a battery or IIgenerator with their voltage that ls from n"Sou"" (-) to pooilw. (+J. Refer Fig, 3. --
nc C1RClII.TS AND NETWORK "':-<.H'ISIS

L
Rise In voltage (.. VI .L

--t-
Rise In voltage (+e)

Pig.
v
II-' ..
3 M
lUu.tratlon. Fig ..4. Con.ide.ring
Consi dcr a cl rc U it sh ow n in
A,
Ao
the loop ABEFA, we get -J,R, -1,R. + .E, - 0 or E, = 1,R, + 1,R3 (where I. - I, .. 1,) ...(i) Considering the loop BCDEB, we have 1"", - E s+ laR. = 0 ...{iil or E. = l,fl. + laR3 If E), £.u Rjo R2 and R3 are known, then h I. and 13 can be calculated from eqns, and (ii).
-=-E.
I,
E Pig. 4
lo
4.APPUCATIONS
OF KIRCHHOFF'S
LAWS
Kirchhoff. laws ma,y be employed in the following methods of S<JI ving networks :. 1. Branch-current method 2. Maxwen~9 loop (or mesh) current method 3. Nodal voltage method . .1.1. Branch-Current Method For II multi-loop circuit the following 'procedure is adopted for writing equations : 1. Assume eurrents in different branch of the network 2. Write d.own. tho fIlLlllllcst number ofvoltege drop loop equa.tions so LI8 to include all circuit elements; these loop equattona nrc independent. If !here arc n. nod ... of three or mol"ll elements in a circuit, then write {n - I) equations us per OUlT1!ntlaw. 3 ..Solve the above equations sl multaneously. The llSIIumption made about the directions of the currents initially i~ arbitrary. In case the actual direetlon ;,.opp<>~iteto the a.~umed one. it will be reflected as II. negative v.a)ue· for that current in the answer. The brunch-current rnetbed lth. most primitive one) involvca more IBbollr Dnd is not used """"pt for very ·.imple drouits. 12 Ll 6n through each ruutorand
ExaIDple 1.111 the .i,..uit of Fig. 5. find the current ""!toge drop acrou each resisto«,
12V 10V
U rheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M ateri a
4 Solullon. Let the eurreets be a~ .hn""n in Fi,::. 6.
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
12a
en
Applying
Ki",hholl's
Fi!;.G voltage law to the circuit ABEFA. - 121, - lOCh + 1'21 + 12" 0
we get
or
C;l'C\Iit BCDEB gives,
-221,-10/2+ 12 =0 + 11/, +512-6 =0 6[2-10 + 10(1,+1.)=0 10/, + 16/2-10=0 51, + 812 - 5 = 0. eqn. (0 by 5 and eqn, (it) by 11 and subtracting,
55I, + 25I2 - 3D 551., + 8Bl.- 55 +
...(i)
...(ii)
Multiplying
= 0. = 0.
We get
i.e. Substituting
i....
-631.+ 25- 0. I. 0.397 A this value in eqn, (I), we get 11I, + 6)( 0.397 - 6 = 0
g Z
II 0.365 A Hence, Cur:rent through 12 a rnfator. II, .. 0..965A. Current through 6 a ~i..tor. Is_ o.a97 A. Current through 10. Q ......iotor. 11+ 12" 0.,762 A.
The voltage drop
flCl'088 ,
(AD.,) (Aua.) (ADs:.)
12 a resl.tor 0.365 x 12 '" 4,38 Y. (Ans.) 6 a res,istor = 0.397 x 6 '" 2.38 Y, (Ans.) 10. u reslotor - 0..762" 10. - 7,62 V. (Au...) E>:ample Z. Find the magnitude and direaion of currents in each
Fig. 7.
of tile batteriu shown
in
IHI
HI
lOY
12Q
fill. 7 U rheberrec htl lch gesc h "Illes M ateri"
5 Solution. Lot the directions A ,2C F + of currents 1,.1, and 1~ in the batteries
B
be 8S shown in Fig. 8.
..
-
20V
..
I. 1'1 +12-
+ SO
..
1m
10V
or
FiC' g ApplyinG" Kirohhofl'"~oltnge law to t,he circuit ABCFA. ao - 41, - 81, .. 201, - 20 -121, ~ 0 - 241, .. 20/, .. 10" 0 121, -101.- 5" Q Cirouit ECDEF gives.
we !Jet
...Ii)
20 -
21)1. -
1211, .. 1.,
+ ..
HI" 0
20 - 201. - 121\ - 121...
-121\-3212
or Multiplying
ao =0
10 _,O
.•• (ii) 61\ .. 1612- 15" 0 eqn, Iii) by 2 and subt,.,.oting it from Iii. we get -421.+ Z5 = 0 [,,, 0,.595 ,'\ i..e. Substituting this value of I. in eqn. <0. we get 12ft - 10" 0.595 -5" 0 or /', = 0.912 A Henee eurrent through. 30 V ba1te)'y, I, = 0.912 A. (Ansi. 20 V battezy, 12 ,,0.695 A. (Ans.) 10 VbaUery, II, + t,1 " l.l>O7 A. (A .... ). Example 3. The terminal ,..si~tuII<"ud/ootleries A, "lid Bore 2.5 Q mid 2 Q respe.tive/y. The bo.ttcry M. "'" """~f. ol20 volts. A ,...i.tancc of /Q Q ie connected aero •• the battcry /crmi7UIu. CtI,/cuwJ@." .
Ii) TIll! du.ch lJr8e cur ...." I of ballory A. 1./,. discharge c,m .. " I of bat,tory 8 being 1.75 A. (ld The ~."'.{. of bllller:; B. (iii) TM ~".rgy diuipaud ill 10 Q re$u.ro,,~ in. 4Q "'in.utes.
Solution. Refer Fill". 9.

(il II: Applying Kirehhofl's voltage law to the circuit LMNPSQL 2O-2 ..5l,+1,75 x 2-EB~ 0 Ee + 2.51,- 23.5" 0 gi"~~. 20 - 2.5/1- lOll) .. [~J'" 0 20 - 2.51) - 10</) .. 1..75)" 0
i.e.
CirouitLMNPTL i:e.
...tiI
Urheberrec htlich gesc hutztes M ~teri"
(I,
'.>
100
T
Fig, Ii
or or
20 -12.51,
- 17,5 = 0
Hen.,,, dischnrge (iiIEu'

Substi t uting the ..
current
I,,~, 0.2 A, orbau..,,,)' A = 1.= 0.2 A. IAn s, '
0 ~m23V Hence e.m.t. orbuttery B. Eu = 23 V. (AnI.) liii) Energy dissIpated in 10 n re8lstor, Energy dissipated ~ flRt = II, + I"},, 10" 140" 60) joules <0.2 .. 1.751'" 10" (40 ~ GO)joules = 912GO joules. IAn,,) E>:ampl,,4. A baUer}! lUlUiliO all Il.III.{. f IIU Valid all internal. ,..,8;'la""" 0(0.2 n i~ cOI11l~cj.a o ill pWTlllcl ,vit" another b,lllery with e.t!L{. of 100 V ""d a resistan"" of 0.25 The two in parolW """ p/"co<l in series with U !'cgul"I/IIO rcsisr"nte of (; ohms and ((l""tcted, across 220 V mains.
E
V" Iu u or I, in <"1 n. W. we get en" 2.5 x 0.2 - 23.5 :
n.
C!~/CU'al~ :
Iii' TI", mugnitude 'IIId direcll"o,II oftilecurrelll ill ecu:hbo.ttery. Liil Tlu~ tUfa'i current tuke/i·from the mains supply. SO I utI on. Refer Fig. 10.
(I, +1,1
---.As"· "Q"'_-T--I~-----'I----_'
mv
Urheberrec htl lch gesc h "Illes Iv! ateri"
and I. be ns shown in Fig. 1.0. Applying Kircllho!Ys voltage la w to LMNPSQL, we get + .0.21] - .o.25I~- 100
mil' ,1=, ,Let tho dtreetiens pfflow of cumml$I,
n.o
~,.o
...(il gives, 11.0 + .0.211- 22.0 + 5(1, + .12/ -.0 5.21, + 51." 11.0 ..,(ii) h + 0.961,,. 2l.15 Subtraoting WI !'rom (i), we, get - 2.2U. = -71,15 12 = Sl!.19 A. (An9-) I] =-9.15A. tAns.) and Since II turns out to be negative, its actual direction of now is ~pposu. to that shown in Fig. 1.0. In other words it io not a chtITgi,r,g cur,.,,,,t bUl a dj".cha'7lur,g One, However, 12i$ a chargillC or Cin:uitLMNP'l'L
.0.211- .0.251:" - 1.0 I] - 1.25/: = - 6.0
CW'l'l1nt.
taken from the main. supply, I] +1. = - 9,75 +32,19" 22.44 A. (Ans.) Example 5. In 1M circuit shawn II< the Fig. 11 determine : (i) Al,1 the elU'TCJlts in the nctwark. (ii) Voltagu /letWI!C:n th« points. Solution. Refer Fig. 11. {iil (i], + Iz) : The bmll current
30 (l,+I.J 1.5n 12V H
(I... I.> 6a (1,+ 1,+13>
I,
I,
i.e.
l'iG·11 the muTCnu in th,e notwork : Let tho diroetiouJl of tile currents be ". shown in tho Fig, 11, Applying Kircltho(l's voltage law to the circuit BCORa, we get .o.41~- 1.0 - l.!SI3" 3(/1 + I'll = .0
(i) All
31! + 3,412 - 1.51~ ~ 1.0
... Iil
8
Cin:uitHDEFH gives, ... til (
1.513- Ei + 0.3U. + 13) + 6111+ I, + 13) .. 0 611 + 6.31~ + 1.813" 6

Cirtuit
Le,
ABHFGA gives, -1.511 - SUI + Ii) - fUll + Ig +13) + 12" 0 -10.51,- 912 - 813 + 12: 0 10.511 + 91. + 613 ~ 12 ...aii) Multiplying eqn. (ii) by 2 and subtracting eqn. (ii) from eqn. (I), we get 0.512 - 10.813" 14 .. .(iu) Multiplying eqn, (ii) by 10.6 and eqn, (iii) by 6 and subtracting eqn, Ii;;) from eqn, (;il, we gut 12.15/,+ 45.913 '" - 9 ..•Iu) Multiplying eqn, (iu) by 12.16 and .eqn. (ul by 0.6 and subtracting eqn. M from eqn. (;ul, we - 154.1713 = 17U Is ~- 1.132 A Substituting tho value of 13 in "'In. au), we get 0.5[2 - 10.8 "(-1.132) " 14 12 = 3.549 A Substituting the values of.!. and 13 in eqn. we get 10.51, + 9 x 3.549 + 6 x (-1.132),. 12 ..
get
i.e.
am,
'.e.
1.U2 A Hence the directions, of II and 13 ore' actually OppoiIW! 10 the IJ8s,,,,,,cd directiolls. Tho elu711l1f betlJ.l<!.n B "nd H -I, + I ... - 1.202 + 3.649 .. 2.291 A. (An$.) Tho currenl between Hand ,1" = II + 12 + 13 = - 1.262 + 3.649 - 1.132 .. 1,185 A. (AD .. ) Thecummt between Hand F (and E) "II + I;" 3.549 -1.132" 2,417 A. (An •• )
th,e pointa: :2.297><3=6.891 V. (ADs.) ., 1.165 x 6 = 6.99 V. (An .. ) 12 - 1- 1.252)( 1.6) = 13.878 V. CAn .. ) themall"ilud.alld direction of /lalv of current in Ih. branch MN for
l',. -
(ii) Voltage between Va~ocl'(mBH VoltollO ",:rO$8 HI" Va/togo across CE Example 6. Delor"'i~ the circ"it shOlu" in Fill. 12.
BV
Fig. I2 SohdioD. in Pi!,:. 13. Urheberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri" Refer Fig. 13. and magnitudes
Let the dirccnens
ofthl! currents
flowing ill the various circuits
bo II!! shown
I),C. (;lRCUITS AN!> NIITWOItK ANALYSIS
+8V
Applying or
Kirchhoff's
F!~ 13 voltago law to the o;re "it LMNL, we get - 1011- 601, + 25/~. 0
11- 2.51~.. 513" 0 Circuit MPNM gives.

-15(II-li,l + 20(11" tal" 601s" 0 - IBh + 201. + 1151•• 0
...Ii)
Or
h -l.SSl~- 5.6613 0 = Circ"it LNPQL gives. - 251. - 20(1a+ I,) + 8 ~ 0 - 451. -201.1 + 8 '" 0 I. + 0.,44/. = 0.177 Subtracting eqn, (ii) from eqn, (1), we get
- 1.17h" 10.661~" 0 13- 9.11/,,, 0 Subtracting eqro. (iv) from eqn. (iii), we JIlIt 9.551, .. 0.177 13 ~ 0.01115 A.
...(ii)
...(iii)
or
..Jiv)
Hence ma .... itud e of current (laJ nowing through the brancb MN. 0.0185 A (from M to N). (An s, ) E-mple 7. Dctermi.". rll" ~I'"""t in th. 4 g of tile ci"'I'jJ 8ho,w" in FiB. U. (Jndo", Univenity) 2n
""""'0,"",
Fig. H
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri a
10
I,
11,+ 1,+6)
20
20
( )6A
S
10 (I-I,)
-=-
IOV
loa
I
1,
•
40
10 (1- 1,-10-6)
N I T
(I-I,-S)P
I 1
24V Fig. IS
Let the di rections of va ri OUS eo m.ml>! in different elreuits be as shown in the Fig. 15. Applying Ki.ro:hhofl's voltage law to the circuit SQLPS, We get
- 211", lOt. + 1(J -11Circuit LMNPL giv es , ...3(l-II-.I~-S) -1012" 0 40
.••W)
61" 0 ".Ii)
1-31, ...1012 - 6
- 2(11 + 1 6)-10 .... Circuit SPNTS gives, 6) -
31- 51, -1512" - 1(1-11Or Multiplying eqn, (i) by 3 and ""btracting
sa -J,-l~
- 4.1,,,,
-6) -41+ 24" 0 - 81 ...
4.1,.... 31.
,,- 48 ...(ilt!
81-411- 3I,,, 48
"'In. (ii) from "'In. (i), we get.
451•• - 22
... (iIIl eqn, (iii) from eqn, (i). we get
or
Multiplying MUltiplying
I,- 11.2512. '" 5.5

eqn, (i) by 8 and subtracting
- .20/, + 8312" 0 eqn, (i~) by 20 ..nd ..dding iJqn. (v), we get

-14212.110
and Substituting i.e.
12 = -0.774 A 1, = - 3.212 A
the values of I, and I. in eqn, (i), we get [ - 3 x r., 3.212) ... 10 x (- 0.714) .. 6
I- 23.37 A. IAn.. )
Urheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M ateri"
OC ClRClJITS A N I) NE'JWQR KANA L
rs IS
IIetUXJr/t; SheWIi
II in l,heFig.
16.
g"ampie
8. D.termi". the ""rrent j'n weh o[lhe resistors otth_
Soludon. Refer Fig, 16. Let th,e current directions be n. shown in the Fig. 16. A pplyi,ng Kirchhofl's voltage law to the eireu it ABDA. we get or Circuit
nCDn gives,
- 31,- 813 + 412 = 0 31, - 412 + 81, = 0
.. .li)
- 6111-131 + 2(1. + 13) + 81," 0 -51('+ 21. + 151, = 0 51, - 21. -151, = 0 Circuit ADCEA gives, - 412-
... W)
(I,+I,)
Or Multiplyingeqn. ing (iiI from (i), we get
2U2 + 13) + 2" 0 - 612- 213 2 31. + 13 = 1 ... aii) (i) by 5 and eqn, ai) by" and subtract-
=-
'-- __
E=il-
...J
2V
Fig. 16
151,- 2012 + 401,,, 0 151, -612 -45f, '" 0 - 141. + 0 141. - 851,,, 0 eqn, (iii) by 14 and eqn, (iv) by 3 nnd subtracting 421. + 1413 " 14 421, - 25513 '" 0 2691, = 14 I,,, 0.OS2A From eqn. (iv), I. ,,0.316 A From eqn, (i), 11 " 0.283 A Hence, Current through S Q resistor" 11_ 0.283 A. (An .. ) Current through 4 Q resistor = IJ .. 0.316 A. (An.s.) Current through 8 Q resistor " 13 .. 0.062 A. (An ••) Current through 5 Q resistor = I, -13 = 0.231 A. (An .. ) Current through 2, Q resistor = I~ + I, = 0.368 A. IAns.) Example 9. Determinelh. branch c,,,,..,,,b itt the ndwor/t; of Fig. 17. Solution. Refer ,Fig. 17. Let the CUTTent dircetion. bo as shown, Applying Klrchhot1'. voltage law til the circuit ABDA. we get 5 -II x l-l~" 1 +12 x 1 .. 0 ..
au,,,
or
Multiplying
.,.(;u)
(iu) from (iii), we get
or
i1-h+ 1a.' .. 5
Circuit BCDB gives,
...{i)
or
- (II-Iii" 1 + 5 + (lz + '3)" 1 +1;''' 1 ,,0 -11+/~+31.--5 Il-I~ - 313 = 6 Circuit ADCEA gives,
-I!" 1-(lz + 1"Jx 1 + 10-{l, +/2)>< 1 ,,0
...(Ii)
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri a
1.2 B
Fig.!? or
and lind
-11-311-13 ~ -10 II" 312." f3= 10 Subtractillll (ii) from (i). we gat, 13" 0 From (i). we have, 11-12 = 5 from (Iii), We have, II + 312" 10 By solving (iD) and (v), We get. 12 1.25 A 11" 6.25 A
D
...liii)
•..(Iv)
... M
branchAB ,"' 6.25 A. CAn..) branch Be = 6.25 A. U\n8.) branch BD = O. (An .. ) branch AD = 1.25 A. CAn..) Current in branch DC = 1.25 A. tADL) Current, in brench, CA." 7.6 A. (Ana.) El:ample 10. Find th. current in the gtdoooomder ann of the whrotrtOJl6 bridg •• howJI ill Fig. 18. B
Hence,
Cu,.,..,nt Current Current Current
in in in in
1(.1,+1'>
Fig. IS Urheberrcc htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri a
D.C
oacurrs .~ND NETWOM K

Solution.
~N~L YSL'
13
Refer Fig·. 18. Let the CUrTCn;direeriona be· ao shewn,
ApplYing Kirtllhoffs voltage law to the circuit ABDA. we get .- 1000/) - 600/1 + l00/~ - 0 It -0.11. + 0,6/~ - 0 Circuit BeDB gives, -9990U) -13) + 1000(/. + 131+500/1" 0 - 99901, + l0001~ + 1149013" 0 11- 0.10011. -1.151:, = 0 Circuit ADCEA gives, -lOOl.-1000Cl. +/,,)+ 20-500(1).+12) .. 0 - 500/) - 16001. - 100013 = - 20 II ..3.212" 213" 0.04 SubU"ncting Iiil from (i), we get 0.00011. + 1.65/3" Subtracting/iii) from (ii), We get .. 3.30011,· .. 3,151" 0
.,.Ii)
__ .tl1)
...(iii)
...flul
... IU)
g" 0.04
Solving (iuJ and (vi. we get.
11 = 0,135" 10''" A arm • 0.73$ jtA. tAto,.) (Bombay Univ" ... ityJ
Hence ""Arrent In tbe plvlUlo!nele.r
ExaIIIpie 11. DclennUI<! the clLrl1f"l .•upp/~d by I~ balU!ry ill I~ circuit SllOlM ill Fig. 19.
Solul:lon. Refor Fig. 19.
!'ig.19 Applying Klrd>hoWa voltnge law to the circuit LMNL, we get ·-100/, - 300/, +600/." 0 I, - 51... 313 ,,0 Circuit MNPM give., - 300/! - 100(/2 .. 13)" 500Ih -/31" 0 5001, - 100/1- 9001;' .. 0 1\ - 0.21. - 1.8/3" 0 Circult LMPTL gives . ._.10011. -500111-1,) .. 200 -100(/) .. I.) ,,0
... (1)
... Iiil
14 -700/, .Multiplying(;l - 1001; .. 50013" - 200 - 0.71413 "0.286
aa:ntJCAL
1CCHNOI.OOV
I, ..0.14312
...mo
by 1.6 and (ii) by:l and adding, we get 1.81 L - 91., ... 5.413= 0 31, - 0.61, - 5.413 • a 4.81,- 9.612" 0 1,-21,,,,0
or Multiplying
...liv,
we get
(iiI by 0.714 and Wi) by 1.8 and subtraettng, 0.714/, -0.148/2 -1.285/3" 0 1.81, + 0.25712 -1.28513 = 0.615 + - L086l, - 0.412" - 0.515 I, ..0.36817 ~ 0.474
or Subtmcting
(v)
... M
i.e. and
2.3681,,, 0.474 12 0.2 A I, ..O.4A .. Currcat supplied by the battery '" I, +12" 0.2 .. 0.46" 0.6 A. (An...) 4.2. Maxwell'. Loop (or Me,h) Cun-eat Method
from iivl, we get
K
The method of loop Dr mesh eUrTent8 is genel"Rlly usedtn ""Iving networkS having some degree of ~ffiplexity. Such II. degree of complexity elready begins ror a n.etwDrk of threemoshes. It might even becon.venientat times to use the method of loop or mesh currents for solving" tW()Offie.sh circuit. The mesh-current mdhod is preferred to the general or branch-c:urrent method because the unknowns in the initiol .tage "f""lvinga network are equal to the number of meshes. i.e., the mesh curron lB. The necess i ty of writing the· node-current equation ... 08 done in the general or branehcurrent mothod where branch eurrents are used, is obviated. The..., arc as many mesh·voltage equations as these are independent loop or mesh, currents. Hc~"o,the hi-mesh currents liTe obtained by ""lving the M"mosh voltages er loop equatiantl for M unknowna. Altnr solving for the mesh currents, only a matter of......,lving the confluent mesh currents into the respective branch cunents by very simple algebraic manipulstions is required.
This method eliminutes a gl'"(!(J.l deal <>ftediousw<>rk illl.!ll/ued bmnch-eurrent method and in is best ,uiud wMn. tru!Tgy are wltagil SOu/us rotJU!Tthan C"""lIt "",urc'''. This method ran be used only ror planar ~i""UitB. . '11m procedure for writing the equation. 05 follows : 1. AlIsume the smallest number of mesh currentaso that at least one mesh current links ""ery clement. Ao a matter of'eonvenienee, all mesh currenta are ass umed to have a clockw;scdiredion. The ,<umber of mesh. currenl3 is eqU<d to Iii. nrwwer ofmuhu in the circuil.• 2. For each mesh write down the Kirchhoff's voltage law equation. Where more then one mesh current flows through an element, the elgebraie sum of currents should be used .. The algebraic sum . of mesh currents maybe sum or the difference ofth.e currcnlBl1owingthrough theeloment depending on the direction of mesh currents, ' 3. Solve the above equationa and from the mesh eurrenee find tho braneb currontll. Fig. 20 shows two battorica E! and E2, connllCled in a network. con.iBting of three rcsiatnrs. Let, tho loop eurrerus for two m.,,;hns bell and 12 (both clockwi_B.sumcd}.lt illobvj.pus that current through R, Iwhen considered as B port offir8t loop) is (h -13l. However, when Rl is considered pan ofthe seeond loop. cur te nt through jt isU. -ILl.
110""""'·
is
Urheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M ateri"
nc, CIRCUlUS AND NeTWORK .. "Al.YSIS App[y;ns
15
or
or
KirChhoff's voltsll" Isw to the two looJl'l. we II"t EI-/IRI-R:r.t1-17)" 0 EI -ll l +Rs)+ J.jl3'" 0 Similarly. -I.jl'l- E. -RP'l-ll);' 0 -1t.R'l-E2-J~ +IIR. '" 0 I,R3-/2(R2+ R31-E2 = 0
... loop 1
..•1001'2
R,
F The obove two equntions
I'
D but branch currents

ill
well,
Fi~.20 can be solved not only to Clnd 100(> currents

,",,5;'1101'$
as
ElI'ample 1.2.Determine Ik CJ,lrrenl$ through oorious ~i.ng lite conupt of .......h currents. Solution. ReforFig. 21. L Since there oro two mellh es, let the loop currents be u shown.
Applying Kil'Chbofl's law to loop 1. we get 24-411-2Ul-/2)=O
ofth~ circuil.ho.wn
Fig. 21
40
-611 + 212+ 24" 0

Or 31.,- 12." 12 For loop 2. we have -.2(12-11) - 612-12" ... (i)
24V
3
p
12 V
0
I) ... (ii)
21,.-81.-12"0 1,-41."
Solving (i) and Uo1, we get, and Hence Current through
1.-CUrTent through
6 11 A
41l reoimoo. 6 g "",iato.
=~
A (,",m
L to MI. (An.s.)' ~I
= l~ A (from N to M).
'" ~~ - ( -
Current
through
n resistor
i61)
2ii
A (from M'to P~. lADs.1
Urhcberrec htlich gesc hutztes M ateri"
16 E,xnmple 13. D~U!I7I""e th"
EIX,CTlIICA L n;r:IINOI,.I)(;V
",,"ren.' supplied by each battery
ro:'
Solution. Applying
;~J":;P1~'
•.lel the three loop currents be us shown. law to loop 1. we get 20 - 51, - 3(1,-[2) -5
,'n till! ci","it .howl! in Fig. 22. (Aligarb UniVl!ni~y)
.Refer Fig. 22. Kirchhotrs
As ij'cre ar .. threemeshes
=0
... (11
or For loop 2, we ha vC
8/1-312,,15
- 412." 5 - 2U2 -Ial .. 5 + 5 -3U. -I.) = 0

311 - 912." 213 For 1000p3. we have - 81. - 30 - 5 - 2(1. -1.1 - 0
212 -
=-
15
..•. iil (
1013" 35
... iiil (
..• (iv)
Eliminating
I, from (il and !iiI, we get. 6312 - 1613 = 165
Solving (iill and (iQ),we get 1•• Subrtituting 1.82 A and I. =-3.15A (- ve sign means dircdian of current is counwr·c]ockwi..,)
the value of I. in (ii, we get
1,=2.56A
CUl'l'eIIt through Cunen I through Current Current Current ExampJe ;nFill·23. Solution. through through battery battery battery battery
B, fdis.:harg;ng
82 (clwrging 83 (dis.:harging
current) currant);:
= I, = 2.116 A. (An .. 1 1... ls ;: 1_82 .. 3.15 - 4.97 A. (An ...) A. (An,.)
current)
• .1, -.12 " 2.56 - 1.82 " 0.74 A. (AD ...)
B. (dlAcliargingcurrent)
85 (discharging tunenl) the curren~
= 12 = 1.82
through bnttery 14.lktermil!e Refer Fig. 23.
" 13 .. 3.15 A. (AIu.)
throi!ghtJu: cIiffe.rent branches o{the bridge circuit &hown
The three mesh currents
lire assumed
aa ahown.
Urhcberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ateri"
· D.C. CIRCt,ilTS AND NETWORK ANALYSIS
17 B
The equatiena For loop 1 : or or For loop 2: or or FM loop 3:
for the three meahea are .:
240 - 2OU'1-M-60(1\-iv"
-7011+
2012 + 601,,, - 24(1
7011 - 2012 - 601, = 240 - 30/2 -40{l2 - Is) - 20(12 -1,1,. 0 2OI1- 90/2 + 40/s
21\-912 +.(J3"
it'
c
...(ii)
0
0
- 60i3 -50{l,
-II)
- 40(/~ -12) '" 0 .. 0 ...(iii)
501\ + 4012 - 1501•.. 0 11/\ + 4l~ -15/~ Solving these equations, Current through through th:rough through through we get 12 = 2.S6 A (A to BJ.
1\ = 6.10 A, I,= 2.66 A.,Is = 2.72 A 30 Q resistor"
L...---li ..... .Z40V Fii".23
:-0jt------'
(An.. )
Current Current Current Curren.t
6O.C resistor -Is. 2.'12 A (8 to C). (An&-) (Ans.) 20 C resiltor" 1\ -12 = 6.10 - 2.56" 3.M A (A taD). 50 Il resistor -1,-1, ~ S.10 - 2.72 .. 3.38 A (D to OJ. (AnSo) 40 CI resi.tor .. is -I. '" 2.72 - 2.56 = 0.18 A (D to H). (Ana.) the following pn>cedure of the different i8 adopted: nodes,
4.3. Nod"l Volta, .. Method

Under this method I. Assume the vol~ge. independent
2. Write the equations for each mode as per Kirchhofl's current law. S: Solve the above equations to get the node voltages. 4. Calcu.lnte the branch currents from the VIIlue. of node voltages, Let U5 conaide. the cireuit shown in th.cFig. Z4 Land M are the two independent nodes; M can be laken WI the reference node. I;et the voltoge of node L (with respect toM! beVL, U.i.ng Kirehhofrs law, we get I+---- V, '1_ V.-------t
.•.(3)
I,
A,
I,
•..(4)E,-=-
.•.(5)
Rcarra nging the terms, we Ifl)t VL

1 2:
~[l 1 1] H
1
t E2 -R +-R· +-R.. --R· --R ~O

-1 '.2
...(6)
Urhcberrec htlich gesc hutztes M ateri"
IS
Ie may be noted tho"t the ubovollodal equatton eontains the following torms : (i) The node voltage multiplied by the sum of (lU eo!\duclrulccs eonnecteti to that anode. This term i. jJ<I$'ti"". (ii) The node voltage at the other end of each branch (connected to this node) multiplied by the conductance of bra neh, These tcnns are negol,·",,'. In this method of solving II network the number of eauotione ,..,quired lor Ihufi/util)n is one less than the ,number ofUuhpenthtU' nodu in the nlJf.work. In general tho n<><l"ltmnlYII'6yield.o "imilnrO<>/ufions. The nodal mcth<><li~ very suitable for CfJmpuW' work" E"aml'ie IG. For the circuit ,.hown in Fig. 25 find I"" currents through Ille r"sisl""C~$ R3 ond R, 50
L
E,-=-
SOV to a
R,
loa
R.
N Solution. Refer Fig. ZO. Let L, M lind N" independent, nedes, lind VI,.and VM - voltages of nodes L and M with respect to node N. Tho nod,,1 equntlens for the nod."" L lind M are:
VL,[ .1 +...!..+...!..J-Et -Y~=·O
HI
R2
R3'
RI
R~
... ,(;)
VAl
Substituting
'[111)E2VL -+-+. Rj R. 1 1
R~. 1)
.----"'0 . R5 H2.
60 VAl
...(m
the vnluos ill (i) lind. (iiI and .s implifyillg,wo get VI,.( 5+"6+
10 -'5-""5,,0
2.5VLVA( - 50 .. 0 5
... (iii}
or
lind .5
V.II(!+.!_+!)-~.
10 5
_ V~_o
5 ...au)
or
or
2,5VJ(- VL -20" 0 - VI,.+ 2.GVM-20 aO Salving Wi) and. (;V), we get VI,." 27.6 V, VAl" 19 ..05 V VI. 27.6
Current throurh R.J

Current tbrough
"R3 '" 10' '"Z. '16A.
(An .. ,
VAl 19.05 a. '"Ri "10" 1.9OIi A.
(AD •• )
19
Ir tIM 1IIMMminaDt..
nil=- of .......
tioM
III mono than two, it ito euie!' &0 pt. the ...lution by uaing
If 11.12 atad Is are die tbrw ~

8u/I • 4u1i +
ilia ~
aJI + oJl + aals-C.1

'l1Mn, tIM ~
ours. CI
fvnn
ofCll.Jw
u-r ....... t!ona

..•(7)
caII[:!::: iII::]trix[.!..! [ .~]rou-.:

a'i
4a:t
8,tI,
+4Jt + aul's.CJ
au
Is
J "3
•••(8)
The Yah. 011" It atad II an
IiYeft[ ~
IIC3
::
.
"3:1 .1
..•[Budl
't
[:!: :! ::]
411. . "3 iIIS3
8
I,.
[~::: ~]
=---"'A--"';:' "----;&--~
call
...[9(6))
•..[9
(e»)
w.... Aa[=:: :: ::] asl

4a:t &IIDDt ......
aU·
'I'bl.iII kDown .. enuner', rwk and
be e.ppIied ta any I!JWt.m 01" IIMe ....... tIouprovided
.. ~,.....IM
_00\ .........,.
___
'I'bl. tb.nm ia MIftIfIti_ u.eful iII..tutjlm. oIDetwarb ill wbic::b _ brazIcIIM may coot&in ofe.lft./.lJ g applka6Ic only to u- JNIatorb w,w. --rent lUtetuly rdat«I. to ualtui/t ...
., .,.,. f»ftItJilIu.. _ • --*

~ _
1M
'I'hUI tbeamn may be stated u fillloWI :
tAM __
0( e.na.{. Uw elllTfilllA
any 6,..."a, ia the
of. _,_ o(i>ldillUllICI'/fdititJuetUftJlb (Uw 1llUftberkin6«1ual to tM 1lIlIrIM~ of _of....,.>. e«:It ofUlllkia iadac to' ... ,~nl' .. d"", o(fItIda _ofe.m.{.,"'" III onIu, .... IM -w.-of .. _,.,.."., 111./. by-..umon, u.~o(UI"id& ant«lual tD
The ,. _ .. _ of appIyI.ll( IUJI8I'PI*Itlan theanm ;. .. IGIlawI : I. Replace all but _oI"the _, ... by thelr illtamal...ma-. If tIM Intemal·raiatance of any ....". ill ~I .. ~ to other reaiaianeeI..-t ill the network, the.owu ;. replaced
by. JbGrt eift:ult.
iIIIImtal,...,._
o(u.
rapediIIC..,.,.... .
10
2. Find the o:ur:rcnts in d;fI:qr~nt ,branehes.i?Yusing Oltm'slaw, _., 3. Repeat the process usingcneh ,.nhc c.ri\.fs. u's the scle e.m.f. each time. The total current in an.)' branch of the circuit, i~ the aigcb,,,ic "urn of currents source.
due ,to caeh
Wh,m, finding (nUll current in any branch, it_is necessary to take into aci:t>unt the directions of'the currents caused by each jtldiviliuai source. currents nowiog in thcsa",edi.r.-clw" boing"ddUiu .. currentg nuwing in opposite directions bei.ng $ub.lrg,,;;#t·e.
,Explanation,
In Fig. 26, rl~1'';1 and 1 repr~sent the values.of currentawhich action nf the two ,~UUrL,~:lol of e.m.f in the network. side bu tic Ii' hod acted alone.
ate due tc the-simultaneous
In the t'ig_ "27are shown the current values which w<luld hove been obtained if!elt-halld.
Similarly Fig, 28 represents conditions obtained when r,i"hl·hond side battery acts alene. By cnrnlrining the current vain",' of Fig. 27 and 28 ..the uctual values of Fig. 26 can be obtained
11
---+
.......,__ I~
I'j----+
1
Fig,
",
... ...
]'
r
r,
till. 28
26
Fig. 27
Obvi«usly,
I] =, II' - I( 12 = l{ -[2' 1,.1' ..
r:
Example IG. By ""'''8 s "1'"TI""itinn theorem.find the eurrents ill the different bru"chesoftfw ""w",,.k show,,;;, Fig. 29.
Fig. 29
in I"lg. 30.,
Solullon. 11" 12:. :I : k';rst slop. Refer Fig. 30. Ttlk e e ..m.f El only and r"e_pla"" ~.m..f. 82 by its zero internal
... -
re~i5w.noe. the circuit i. shown
Urheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M aleri a
21
I;_ _r~ F-~~~--T---~~~~N
_It.. _low Lr-~~~ __Tm__ ~VV~~'

81l
120
."
a
f·ig.31 Total reststa nee Current through 8 0 resistance, 11' " Ourrent th rough 10 0 resistance, =8+1.°>:12=13450 10 + 12 .
1:.~5 ~
lA87 A
N = 1.487"
Current through 6.Q resistance,
12
\2_1O"
0.81 A
/" = 1487X~ 12 + 10 .
Second rio)p. Rofer Fig. 31. E.m.r. E I. is removed.lshoncircuited in the Fig. 31. and current
'" 0675 A . is shown
due to e.rn.f E. is found. The current
12><a '" 10 + 12 + 8 " 14.8 11 Current through 10 Q resistance. 12" =1~88 " 1.892 A Current through 8
n resistance,
J(" 1.892 x 121: 8 " 1.135 A
Current
th ro ugh 12. n resi sum ce, 1"· 1.892 x 128 8 " 0.761 A c +
The total curren ts in d i!Teren t branehea
lire :
Current through 8 n reststanee,

I, "J,' - 1, Curren~ through lOll
W '"
1.487 - 1.135 " 0.352. A ((rom L to M).
tAn .. )
(An,.)
res'atllnce •
• tJ ",12--12'" 1.892-0 .. 1 '" L082 A (from N to M). 8 Current th.rouGh 1:2 Q res'stn.ncc, I = 1' .. r" 0.675 .. 0.757"
1.432 A (from III to Q).
(An".)
Urheberrec htl lch gcsc hutztes M ateri a
22
EL£(:IJIICALTI3I~V
Example 11. By I!'P<'l'pOritioJl'~ {Uld llu! ~"rn!lll in 2 Fig. 32. I"'m,,,1 ,..,oi&IlJIICUo{th""du4re nqi4iWk.
0..10
.. 4.
",in,
,.."ittaMe
,It.",,,, in
Eo
L
N
0.10 L
U..,V
0.10 L N 4~V
Eo
N 0.010 I,
..
'0
G.OIO
~
lIQ
..
20
au
'0 Fir. 33
0
Pig. 32 SolutiOil. FINt .up. Rof.,.. Fig. 33.
f¥,34
E Z hill! been l'e!tIC)Vcd. R....iltances 2 Q and 0.08 0 are In. parallelllCfOal! poInuoL and N. 2,,0.08 .RUI· 2 + 0.08 • 0.078 Q
This resi.ta""" i. in ..,riM with 0.1·0. Hence. total resistanCe offered to battery
B,
.. 0.1 + 0.018 .. 0.176 Q c. Current, Current through 2 Q rosiltllnce,
" .. 23.3 " 0.::a~2

Second
.. 0.896 A ICrum N 10 L I
.tep. RaCer Fig. 34. NML and NQL

2+0.1 •
E I h.. boon ",,,,,,,,ed. Combined rodetance oI'path. .. 2,(0.1.0095 0

Tota.l resutance offered taB,
.. 0.G116+ 0.08 .. 0.1711 Q
., Current
Apin,
'2" 24.117 x 0.1

thl"llU&h the lI.O ~
0.1 .. 2 .. 1.17 A are present A. fAIIaj.
Hence total mmmt
when both ~ •. /, '+1... 0.896 .. 1.17 ......
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri"
D.C. a~CUITS
AND NETWORK ANALYSIS
23
ElrJUllple
18. Using 8up<!rpo.ition
theorem. /i'ul the currents

5'1 R,
ill tit. circuit shown
ill tit.
Fig. 35.
~+I
r-
30V E,
'.
...____,t-IlII
t. E,
1S0 R,
120V 20 1--.... 'VY'0..,...,.._._.J
R"
Fig. 35 SOlution. First stop. Refer Fig. 36. E3 bas been removed. Rosi.tan_ R2 and R3 are in parallel, .. R".rnllol 20" 15 = RRzRa = 2il+i5 = 8.57!J z + Ra 50
R"
Fig. SO This rosi.wnre;s in series with R,. :. Towl resistance offered to battery E I '" 8.57 + 5 Current Current Cummt
t'ig.37
= 13.57
1
1,' = 1:.~7 " 2.21 A
Ii ~ 2.21 x 20 : 15 '" - 0.947 A 13'" 2.21 >:20 ~ IS
= 1.263
A.
Second step. Refer Fig. 37.

E I haR boon removed. Rcorislanceo R, and R3 are in parallel,
RlRs 5>:15 .. R..,.u.1 '" RI +Ra = 6 + 15 = 3.7511 This resistance is in series with 20 Q resiswnce.
J rhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M atm;"
:. Total reslstanee
olTc.red to 82 .3.75
[:I •
+ 20 .. 23.76
. m5.05 A .
Current Current Current
2i 76
120
1("-5.05'"
15 .7 5 ~ 15" -3. 9A
Is·" 5.05 " 5 : 15" 1.262 A
Now 5uper'tnp<>SinR the results, we get 1,,, It' .. 1,·" 2.21 + (- 3.79 A)" -l.5SA. (Ans.) 12 .. /~' .. J,." - 0.947 + 5.05 ,,4.1 A. (An ••) 1J " J3' + .1,·" 1.268 + 1.252 " 2.52 A. (AlI ••) 7. THEVENlN'STHEOREM Thevnnio's theorem is quito useful when the current in one branch of fl network is to be detormi ned or when the current in nn ad ded brunehis to he ea louin ted. ~11sta 1<81"", {or til" purpose of ~Iermi" ing th« curren I.in a resistar, RL connutcd <lero""two Mrm ""'/, of" net w<>t'kOt. ich OO"/ain, sourceS oft. m.f. and resistor», the ,,,,twork can be rep/aced by l II si,I!gle..o ur"" of 0, mf wid n series /'«Sistor, RII.. This e. mf.. EO'I;.$ etjuttl In potential diffennce 1 be/ween i'he termin(li$ of Me n.eh.uork ~uhcn tJw resistor, R,. U: remol.led: tlu rcai6Jauccof&erit3 resistor, ROD U eql",llo Me equioaten: re.isumee oftlu! TUllworh with the resistor, R" removed (or"" it is so"",limeg culled. "Ih" re,is/ance o(rhe nelwor:k wilen u;e"Jed from the terminuls under consiilerati",,")".
Honea
I ..~ - (RL+R,h)
,,. -
(I(I)
.E"I.lnnatIQn. Let uS consider tho ci I'C'Ui t .hown in Fig. sa (0), Tho follow ing steps 8"'_' requ ired to fi n d curren t throug h the load resistance .RL. . I. RcmGvo RI. from the circuit tcnnina'is A and Band redraw the circuit 0" shown in Fig. 38 lb). Obv iOus]y the te rminals have been "pcn ci reu ired,
,W
D B (8)
rrA,
(b)
As
(e)
(d)
Fig. 38
.D.C. CIRCUITS AND NETWORK ,MlAL V,slS
25
2. Calcu late the open -e in:uit voltqe (V« .. EIA)which applla ... acroa& terminalB A and B, when they are open i.e. when R£ is removed. 'i1Iio voltap is EIII ('i1I"venin's voltag.). A little thought will reveal that
E
'"
..
RI +Rz
ER:z
, .•(11) •
(.:
J = RI~R2
and E,~ dR2.o
R~~
]
resistance
3. Short circuit the battery and find the Theven;n the terminal. A, and B [Fig. 38 (e)] RIXR2 R", ,. RI + R2 + Rs
R,h of the, network a8 seen from

...(12) removed
4. Connect RI. back across !.hI> terminals A and B from where it was temporarily earlier [Fig., 38 (d)l. Current through HI. is given by l ..~ . {R,. +R/.>
E:.:ample 19. With u/enmCII to the ndwo,.k shown ill FiB. 89, by w;il!g TMvenin'Slheorom find the{i1l1owil!g: (i) Th•• quiualent e. m1 a(the "etworlt when ~iewl!d (rom terminals L and M. (ii) TIu) oquil.'<llem ""1$1<>",,., I1:elwOrkwlu)n look.d Inlo (rom termin"l. L and. M. (iii) Current in tlu) Iood re~"'"RCI! R£ 0(30 n.
orl"~
60
G !""J~QI~
L M Fi.g.39 network, (Rtl ia connected .
Solution. (i) Equivalente.m.f. aftho Refer Fig. 39. Current in tho network before load resistance 24+6+2
=..........1!L_=UiA .. Voltage across terminals

Hence, so far a8 terminals 48 Vl. CAns.l . 60
L
LM, V~ = E'A :,24 x 1.6 = 38 V.

L· and M are connected, the network has an e.m.t. oUI V (and not
M
Pig, 10
EE-~
6a L
M Urhcberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri a
aECTRICAL
TECHtlOLOOY
{iiI BqvlvaleDt reIIi.tanoo ofth" network: There lin! """0 parallel paths between ""inIBL lind M.lmagine that battery of 48 V is removed but lIot iIB intamal reai.tance. Then, resistance of lhe cireuit as looked into (rom point;; Land M is (Fig. 41)
R ... R
• (iii)
rio
.. 24 "IS + 2) .. 6
24 + (6 • 2)
(An s,,
C_nt
In Rt.,1 !
1=
Rofer Fill. 42.
--!!!!_ = ~
nih +RL
6 + 30
.. 1A.
(An
s, ,
ExaJapie to. Find Ihcur,..,,,,Ihroug/, fiOoh/1ls reslstollU;tJ Uw Tllcllellill'uheonm.

R, .. 7.2. C
the d"""il./",,,,o ill lhe Fig. 4.9.
R.,,5QO
Fig. 43
8oIaticm. To 80Ivc the problem of tho network shown in Fig. 43 by Thevenin'~

,1:11.
thoorcm.
lot·
R~ be aaaumod lUI dlaeonn.cc:ted ..... hown in Fig. 44. With the reoolfltao<l<l R, diJ<COonod..d. the current in tho elosed ci rc u i t consisting of R h R, and 1_
R I + R3 + I'
..
12 .. O.2fiA. 7.2 + 40 + 0.8 R..-16,66n
5OD(RJ
M Fig. 44 t·jg.45 Vol tall8 ftC1'OIII terminala LM ... V.., .. 8th 0.25 ,,40 .. 10 V The equivalent intarnpl _!slance of the. network between the wroninals dillCQllliected.
L and M with R.
Urheberrechtlich
geschutzles
Material
ne.
CJKCUm
AHO NI!T1IIOIK
ANAl. YSIS
21
•• Cuneot th""""
50 0 (RJ,I_illtance
I
(Refer Fil. 46),
EtA 10 .. 15A. 4Aa.1 • B,,, +R£ .. 16.66 + 50·'
'~Il.
eire";''''''''_
ill 'M
J'W. 46.
UIilIIl 7'luUl!nln" tI"!!'''flm find lIu! ~U""""t t""'UlfA 'M 2.5" remtan«
in ,""
.........
d~1Ieded
To IOIve the problem by using Thmrenln'. th.......,.... let,.2.fja _i.tIln"" at shown In Pia. 47.
~lJ.~ij
be thawn
With the 2.5 0 _i8tance dlllCOllflllCted, the current In the cl..oo circuit (Contimn& of II Q resistance connected in _.j(!tl with combined ,..",iBtanceof(S 0 + 4 0) and 100 (COImI!I:Icd in parallel)!, ,. 60 _ _]Q_.5A II (S + f) x 10 Ii + I> + {8+41+ 10 VoIbp.,_ IermlnaII LJI .. V.... Ell • ISx f- 20 V The equtnII.al internal ~ of the network between the ten:nlnal. L and JI (with U Od..... nect.c!).
ria. 41
Fill- 48
tE~
IIIn IlM
(or
R;) ~
of : IS0 and 10 Q in. parallel : this combined
0 )Uln --
with 8 D. Thw total resiatanc:e, then. b In panllol with f 0,
=.
BI-Ra.'
[:::+S]X4
(j
5 x 10 8 +10 +
• 9.38 x "-2.80 13.33
•• Current thl'llUlh
u9
<Refer Pia'. 48), I.~ B,• + Rl. _~.

2.8 .. 2.5
3.'n A. IA.,I
28
Example 22. Usi"g Thece« in 's theorem. calculate Ihe'pot."tial and 111in Fig. 49. .
120 2('1 L
di{f.rrTlce aC""", terminals L
140
M Fig. 49 To find Voc; Remove 14 Q resistance thereby epen-cireuitlng tconinni. I:. lind AI (see Fig. 60). Obviously there is no current in through 2 n resistor and henl)l) no drop aeross it. ..
U
Solution. Firat'step'
VI.I1"VOC"VNP 1211 N
2
18 V-=-
_r:r,:j -i)
V
('I M P Fig. 50 Fig. 51 Fig. 52 A.sseen, current flews due to the combined action of the two bnttcrio.!ili.Net voltage in NPVU circuit '" 36 -12 24 V. ~ 12,+6 -18 n - Totlll resistance
J!
Voc
t±L
120
2U
R"
Hence .
1,,~-.1A 18 - 3 VNI' '" 12 + drop

ac:roI<S
6 g res;is;tot
"I2+6><.1=20V 3
.. Voc. V.. " 20V Second step: To nnd ~ or Ru.

internal As shown in Fig. 51, the two batteries resisuu'tce9 am zero. As seen, have been replaced byshort.-eimuila 12><6 Ri "R,~" 2 +6! 12= 2 + 12+6 =6n lS.C.) since their
The Thevenin's equivalent c;l'tuit reconnected across terminals L and M. The p.d, across Land p.d.Il",""""L andM
is shown in Fig. 52 where the 14
resistanee
hu
been
Third step: To nnd p.d. aero.s Lad M M am. bo found with the help of Proportional = 20" 14 + 6 = 14 V
14
(Au&)
Voltage Pormula,
:Itcp:~::::
14
n resistancc
1:i~l: =~ll,:.
29
8. NOItTOI\'STHEOREM
Whcteu~,'Thc'Venini'~ theorem was ut'ocftu simplify D. netwoek to a consto.nt-vQltage SOUjC~ and series resistance. NOr(onts theorem can be used to resolve il network inow i1 ccnstant-current source and a parallel resistanee, TIl<!i.nto~tmng"ofvoltagoS<)urccs and currentsourees by YS"orTheven;n'~ and Norton's thecrems L. sometime. useful in drc.!lit analysis, The theorem may be stated Ill! follows: '~'ArlY lu.t(J·,tel"min(_d' linear network cQJ'if(.r.ining indep(!lId'enlooltage and (:r,rnml SQurt;1'..$may b.t~ ""I'i"""d by "" "'Iu;vuic'l! "Uri",,! -IN ill JXI""Uel with a .... .-..Ia",,,, IlN ,"he", IN i. the ,hart circuit cl.:l'n:lltnt nettoork. termuwls ruu1R~~i8 lite equim:lie'Jt I'csisla;u;:eu(ndwork (V' ~n{l"t}m the terminals b,d ,viII. all voltage .0 un",. short circuited and aU current .a~I'Ces ope" circuited," The fo\lowing procedure may be adopted to determine the Norton's equivalent 'circuit" 1. Colculate the' short circuit eurrent Ihd at the network I"rminnls. 2. ,Redraw the network with eueh vol w,ge source replaced by 0, short cu-cu it in series with its in ternal resistance and each eu rrent .~(.sree by a n open eireul t in parallel wi th j ts in tarnal resistan 00. . 3. Calcu Iale the resistance (R H) of the redea IV!! network as seen from the network termi nals, (The resistal)oo IlH is the same value as used in 'I'h.even;n',s equivalent circuit). Example 23. By u.iI'S NOr/Oil'" Inca,'Il'" fiJ,d IJlg cur,..'" ill tlu: 12!.! resist",,"" 0(1.1 re circuit
i:li
sba um in Fig. 53.
14 (l
Solution.
With 12!.! "",,i"Ul~~~removcd
L-M $Ihort eiruurted, ehnrt-circuit IN"
and terminals current,
,----------r---------,L
s- ,,2.5
20
A.
With 20 V battery replaced by II short circuit, the resistance or the network. as from rerminals Land Mis
'''''0
120
. 8 ~ (10+ 14) The Norton's equivalent eireuit i••hown in Fig. 54. The current lhr-qugh 12 n resistance is
Ilv" ~'!.!}iL"
6n
~--------~------~M
I " 2.5 "6
.\2
,,0.833.A.
(ADs.)
ExDmplo 24. For Iho' "Mwork .hmlln in Fig. 55 deriue Norton'., "'I""iuaic".f; ciI'C"it and find til" current through 24 kll. resistance.
8.8IcD
a.411D
110 V
Solution. th ....... m givea.
Fill. lIS With 24 ka l'IlfIilllance removed and terminal. 1.-M abort cimlited •• lIfI8I'PI*ltioa
IN
Prom Fiti. 58 (a I,
From Fig. 58 (6),
""I +'2
II - 10 x t.:~~.6 - &.8 nIA 120 12- 2.• x 1000 .0.06 A or GOnIA IN" II +12 -&.8+50 _115.11mA
I, UIoD L
JAkQ
L-L
t;]411D..
120 V
\Ii'
-4M
""
R
N •
2.4 x (9." + 6.6) 2.4 .. (9." ... 6.6) .. 2.08!J
n!nt
thl'Otllh 12 lin l'IlfI18tanoe. x
The Norloo', equivalent eireuit illllhown in Fig. 57. Cu r-
Ii.'W
~
I- 65.8 2.:ao: 24
•• ••41,\, (Au.)
IlRfuI
.. MA.XIMUM IPOWERTRANSFER TBBOREK

mlUlication 1IdWonb. It i8 stated as Coilowl : -Jla.dnuwI power output U obtllin«f. from 0 network
This thevrem is Pl'rtieularly
COl' _!yain,
COllI'
IIJMlltMlood~ueq""'toIMOIJtput"""'tont:eo{the ... _ ~ M _II (rom 1M l~rmiJwuo{tM 1«Mr. Ally network ean be convertecl into • IinlJe volt.qe 1OU1'C8 by the UN oCTheYenin'. theorem (Fla. 58). The maximum power tranlfer theoram aima at f1ndqRL....:h that the .......... dJ.. iploted in R£ I.maximum.
Urheberrechtlich qeschutztes ~tateria
nc,
CIRctJ ITS AND NETWORK ANALYSIS
31
...(14) For P to be maximum,
From wbich, Rt .. R,~ It i, worth noting that WIder these conditions
••. 16) ( the Yllltqe ae""", th .. load.ia half the open.an:uit
vultuge at the terminols L and M.

: .. Maximum
' ..
power, P""".
[E'~J (R1.+B£}
E1J. R1. ·481.
...U5 (a) I
The process of acljusting the load resistance for maximum power tran.fer is ""lied '/«Nl tnQ.Il:hillS' .•Thi. is done in the following typical """"":. (i) Motor~bere starter motor ill matched to the bette",. (ill Tel.ph ..",! lin~~ClndTV aerit'! klUb-these are matched to the telephone iMtrument and TV receive. reapedi vely. E .... mple 26. For the circuit ~hown in Fig. 59, {ind tM currmt thruu&h R£ it ta.\n "" ""lues of 5 C and 25 C. AWl, cakulal. tM ""I ... of RdiJr wh~h tM powu din/paled in it wordtl be maxim urn and {ind thi.·/IfI,"",.. 200 p 300 L
10 C
!'ig. 59 Fi,. 60 Solution. The open circuit voltage V"" (.i.I... c.i.lled Thevenin'lIvoltqe aero ss tenninals L and M i$ equal to tho volta.go drop afll'OSS10 Cl'1lSi8tance. Ourrent flowing througb the circuit
" , 0
.
whoa
to!
Su.) which
appcan
EPQ
:. Voltage drop over 10 Henee

hilS
n resistance
=~ 20+
10
.. 2 A
z2xIO=20V
V.... Bill .. 20 V
The rcststsnce "f the circuit as looked inta the network from plinla l;. and M " ..ben batter,y
been removed), RI. 10 x 20 RIA" 30 + 10 120 .. 30 + 10 + 20"' 36.67
The whole circuit up toLM can.now be replaced by a 8ill81e SOUlW of e.m.r. and lingle ,,"1.Ian.ce a. sbown in Fig. 60.
32 (il When RL '" 5 .Q, (iil When RL = 25
I•~
R,/i + RL
,,____gjL_ = (M8 A. 36.67+ 5 A. IAns.l
(,An s,)
n.
1= a6.6~0+ 25 ,,0.324 theorem.
A~eQrd;ng ttl the maximum power' transfer when RL'" R; or when RL" 36.67 Q .. Maximum power drown by R,
power drawn by RL would be maximum
= PRL ,,( _ E'h._ 12 RI. R'.h +RL J
=l Rt:'R,
10. DE.LTA STAR TRANSFORMATION
(EI~)2
RL= 4R/;
(An&.)
E,l
C' R,.=.Rt,l
202 " ;." 36.67 '" 2.72 W.
When networks IuIving u !n.rgc number ofbr.nnches arc to be solved by tho usc ofKirchhofl'.s law, a great difficulty is expcrieneed in solving severnl simultaneous equations, Bueh complicated networks, however, can be simplified by successivoly replacing della rnl'llhes by equivalene $tar ")'$tcms and »ice "","0.
R ..
FiS.61 Fig, 62 Conslder the two circuits shown in the Figs. 61 und 52. They will be ;fthe resistance measured between any two of the terminals 1. 2. and 3 is thesame in the two eaSCS.
.q"'ooJ.,,1
IR J211= !R l:zl~
or RJ"~
...{l6) ...117) ...(18)
= R~2S+ RaJ) R12 .. R23" R3J
and
... 9) (
••,(201
...(21)
Urhcberrec htlich gesc hutztes Mater;"
D.C. CIRCUrrs
A,NI) NETWORK AN"'~ YSIS
33 ...(22)
R 3" R,~ RlJR2J+ Rl" + R23

'.faistuncu. follows:
From above it may benotcd that 11!sislnTlJ!eof eoch arm ofth~ star i, si""n by '''~ product of th~ .,.,,,i'lntlc'$ of tm two ckltnsidu that mm (It its end .liuMed by tM .um of the th,.".. delta From eqns. (17) to (19), eqns. for "tor to delta cnnversion can also be obtained. These are
Ill!
.•.(23)
..,(24)
••,(25)
In electroniea, star and del ta ciI"CU iIS are genera Uy referred to as r and II cin:uits rea~'tti vely. Example 26. Fie. 63 .how. a number of ,.,sistUJU:u conna:tI!d in cklrn <md 'Illr. Usins starlckll4 00 .. ....,,...'·011 method oom/Jet.lhe ".twark resist"''''" memun<ti between (i) L and M fii) If{ and N and (iii) N and L. L
HI I'ig,lj3 Snlutiou. Three l"e$isblnCC'! 12 Q, 60 and, a Q are starC<lnnecteci. Transform them into dolta with ends at the same points ns before'.
R,
120
R"
2 Fig. 64 Refer Fig. 64.
RI'.! = BIRi + R~3 + RaR,

Rs .. 12><6+6><8+8><12 8 -270
Urheberrcc htlich gcsc hutztes M ateri"
34
~(.ECTRICAI.
1'ECtiNOLOOY
. R1R2.+R#~+R~1 R2!'" RI'" ..

~ 12 ~ 8 +8"8+8,, .. '12 . Similarly L R
31-
12'_180 -
_ 12 X 8 + 6" 8 + 8" 12 - 36 Q. 6 -
120.
2.7D
1.80 Fig. 65 Fig. 66 F.ig. 65 shows this transformed eircuit.eonnected to original delta connected ci reui t 18 g, 3 a Bnd 2 Q. Here IBn and SGn ore in pnrallel ; . 3 g and 27 Q Hro in parallc), and' 2 nand 18 0 are in parallel. Thcso eeststanees arc equivnlent to: 18 x 36. 3 X 27 . 2 X 18 fa + 36 " 12 Q;'"3 t 27 2.7 nand 2+-18 " I.e Q
N
resistances In the
This is shown in Fig. 66. a) Rcs.iJltonco between Land M.
Rut"
(iii Resistance between M and N.
1>. •. '"
12 X (2.. + 1.8)" 3Z1 Q. (Ana.) 7 12 + (2.7 + 1.8)
...... {ii,l Reslseanee R 8:1amp'"
1.8 x (12 + 2.7)" 1.6 n. "'_

1.8 + 12 + 2:7 •• " 2..7 ,,(12 + 1.8) ,,2.25 2.7 + (12 + 1.8)
L
" ... 5.
between N lind L.
Q
NL
(Ang.)
.27. In Ihe circuit show" in .Fig. 6'1•.find the rcsist<l1,,;e betwoon M and N.
Urheberrec htlich ge5c h utztes M a1ri"
!H;, CI~CUITS
AND NETWORK ANA~ YSIS
35
Solution. Connecting the 1 2 3 delta [Fig. 68 (i)) to equ.ivalent .tar (Fig. 68 (;.i)1 R,= itj and
,.
..
R~31 ='~=L5n RI2 +R23 .. R315 + 2 +3 R~12 ... 2 x 5 _ "1 RI'l+[tza + R31 5+2+3 R3IR23 3 x2
R3 .. RI2+R23 + R3l'" 5 +2+3 .. 0.. 0 6
R"
3(1
50 20
RIO
1.SDR,
3 (il
2
2, (ii)
Fig:,6B
Thus the o.rigina.! circuit reduce. to that .hown in Fig. 69 which further reduces to the 01"CU;t shown in Fig. 70.
I. L
Fig. 69
Fig. 70
Now, the inner .tar circuit of Fig. 69 Bhown B8 Fig. 71 (i) is equivalent to the delta circuit shown in Fig. 71 (Ii) as appears from calculation. given below :
Rig"' R1Rz+ RzRa +RaRl =8.x 10 +10 x 10 + 10 ><8 .. 26 Q Ra 10
_ R}R2 +R~3+RaRl R'i!:IRI
8x 10+10x
10+ 10'x8
-325'" ...
_ R1R2,+RzR3 + BaR 1 _ 8 x 10 + 10 x 10 +10><8 _ 26 n R 31 R2 10 _w.
36
ELECTRICAL 'rnCIINOUlQV
A"
100 R, 2
(i) Fi!l:.71
260
260
R,.
100 32.50 3
A",
(il)
,..'111., given circuit thus ultimately

equivalent to the circuit given in Fi.!,:.73.
reduces
00 the cir<:uit shown in Fig. 72 which in tum i.
13.9
13,90
15.60 12. In Fig. 72, the observe that;

Fig,
Fig. 73 and are equ ivalent to :
30 Q nnd 26 Q arc in parallel
30><26 30 + 26 '" 13.9 30 and 26 Q are in parallel 32.5 nand
rot
to : 13.9 to:
and are equivalent
n (as
..bove)
30 Q ate in pa ra lIcl a nd are equivalent ,32.6 >< '" 15.6 §I 30 32.5 + 30
Hence total resistance
between II{ and N. R

MN -
. ,,4~::S = 9.00n.
_ 15.6~. (13.9 + 13.9) 15,6 + (13.9 + 13,9)

IAn",,)
E""mple 28. Find tM current I supplied by 1M battery for Fig, 74. u.ing delta/lIar tro1l$formotion.
I)'C. CIRCUITS AND NETWORK ANALYStS
2011
L
250
ro a
io a
I
150
I.
15V
2.511
Fig. 74
Solution. Delta eonneeted resistances sta r n. given below : (Sec Fig. 75) L
25 0, 10 Q and 15 Q are transformed L
to equivalent
A,
A,.
lSIl
(i)
1011
Iii)
Fig. 75
R_
1-
RI~3L Rn+R23+R31
10><25 10+15+25 15>< 10 + 15 ... 25
:SQ
RR3
R2aRL~ • - R12 + R2s + RallO
=3Q
R1Z+Ri/J ...Rsl
R31R23
25 x 15 10+15+25=7.50
Tho given circuit thus reduces to the circuit shown in Fig. 76.
30
10.29 0
3D
2.50 I~V fig. 76 2.511 ~'ig.71
Urheberrechtlich
geschutztcs
Material
38 The equivalent .",.i~tance of

(20 .. 5) Q
ELECTlUC"L: TECIlNOl.OOY
II (10
.. 7.5) Q
= 2li x 17.5 26 .. 17.5
=, 10.290
Thus the given circuit ultimately redUc:e!l to the circuit shown in Fig. 77. ToW resistanee » 10.29 .. 3 ...2.6 • 15.791l Hence current. through the battery, 1= 15~79 = 0.95 A. (An .. ) Ezample 29 •.Find the cummt delta/star tmn,{ormnlion.
in the galoonon •• ter ann in tile network dow.n in Fig. 78. u.UJg
4V
star
nil given
SoluUon. Delta eenncetcd ro.ist.1n""" below: (Sec Fig. 79)

R.
I"
~'ig. 76 100 Q. 20 Q and 40!l are transfcrmed RIl!R31
to
equivalent
RI~ .. R23 +R3\
• 20 + 40 .. 100 = 12.5!l
a
20x 100
2· RIl! .. R23 .. R31
R23Ru
.ox20 .. 20 +40 .. 100 ~ I> Q 20 +40+ 100 ~ ss

t, 100 x 40
R3
Ria +R:13+R.3l"
RSI.RZj
1000
R"
R,i
200
400
(iJ hd
Urheberrec htllch ge5c h(jutes M ateri"
D,C ORCUITS AND NI!TWOR,K ANAl.YSIS
39
to the circuit shown in Fig. 80. L
The given eireutt thus reduces
4V
Fi(;,SO
The equivnlent
.... istance,
R .. ,,(60 + 12.5) x (80 + 25J" 42.9

P()
(60 .. 12.5) .. (80" 25)
.. Totall1!Sistonce
of the eireuit,
RpM"
42.9 + 5" 47.90. 0.0835 A
r.
The main current,
4 l» 47.9"
Let 1,.. "",.,.en! in the arm NL1', 12 .. current in the arm LP" and I... current in tho galvanometer. Then,
(80 25) . I, - 0.0635 x '[ (80 .. 25) ++(60 .. 12.5) , ," 0.0494 A _,
and
.• Potential difference
I_
2-
0.0835
-l
'J'
(60 + 12.5) ]_ (80 .. 25) + (GO.. 12.5) - 0.0341 A.
between
and between P and N and between Land N Hence the current
Land P ,,0,0494 X 60" 2.964 V ,,0.0341 x 80= 2.726 V " 2.964, - 2.728" 0,236 V the galvanometer, .. 0.00236 A. lADs.)
flowing through
1" "Oi~6
lLCOMP~nONTHEOREM
The, compellSlltion
(i)
theorem
is po,rtkularly
useful for the following purposes: ore varied and for
To calculate
the sensitivity
of a bridge network.
(ii) To nnalyae those networks whe,... th" values of the bronch elements .Iudyi'lll" the effect of tolerance on sueh vo.l\11)8.
Urheberrec htllch gcsc hutztes M ateri"
40 This theorem "If

II
is stated
lUI follows:
~Iumge, say t.R, i. made in tm ,"",irto ..... of".I1)' bronch of II ",,'work WMII the.currellt WIU originally 1, thell the. chonge of .umllll 01 ony other poinJ ill 1M lIetwork may be en/cum/eel by "~u,mjllg that IIII.e,m.f, -1 t.R h... bun introdll«d into I.he chansed braneh: whU. ,,11 olher ~urcu ha"" their e.m.,.. ~upp,.. •• od and are repreHnted f,y their IlIwmd re~i •.tall= Oll/Y",
12. RECIPROCITY THEOREM

The theorem is stated
8S
follows:
"III any linear biIaurolll.tworA, ifo soarce of e, nLf, E in OIly branchprodu.ceaa c~lIllin allY other branch, thell the some •. m.f. acting in the "c(}IId branch IQ(>uld pl'Odaco the some currellt /. ill th,/i,..1 brallChw. In other words, it simply known a. the lroll$fen"esistance means that E and 1 are mutually (or impedance in B.C. systems)_ transferrable. Tho ratio E I.l is
13. MlUltfAN'S
THEOREM sources
Tho theorem can be applied to a network Iwving a combination of vol mge and ""nent .inee voltage source cap be con vcrted Into 8 eu rrent source and Ilia,.".,,,,,,.
The theorem The thecrem is applicable is stated only to two
where there Drc re. i~tanee elements between the sources.

in tho following manner:
SO"'"""" connected
di_tly
in (>4rollel.It is not applicable
"My number of current. Boa""", ill parallel may b. Nlplaced by a .ingl~ enrrent """""' wh_ cur,..,,,/ is Ih. o/a.bmio .um of individ .... 1 ooa"", currents: and SO""'" ""$islllnCIJ is 1M pwU/kl colllbinatio.1I Dfilldi~idIUJ130 ..rc.rosiKtallCC8·.
mGHLJG8TS
1. Kirrhhntrs
tRWII-:
Fir.sl ltlu): I currents ~ntorini _,t currents leaving 2. S"""nJ 1010: 1: potential rises ~ 1: potential dropo. App~""tIDIl' ofKlr<:hhoQ'.IllWII includo the fcillowina: (i) BTo_ncb_mont method (ii) Maxwelr. loop (or meAh) """"lit _thod «ii) Nodal ",,[tap ""'thod. The ",,]ulions of the Q8tworb invo"",, Ihe 11M of the fallon, t.beorems : SupelpOllition tbeorem Thevenin'.s theorem Nortan'illheorem
Maximum power tnmaCer ~
3.
Delta .tar tnnsiJnlnlUoo

Com_lion theorem Reaproc:;ly tbeorem MiU...... ~tl!eore""
O.C, CIRCUITS AND NETWORK ANA~ YSIS
41
OBJECTIVE Cboose tbe Con-ect Answer
TYPE QUESTIONS
I.
2.
3.
4.
KitclIhocr. eu,rn,nt 10... tIuIt (n) net cum>nt at tho junction ill potiti ... (b) alphrai .. um of the meeting at tho junetian ;. .oro (c) no r:urrnnl. am I.e. ve the jum:tion without tome current, ent.erin,1 it, (d) totel sum ofcurn>nto m .. tini at the Junction u'""ro. A«ordlllg to Kirebhorr. volmp low. tho .lgebroic IlUmor nlliR dl'OJ» nnd e.m.&. in,any clooed loop or 0 network i. alway. I,,) neptivo (b) po.itiv. (0) determined by hnttery e. m.f,,_ Cd) 0<'1'0_ Kirchhoff., <:UlTImt law i. oppHooble '" <IDly (a) juncti.on in a Q,otwork (1)) cloood loop" iII .. netwark (el eleetrie circuits Cd) eJt.:tronio ciro:ulia, Kirchhoff. voltnge lnw i....)ato<! to (dJ beth (a) aDd Cb! (a) junction ".ltngN (b) hnltef)' e.m.r•. CellR drops
now
\.0,,,,.
""",,,,1&
~} none orthu above.
Suporpooition theorem eon' be app!lod only to cittUiuh"ving' la) resiltive elom<mtt (b,) pa.ssivQ eloroems ~) "",,·Ii ••• r .Iemenlo (d) Ii"""r bilnt<>nd S. The _Ion which IlUporpositlon thoo ...... !a ~ i. (a) rec:lprocily (6) duality Cc) pon·lin"orily 7. Thove.niQ resiatanee RfJ. is. fouDd Ia) by re""",ing vcltage sources along with tbeidn"'mal .... i.o!<lnee. (1)) bY .horwimliHni the giv,>tItwo lerminal. Co)betweeD any two 'open' tenlllnah (d) between Kame open te:nzt~nallas fbt E~II. So ,An Ideal voltnge source 'ohould hove ((I) large value of e,lII.f. (b) .mall value or e.mf
(c):terO
SOUf1:e
~.
.Ie"""'...
(d)
linearity.
resistance
9.
10.
F.r a voltoge """"'" (a) temiliuo I vollnp i. nlw~yo low er than""""", e. ""f, (b) ",noln.l.ollage cannor be blp_, th~n .... ...., .'.,n.f. (e) the .. uree e. ""r: and tem1inal vol!A~ are eq,uaI_ To determlne the polarity oflbe voltage drep acro .. a, ,.".illWr. it is 10 know (al value .rcunene lhroUllb tho ... istor (b) direct.i.n .f eurren , through th • ..,.i.tor (e) value or ,eol.tor (d) e.m.fa, in the cireuit,
""""""''''Y
ANSWERS
1. So Cb) Co)
2.<dl
1l-. (bJ
11.,•. 1
10.
(1)),
<t.(dl
a. (d)
6. (d)
t.(d.1
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri a ...
42
ElE.CTRiCAL TOCHNOLOOV
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
s..
9.
10. U.
12..
Deflee the foUowing tem~,: Circuit, Electri ea I network. Active network. Nocio Md B!"II.I!Oh. What ate I.h.e limitation. ofOIu!1'slaw? State and explain Kirchhoff. law.·. Diacuso brielly 8J111licalion cr KirchhoO'o: I.", •. Explain the nodal vcltoge melbod for .. !villi nel-n... How are !be nodal equa liao. ? Explain Cramer's rule UJed for .. Irina equations by di!tenDinAnlf. State cnd explain superpos; lien theere",. Stato Norton'. tbecrem. Li.1 th.e .Ie~ fo~fmdilli!be current in a brand> of a netwo.rk ",ilb lb. help of this theorem. State Thovenin'. tboore",. Stale t..b:o ~um power tniD.1!lfer ebecrem and "plAin itil impgrtanco. Sial<! Ibe """",,"'''\Um the<m!m and dlll<:USllllO application. SLaI<> illman'. theorem, M
wnW"
UNSOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Detennine tho magnitude and dinlction of the CU~I Fig.SI. in e•• b of the bottori •• L. M and N .howD in !be .
40
eo
20
110
30V
.-;~
2.
Mr
Fig, 81 Two bau.eri .. are eenneeted in J"In.J1el. Tho e. m.1: ·1IIJd internal ",lIistance of one "'" no v and 6 a re.pectively and Ibe ee .....opeoding .111_ for eUler ure 130 V and ( .a ~e]y. A resPtance of20 a is connected """"'" the ""....uo! t:ombinalion. Calruiate : Iii The value and dJreo\lon. cflb. "",""",I in.ach battery. <iiI The terminal volLaIle. ]An... (i) 0.1786 A. .5.2678 A (ii) 1M.928 VI !Hlnt. Terminal voll3p" (I, + I,lR] Twc .. I... '" al!d 8 sre CO!l!lectM in par.al!e~ unlih paleo beingjoined """ther. Tbe IOrminals cfthe .. ",., then joined by t.. o reoi.toro cr 4 a and 2 .a in parallel. Th. o.m.I'. cr JI. II 2 V. ito iDtomal reoi.ta!loo i. 1 a: the e. m.f. 018 i. 1 V, ito intornal "";"tan .. i. 2!l. Find the ""rrent il! each cnhe fOll7 braaohes of the ein:uit, ("" .. .u3 A. M'I A. 116 A. 113 AI
3.
n.
Urheberrec htl lch ge5c h(jutes M aleri a
o.c ClRClJITS "NO NIITWORIC ANALYS!S

4. \vru.t io th. equivalent ro.imm."" .fth. network M,""" in Fig.,62?
43 I,-\D" 600 ill lB. T, E. D,/hi)
6000
loon
80011
2000
80011 100 Il 1000
5.
J'ig. &! Dctennine tho rorrent8 in tho three batteri .. (I.. M and Nl in the ".twork .bown in 'Fig. 83 Md "how thoi.valuea and <Ii""";on on tbe di"ll'""m. Neglect lb. internal 're!I;otNI ... ofbat!.eri<'3. IAn .. 2A.I A.OA)
.rnow
50
100
100
150
L
250 10V +
son
~O
200
rAn ..
4V
6. 7.
Detemdnc
Pig. 83 Pig.&! tho magnitude o,nd direct jon 'Of now Dr C1UTCJ1t in tho breneb CD for the cirru_it ;sbown in tho above Fig. 114. '7r755 A from C to DI For the lattieo>-Iype network .hoWl> in Fig. &. cal500 loon ouIal;o tho eurrent in eaob braneb .fth. no,,,,.<1<IBnnglad<>h Uni""",U,l
[
Ano.l ...
GO
1·
I...a IIl0 A ;1••
I,
A ;1..., ~ 100 A ;1...
~MA ;/~
100 A;
~ 100 A,
3].
2000
1000 Fig.~
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ate'i"...._.
ELECTlII(,.AL n;CUNOLOOV
8.
9.
10.
U.
12.
TW<> .torn!l'" bat",ri ... A and B •..... ""~ in paraJlol to .upply • lOad the .....n.laIIl'V .fwhich i. l.211. C..lePlnIo : W The """",,( in !hi•. load. Iii) The current ""pplled by eaclt bIIu.ory lhhe open..::itoult e, tn.f. of A is 12..5 V and lhauc B i. 12.8 V. tho in","",' ","iN.oeo of A being 0.050 and I.blot 1l 0.08 n (London Un...mity) IAn" (i) 10.25 A (;I) 4 A (AI. 6.25 A (81) A leed having II eealetenee of 0.1 Q is Ced by two olD..,.. bo.Ucri .. eeeneeted in J>ll1"'llnL Tbe opo" cin:ait e. m, r. of one battery (A) i. 12.1 V and that of the' other ""Itory fB I i. 1l.8 V. The internal ~ lire RQ311 lind 0,04 11 ",,"poetivcl,y. CoJcul.", : Ii) The cu "",,1. suppLied to the load Hi) ThQ current. in cueb battery (iii) Tho I.onoinal voll.ogo .. fMob battery. !London Un... nilJ) tAn .. Ii) 102.2 A •.Iii) 62.7 A (11).39.5 A (8), (Ui) 10.22 VI A bo.ttory hav",g on un.f. of 110 V and ""in",mAl ... J.tan", ofO.2D is _" .. ted in "".ralle) with "".thor b~llery having an e, m.f.• noo V lind internal ..... isI.anc:e G.2SO. The \"'. ""Iteri .. in """,Ilel are plaeed in ..,riet ...;tb ... "'IIUloting tuiot&l>CO 01 ~ Q "",d ~ ....... 200 V ",...".. colctil.te : (il The Inagniwde and dire:ti.n .Hbe =1 in each ""tlery. WI Tho, 1<1101ummt 10k.... f"'llI tho .uppl,y '!JUIina. e (S'umbi!o.J U"'''''TOiI,y) IAna.lilll.96 A hli.oeluupl; 3o,.t3 A lob",,") (ii) .18.47 AI A wheatstone bridll"ABCD is HlTllnpd as follows, AB. SO oblllS, BC- 100 .hmo and CD. 101 ohms. A g.lv."ome ... r of 1000 ob"' ..... .._ is _neeted 'b"t~ B and D. A :z.von battery """",gnegligible res;" ... nee is eonneeted aeroos.lt and C..E.timale the ... """llJowing Uut>lIih the plvanometer. (Ana. 4.l4)JJl f...m D to BI Determine the ourrent Ib rc ugh the fl1IIvADOmcter G in the wheatstone b~ nct"""*' th.!dveQ Fig. 86. lAnA.0.52 mAl
or
o
2V
Fig. 86
Fig. 87
Urheberrec htllch gesc hutztes Iv! ateri"
I),C. CI~UIITS
ANI) NETWORK ANALYSIS
45
IAn. .. 1 A, 2 A. 3 AI
14.
~'ind 1,,1, and 13in tbe not"mk ohown in Fig. 88. using tcop-eurrene reethod
10n I. 10V
90
SOV
450
I,
"J.'
21 V
'.
ISn I. 300
:11
15. 16.
Fig, 8B fig. 89 Find the currents in Ihe bra och es oruetwQ,k ofF'ig. 8ll u'i"" nodal ",Itoge method. 'IAn .. I, ~ 1.42 A.I, ~ 1.68 A./, '0.26 A,I. ~ 1.1 "'.10 ~ 1.36 A./" ~ 0.:12AI Using sUpE!"r"PO'ition. thooren':l find the currents in the different branches of the network sbown in f'i~. 90, IAn .. I, 0.352 A.l, 1.082 A, I 1.132 AI
',-
_I.
50
21.5 V
0.040
40
60
~I
1, 17, 18.
III
.'ig.9U Fig. 01 By using oupmposition theorem, find tho current in III resistenco in Fig. 91. Inmn'oJ re.. 1013110 ofIJ,. •• eells are negligible. fAo s, 2,066 AI U.ing .upcrpoojtion theorem lind (b. current in 20 11lUi.tor ofll,e cirellit .I1Own in Fig, 92. IAn •. OA43AI 3O1l
'"
SO
20£1 600
48 IV
BOO
480
720
480
60V
---t~
72V
19.
~92 ~ro find Ow curront in the 30 n resistor onbo circuit .bown in Fig. 00, "';n; ... porpo.ition rhec re m. IAn .. 0.002 AI
Urheberrechtlich
geschutztes
Material
46
ELEcnUCAL
TEr.IlNOLOOY
20.
Wilh 'rererence w lIle n~lworl< of Fill. 94, by appbiHII Th.evenin'" theorem lind the follQ"'iutI: : til oq ",vDleM c. mS. of the networt .. hen vic wod fro", tcrml .... l. A nnd B (ii) 11><> equivlllo.t "",i.l4m:" of the ""Iwork when looked into fmDl terminnll A "nd B. and. (iii) Cum!l'll in UK!Iond ",,",tence ilL of 1511. IAo.. lAI 30 A 3.60 6D
TI,.
120
151l
201l
500
21.
Find the C'niculnto
~94 eurrenj, th.ro~
B
50
n reaLstanclc
~% in
the drnl.it I!!hown in Fig. 95. Use Thevenin's

U1COJ'C'_tD..
~tn.
lAM. 0,086 AI
22. the: current in the S.u I"Csistor orFig~00 by using Thcvenin's
l
lADs. U.S AI
40
20 12V 16.0
M 23. 24. Uso Norton's theorem to c.okul;>!c eurreet Rowin", througb lO 0 "''''tor .fFig. 91. Fig. 9S Ih.W1Inelwork with lb. value "flood ",.ilil.nno<> RL .. 50 Q. Develop Norton'. equivolent cin:ult und riel.rmine Ih. nl .. vnt nnd [>"I w er detlvered \<I RL. lAna. U.l.H A.; U.G5 WI
~oo
~"
(I,
14.!S7 Q
160
2.'1.
Fig. 00 0 nWllber of"""<1 ...n",. ooonocted in delta and Itar. Find the A and B. U.., .tarld.lta <oo".rsiru, method.
.how.
~oo
~oo
",.uu.nC'llIlCrtJlOo
the termin4lo
IA» .. 2.9601
U rheberrec htlich ge5c h (jutes M ateri"
21Hl
FI~ 100
27. 8y~n;gd(tlt4f8:'tQ'r J.niJ1l.fOILL'Lmloi'lllbr ~:n.
fi;,
Ull. find t11(1curn:mt/lillp;p.li.cd.
bytlw
b::.m,I!:t)'. fAn!J.O.'9!ji
1\1
28.
t-"1nd d'liO ~l'N.nl

tl'i;l.l"¥.Q~t.i1l~.
i.tIIi!;i
(~h1mlilllme1jJt·erm in
Lho
ooL'I'rork
shown
in tho :rliJ, ] 0:2. 'I.!:eipr d~LwU.Qr IA..ie. O.23(j, ";'1
1200
6V
29.
'f·~.I~ It. brii!lp I)€'lwork tlRCD'h;:l~:i!I!1R(I:A8. 8C. CD :;1,,'1'1(1 D,A r;lfn!~i~I.I!I!l~5I::g. :l.<1atu:!:2: oom!! 1~\1!ty_lf !.be df:lcct.o:rAC hCl;I.P~i!JliQlQO-of'lo~~ ..4~wrminl! bYllltnrid~lb tnlf,llilramLlltKm, 'the D!l,'P."Ork ro:sUil1lfiro es 'l'ie-w-ed tron,! the ro~tFry IA!'hlliu.:l.li!I D. 8 ,IAIlI.. 4.38 "ll
il
2
A C. Circuits
1. lntroductio.n to a1~rnating current 2. GcoctllUon and equation. of alternating voltnp and en.... 3. AI~maUn.~ volta!ol'> and ~t. 4. S",~Je ph_ circuita-A.C.lhrnugh pure ohmic through "ure iDductaIIoo oJoDll-A_C. thn>ugh pun> C1I.l'ndtaD"" nloee--, Pb~""r nlgebro-AC .• erl .. cin:uit-R·L ..... uil-R.C. ch-euil-R·lrC dn:uit-A.C. parallel ".-cui!". 5. Tran.i""ts-G.nerw aa ~O.C" ttllnm.nt$--A,C. tr."';aO\ll--Hlgblight4ObjecU"" Type Queot.iom- Theoretic,,:!. Q...,.tio ..... Unsol""dl:litanlpl ...
t: ... , ..
.....i.\8"". olono-A.C.
1. INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT

AC, means alternating current-Th., cur,.1Il or voltage which alternates m.c.gr!itwk ."ery time. Now a days 95% .fthe total energy is produced, trnnsmitted in A.C. supply. The reMons are the following: m Mo,"" voltage can be gene ....ted (upto aaooo V) than D,C. (650 V only). (ii) A.C. voltage CIIn be increased and decreased its dlredicll and anddiauibuted
with the help of a static machine
called the
'lnto.former.
(iii) A.C. transmission lind distribution ;8 more economical aa line material (say copper) an be sa ved by transml tting power at higher voltago. (lu) A.C. motora for the same horsepower "-8 of D.C. motors are cheaper, lighter in 'Weight., require less space and require lesser attention in opolration and maintenance, (u) A.C. can he converted to D.C. (direct current) ensily, when and where required but D.C. cannot he eonvereed to A.C. so easily and it will not he economical.
However, D.C. entails the following merits and hence find!! wide applications.
(i)
D.C. series and lifts.
meters
are 'most .uitabl<! ror tl'Qction purposes
in tramway,
railways,
CTalns
Iii) For electroplating. electrolytic and electrochem'CIII processes (battery is required. (iii) Al'c lamps ror search lights and cinema projC<:tors work on D.C. (iuJ Are weldi ng is better than on A.C.
(u) (ui)
charging
etc.), D.C.
Relay and operating time switches, ete., and eireuit-breakera, D.C. worb more clJidenUy. In. rolling milia, paper mills, colliery winding, ete., where fine speed control o£Speeds in both directions is requi red, D.C, motora are required.
2. G.ENERATION AND EQUATIONS OF ALTERNAT,ING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS GeaeratioD. of A1tematiugVolta.-ea

Alto,mating voltagcs may be generated 8.IldCurrenta in the following two ways:
1. By rotolilllf 0 coil ilL n slOl;"oary nwanel,cfw.d. WIshown in Fig. 1. 2" Byrototilrg" ",,,gnetic (",Id within a sttJliDll<lry eoil, ns shown in Fig. 2. 48
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes M ate,i a
A,C. CIRCUIT:;
49
Sialor
Fig. I. RolatinR a <Oilin • :ltatlonary 'mqno'u:' field.
Fig. 2. Rotating a mapUc field within a slationary coU.
The value of the ""Ito;go generated in eaeh ease depends upon the fulhwring faOUl .... , (i) The number oftums in the eoils ; (ii) Tho strength Ill" the field; (iii) The speed ot whieh the ""nor magnetic field rotates . • Out of the above two methods the rotating·field method is mtnlly usM <.; praaiee: £quaUoD. at Altern.tina- 'Voltage_ aDd CU ...... Dt. Fig. 3 shews a rectangular .oil or N turn. rotating clockwi so with an angular velocity III ... dians per second in a unifo"" magnetic field. Sinc" by Foradny'B law, the voltage ill propor· ttonal to the rate at which the conductor its across the magnetic field or to the I1Ite of chango offlux linkages, the shape of the wave of voltage applied to the external' clreuitwm he determin ed. by tho flUX d is tributum in the air gap. For a uniform field between the poles It is evident that I71<1Ximwn nux will link with the coil wben its plane, iBin IIfIrtical positicn i.e., perpendicular to the direction of flux between the poI... Also it is obvious that when the plane of ",n is hori· lOti/ill no flu><wiU linll with the ""il. H the poeitinn of the coil with re.fereoce to the vertical axis he denoted bye tbe flux,linJtingwith the coil at any instant, as the call rotates may he determined from the relution,
~",(I
t....coso
Y:""o
, .'1".:
Fij{. 3. A ..,il n>IaUnc
.in a magnet Geld.
"""o
wbere,
"""lilt ••• W (.; = Maxlmum flux which link with the coil, lind t = 'l'iroo taltcn by the coil ta move through an angle 9 flOm. vertical poeition. UoringFa,."day'. lllw to eqn. (i),in order ta determine the voltage equation. "' Q.....
e = lilt)
e" -N
d9
dl
(",he,..,. is the
instanlanetltU
value of the induced e.m.f.)
Urheberrec htl lch ge5c h(jutes M ateri a
50
ELocnUCAL
TECllNOlOG
=
or
-N!!.. (...
dt"""'"
oos.llll) = rnN(I
-.
. sin tot
...(ii)
~=wN(I_sinO As the value ore will be maximom when sin {) = I, form as
..
E ..... = cu.'VCI .....

e E_ sin 9 the equation ofinduced alternating i .. 1..... sin 0
The eqn. (ij) can be.written Similarly
in simpler
...(iii) current (instantaneow; (lrthe value) is load. il! re8il!tiw) by plotting ... (iu)
Waverorm.. A waveform (or wave-shepe) is the shape of a curve obtained instantaneous values of voltage or current as ordinate against timo as ab!iclsaP.
th8
Fig. 4 (a,!t, c, d. el shoWl! lrregular wavefbrms, but each cyde ofcu.rnmtlvoltage is an euctly replica of tho· provious one. Altematingc.m.fs!llld currents produced by machines usually both h8ve positive and negative half waves. the same shape as shown. Fig. 4(j) represents a sine walle of A.C. This is the :.implest possible waveform, and alternators are designed to give as nearly as possible a .inc wave of e.m.t.
,Pt;, 'Rr' 'f\T'

e.;
9.
j
(a)
(b)
(e)
e, i
(d)
(e)
(I)
FiB. 4. Wa .....rorms.
•
•
In general, an alternating current or volto.geis on" the circuit dir«tion of which re""I'SI!' ot
regularly r ee u.rri"l1 intenHll8. The waves deviating from tho standard sine ......ve are termed
08
di.storkd waVU.
form. All a1tema.tingcomp]ex waves, which areperiodie and bave equa] ·posltive IIIId negative halfcyd"" can bo Khown to be made upofa numborofpure .8lno waves, havingdifferen.t frequencie. but all these frequencies are integral multiples of that oft he IOwe8tallernatingwavo, called the(u...uzm.,ntal (orli.."t harmonic). These waV08 of higher £reqoencies are called 1w.rnwnics ..
Complu waves are those which depart from the ideal sinusoidal
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri a
A .c, CIRCUITS
51 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT purposes sinusoidal .
3. ALTERNATING
Modem alternators produce an e.m.L which is for all practical curve), the equation between the e.m.f. and time being
Ci.~.,a sine
...(1)
~ = E ....
where,
.
-e = Instantaneous
WI"
voltage; u
B~
sin wi n MU:limum volbge has turned (CYc!OII er mnd), p
~
90
Angle through
which the armature
from neutral. the value of "' will be 2Ir{, that the
Tnking tho frequency equation reads The graph
f hertz
• ~ E,,,,,,,,sin (2tifit. of tho voltage will be

88
shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. ".., ,gr~pbof the ,.iotuaid.ol voltqe.
1. Cycle. One complete set of positive ami negativevBluel oran ,altornating quantity is known a. a cycle. A cycle may also sometlmes be .pedfiod In terms o(angular measure. In that ease, one
complete cycle is said to spread
lIS
over 360' or 211radians. value, positive Or negative, ofan alternating quantity, is known
ito amplitude.
2. Amplitude.
The maximum
3. Frequ,eDCY quantity.
(I). The number
of o:ycleelsecond is called the frequency quantity to eomplete
of the alternating
ItI! unit is hertz (Hz). of. Time Period (T). The time token by an alternating its lime perWd. For example, a 50 hertz (Hz) alternating the cycle i. called second,
current
has a time period of ~
Time period ;" recipT"OMI offreq~,
i.e.,
T=7(orl=~)
R.M.S. oo/ut is the value which is trJken{Orpower purpo= olanydncriplion.This
••.(2)
6. Root melln aqua..., (R.M.S.) value. The r.m ..s. (Dr effective) value of an alternating CUrrent is given by that steady (D.C.) current whkh when. /lowing through a gill<'ncircuit far a gWen time produce. the ,sam. heat a. produced. by tho altulWting cul"TMt when flowing thror;gh the ,"me cin:uit {or thua",. time. . obtained by finding <:;)'tIc (500 Fig. 5). the square root of the mean value of the squared crdinares value is for a cycle Or half-
tho .power is proportional Refer Fig. 5.
This is the value which is used for all power, lighting and hwtin#l ppr~,. to the "'I""n of lIu flO/lDge.
CI. in tho$<!.
"""_
52 The equatioll of $i!)usoidai alternating current is given as :
Uf;CTRICAL
TEC!lNO!.OOY
i:l_ .• inO
The mean of squarea of the instantaneous [2= JD (II~O) values of current over hlllfcycle is
r'
i~dO
p"
_-,
_.1
II
1
II
l'
<)
Jodo
r' P de".!
(. (/ ...... in 0)2 (/0
J~;Jf1fU"B1.Din1'001e_--,
r.: t' (I-0002<l)dO 2

II
,----
" I~..". r"(l-oos 20) do

211)"
,,1'''''''10 211
_sin
_1;'><11"12;,,,
or
or
laJ12;""=1t
20 '",
1" 0.7011.....
...lS}
Note. Wbil<!..,)ving probl."... the val""" of 1Ii- com:nt and voltnl!" should 1l1wl\)'"be talr.en AI th.e r.m ..... lueo. unl indkated oc.h.,...tse. 6. Ave 'e or mean value. The average value of an al ternati ng eu !Tent is expl'l!llsed by that steady currmf which tron,{.,. nCTOSsllny cirl;uit'the ~ ebal'll'e as i.lro""{.HM by thatoltemati.na current du.riqg the same time. The mean ~alue is oaly o{ u.T~ in ronn«lWn with proct!$llll. where the reBultll dept/Ill on the ClU'rent "aly. ir_p«:ti,", or,h. uol"'p. slJch (J$ ekttmplllting or blXtl.ry charging. Refor Fig. 6,.
Tho value ohnstantaneous current is given, by i = 1..,.. 8in (I

Refer Fig. 6. The va,lue ofingtantnneous i. given by: current [0 = wt[
i
Fig.. 6
i=l ..... sinO
1 ~ _1_
'"
(It-O))"
ridO
Limits are ta ken (rom 0 tn It, since 0 n,I,Yfirst h,tllf,CYole is ~onSi,dO,red., .. For whole cycle. the Bverag\! ya,lue of sine wave is zero.
I
=
OM
~.fo"
I""".ain
(Ida ~ ~. 1..... 1
0[
" .!.1 'ft

or
i!I\I-IU -
. 11- (- I)] .. ! .1 m~ 11:

hoJ[.wn".., reotif",-dourrent .•.(4) tho ~y.,.,..., val""
I••• 0.6371..... Note. In .....,. of un.,.."mctricJlJ .l1em4ti .... current"'"' mu.t "lwaY" be 14k"" ov"," the .. hole <rde. 7. Fllrm and Peak Factoi'll
Fo.nn factor. The ratio o{r.l1u•. (or effective) .... lue t» """'Ilgf oolue i.,hefo'11I the WIl"" form. It, hilS use in \"oltnge generation and inserument eorrection factors,
fw:tar (K,J o{
Urheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes Maler; a
«c. CiRcum
S3
I$lh.peoJ<fiy;tor (K,) .{IM
form.
B.,No.
Peak f."tor. The rotioO{ma:cimUffl 'J(jlue to Iher.m.s./JOlue

Wao" {orm
",a""
Form {1UWr IK,! r.m.&' oalu't! a""rage ......ee
/'to! {odor (K,l

mll.Z..IH.dlU"
r.iu .e, tJalut
1.
SIDe wave:
k:6-'J r
llme_ 7 K,- 0;7071""" ,,1.11 0,6371,,,,,,, K "'_!~--L41 • 0.7071,_
Fig,
1
R.M.S. value
T ~ f_ 0:707
n
J""",
Averqe value .. ~ I""", • 0.637 I_
Fig.
8
'OO
R.M.S. value.. Average
l"f'
0.5 1.~
V.IUII ~ ;;. lwuu ,,0.3181_
R.M.S. value", Average vulue",
!rz'~ 7m
0. n
Fig-.
(I
1""", K,. 0.707111101 .. UI 0.6371""",
!/..... ~ 0",6371.....
54
,8: No, Wa",,{orm
Form
(a<l4,r IK) ".m.s. valut
Pod {';'tor (K~)
"""" oow.,
i'. rolue
oOl'n:Jgemll.le 4.,
r.m.
R.oc:canguiarwava ,
Fill,10 RM.S. value = 1_ Average va.lul!, '. 1_
K,-l
s,
f";,.11 JtM.S. - ~
'{3
- 0.5'181
D
K _ 0.5181,",,£ = 1.16 { 0.5/...., ,
K.~"L'13
,
0.578/ ....
1 ..... Average valuo .. -2-
0.5/_,
Rea.on.
An .. It~rnating reasons :
for u.lo, alternatill, cu.rrent (or voltage) of slDll8oldallonn : eurrent (OT tKJIttwIJ 0{ #irw.soidal {rlrm ~ ""rmolly u.•• dbecause of tlie ,ollowing
L Mathematically. it i. quite simple. 2. Its integrals and differentials both are sinusoidal. 3. .It lends itself to vector repreeentatien, 4. A eemplex waveform can be analysed into a series afaine waves of various frequencies,
each such component CDn be dealt with llepa_rately. tmn&m,iaaion and utilisation.
nnd
5. Thill waveform is desirable for power generation, 8. Pbaae and pb ..... angle. The 'phase' ofan A.C. wave may be delinc<l as it., positic,n with ruP"C1 10 0 re{erellCf! oxis,;;",.e{"TeIlCtl wove and 'phase an,le' liB U,"' .. ngh of hod or log with rt!8ped to the niference axis or with respect to .. nother woue. . Examples. The phtue of CUl'!'<!nt at point L is
second where T is the time period or e",prossed iii. it is ~ radian
in
tal"l'!1$ of angle
(Fig. 12). Similarly
·~--------T--------~
i'ig. 12 Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"
A.C, O~CUITS ph ... of the rotllting coil at the instant shown in Fig_ 13 is wt which i. therefore
55 called it. {,hose
angle.
Tho e. m.fa. lnd uced in both the Co;Is (Fig. IS) will be of thC!lamO frequency and of sin uso; da I shape. IIlthough the values 'of instan taneous e. m.f. ind u ced will be different, However, the "I terna ling e.m.fs. would ,..,acll their maximum and zere ..alues at tile s..me ame as shown in Fig. IS (bl, Suell alternati.ng veltages or curve lite said eo in phose with each other.
:~_--
x.'
, II-
-- '. [\ v.:'/ \ ., \ ,
M""
0.011
, "
(a)
(b)
Fig.la Refer Fig. 14. M lag. behind L by I} and N lags behind . .L by (a + I}) because they reach their muimum later.
x
t(Second)y (II)
Fig, (b)
14
E:J:ample 1. (a) Wha.! is I"" equalio" 30amjR r
of" 2:; cycle curro,,1 ...... walle hauing r; n .... value of h"" a sp.e4 of 1200 r.p. m. How
tke altemator 1
(b) A 60 cycl. e"sin.-dri.IIe"
alternator
="y pol."
arc thero in
Urhcbcrrec h IIich gOS" hull tes ~1etcrla
56 Solutio.D. W.. knew !hat,

... 1_
ELOCTRICAL TEClINOtoOV
aln WI =1_ sin 2n{I ,,30 x.J2.

sin (2"" 25 x f)
(.,. w='lrrfI
. ,' aM.S. vnlue ~ 1.).'. ( Max. value -
T2
.' .(2.42 .111 157 t, (Ani.)
Using the relation.

where,
f.Np . 120
f= (requency. N" speed in r.p.m.., and p" No. o(poles

60,,1200p 120
OTp
6 ............
'''--I
Example 2. An tllterllfjlillS currenJ uoryin.[J sillu.oidt1ll), wilh "f""lu~nq of 50 H~ hO$ on r. ,n. s, IJ(J/ue of 40 A. Find " (i) TM insfonlnrumus oo/ru 0.0025 afterpaui", Ihroug'" maximum, posW"~ valut. ond (Ii) TIu! lime rrwuJUf!d from 0 maximum ualu~ Whell the installlon.oWl current is 14.,14A.
.""""th
Solution.
(i)
I_ =
.,fi.
x.
40 = 56.56 A ... after +ve mnximu!n value ...(1
'" .. 2n( .. 211" 60 .. l00!! radians
i = I.... lilt eos ., 66.56 eos 100 It! ,,56.56 COl (JOO!! ~ 0.0025)
= 56.156
= 0.00250
(Taking
...giYen)
:II "
<;QH
45'
180')
,. 40 A. (An.. ) (ii)
Or Or
~I
14.14 " 56.56 COl (Joo x 180 x t) 14.14 " COl (100 " 180 " I) 66.56 (0.25) " 100 x 180 " 1 75.5· = 100 " 180 H 1 t .. 0.00419 .. (An .. )
Example S. A ,inWlOidal alhmullinll oo/I"IIe of 50 Hz has an 1'.m.6. ualue of 200 V, Writ.! down the et}uatWnfor the 'nslllntan""UI ualuetznd./ind this oo/IU! Q.0125 au. a{fer pa86UvJ '''l'Ol48h" po.ltive ma..cimum value. AI what time ",erulUred from a po&iliue ma..cimum ooloe Willl~ instantaae· oU$lI<)/togo b. 141.4 IJglt8 , SoluUon. Refer Fig. 15. V.... " .,fi. x 200" 282.2 volta .. '" = 21if" 211 " 50 " 100 II radIBcc. Equation for tho ;llsu.ntnn.OOUB voltage. V = V..... ein lilt (with reference to point 0)
: 282.2 ai n 100 It!
...(i)
Since the time (0.0125 aee.) i~ given CrD!!!the point. L (,' e., from pasit;ve maximum .....lue) the equs., . tion Ii) when referred to point L, can be wri tten .... ~ = 282.2 sin (90' .. 100 'lit)
0_ Fig. 15
= 282.2 COIIlOOllJ
Urheberrcc htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri"
A.C, CIRC"1JrfS
57 value of the voltage 0.0125 '1!eC. alter passing through
Hence in.tantaneDU8 value,
+ Vo maximum
u = 282.2 eos (100 ,. ~ 0.0125) = 282.2 mil (100 x 180 x 0.0125)

.. 282.2 CDS 226' .. 280.2 x ( " - 300 V (point MJ. (Ans.) u = 141.4 V 141A = 282.2 CDS (100 x 180 x I)
Cos-I
"*)
.. .(angle in radiene) ... (angle in degrees)
Also
Dr
or
or or Example amps? (b,)Whltt
0.5 = cos (100 x 180 x II 1'0.5) ~ 100 x 180 ~,I

SO' .. 100 x 1.80" t . t- ~
IteC.
(point Nl. CAn .. )

ClU7'l!nt
4. (Q) W/wzt is tJu ~
value af a .inUM>idal allA!l7IO.ling
of 4.78 r.II"".
u tM,r,m.B.
(01
value ofa ,..dall8umrwal!f'
willi all amplitu.u <J(9.87rolts altrmating
(e) Whal ... Ihe au.rage value """'" half a cycle of a ,inUlaidal value ... 31 A'
turrellt who" r.m.&.
Solution.
Peak vaLue,1__ ..
.J2 "4.18
~ 6.76 A. (Ans.) Inlo" equal V = 9,8.7V
parts cam of'value V. then
(b) Refer Fig. 18. Jftbe first half.qcle
u divided
r.m.s, value .. (V2 .. V! : V2 + ......
)1Il!
(e)
= V = 9.87 volta. (AD .. ) lr,,,,~.. 31 A 1 ••"
r~'7a'ctor
31
Fig. 16
.. 1.11 • 27.93 A. (AD.. )

Eumple G. TM graph in Fig. 17.1ww, tJu ~ll of rollo,ge with time. Ule fMgroph to roleulau fhe average and value of tho w/toge. What .. the frequencY of the roltoge , What would lH! lhe ".m.L 1H11 of sine wo"" having theoome peak value 1 .... Solution. Refer Fig. 17.
".In.,.
Altha
grapb
is symmetrical
Average value,
v ., 0 + 10+
u.
V..
about time axis" considering 20+40+
only tho positive half cycle.
100 + 120+ 100 + 40+ 20 + 10 10 + 402 + 100" + 1202 .. 1002 + 40' + 202 + 102 10 .. 1«00 .. 10000 ... 1600 :. 400 ... 100
_48V. (AD .. ) R.M.S. value,
02 + 102 + 202
. JO + 100 + 4.00 + 1600 + 10000
10
Urhcberrec htl lch gcsc h(jutes M ateri a
58
llI.fC11UC:"L TECIlNOLOOY'
" J3S600 10
"J38RIJ ..
62.1 V.
(An.;)
Fij:. .17 Since the time pe.riod 'T is 21) milHuc. .. Frequency
'f'" ~ "
21)~\0"l
..
so lh.
(An ••) (An .. )
R.M.S. value of n ~ine wave of the same peak value

" 1).707 ~ 120 '" 84.84 V.
,Example 6. Prov« lhal if
D.C. current of
l._
is superpw.d ill II CO"cUu:lor by "" AC.
current ofmw:. vat.... 1amp', the r.m... ualue oftk, ro.ull~'" is
I. value of the A.C.
Solution. Let th,e AC. cum",' be i ../ sin I) where i is the inno.ntan.eous eureent and I the D.C. cruT1",t The r.m .s, vatue of{[ +,i) over one complete cycle ii,
'" ('1,a'
"IJf J:'
~1
"I
f~Jo
U + J .in 6)2 dO
J{-i;
,/1 0 8in20r· V2ilo-2_0+i--,-b
(1 + 2 sin 0 + ain' OJ
l+2BinO+(
~)}
=1
J~
(211-2,+n+2)
(Ana.)
.. 1.
~2
I!.
Urhcberrec htllch gcsc h(jutes M ate,i"
59
El<Rmple 7. A rurdlant (urnlli WOve is mad« up of uco components: a 4A D.C. camponenl and a 50 liz AC. compolWlt, whkh ~ of ainU$()idal WHWform and whith ha' a ma.";m"m ()alu. of .fA. (i) Sketch 1M I'Il&ultant ""'ve.
Write an analytita/ apnuum for tM cur,.,,'" wave, .... koning t " 0 at a point tshes« 1M AC. compon.nt is at %011> value and where dil dt i.poaililNl. (iii) What i8 lhoe al1f!Ta6e oalue of the rt!&U/lalltcurrent over a cyr/" ? (w) What is 1M .girtiveorr.m.8. value oflhe re.ultanrcu rrent r Solution. m SketCh of the resultaDt .... vo,
(i,)
The two current componenl3 and the result. ant current wave are shown in Fig. 18. (Ans.I (iiI Analytical expreaion.The instantaneoua value of the ml!ultllnt current U! given by i " (4 .. " oin wt),. (t + " liD 9). (AnL) !iii) AvenI" value. Since the average value of the alternating current overane complete cycle i. zero, heme the a""rag. !!ala. ofl,hoe ..... altall/ car· rent is, equal to the M1ue of D:C. component i.e., .fA (An .. ) (Iv) m""tlve
111'
ac.
j~--~--~--~=-~~
r.m ... value,
Mean value of P over complete cycle Is

211 0
...l.12. iidO '" .l.12.

2ft 0
Fi¥.18
(4
+ (sin (I)' dO
" .l. r2" (16 .. 32 sin e +
~Jo
16
_in' 0) dO
26)] dO
'" 2~
t[ 16
+ 325i1l9 + 1a( 1- ';
" ..!. ~"(24+ 2",10

...l. [(4&
2" ., aM.S. value"
8. Determine I .. E"",mple Fig. 19.
32 oin 0 - B co. 26) dO sin
1( :240-32"",,0-B><-2lt - 32
CO!!
20)1'
2
0
2lt -" .•in .,,) - (- 32JI:
4BlI '" 24 A
211
J2i. .. 4.9.A.
(An ••)
1M aV'.rag< a.nd .(fOoti"" uolue>" of the .... w·toolh w""",form .haroll .in (N.U.)
q_.)I'i&', \9
60 SolutlOD. Refer Fig. 19, Since the voltage incrc ...."" linearly. therefore, Vo.
R
EUCTltICAL 'TECIfNOI.OGY
~2-
60 .. 0
.. SOV.
(Aaa.)
'The slope. for the internal 0 < t < 2 it given by:

Slope. s. Instantaneous 2".30
U
60
voltase,
= 30t volta
The r.m.a, or effective value arthe vol~, V2

01'
.....LTJo
1. rT .?dt,,! 20
£' (3Ot)2 dl .. 460 .10 (l
t~ dt .. 450! ~[2 3
• l.2OO
V....... = 34.04 V. lADs,) Example. 9.lktermin~ the ".m.S. and o~

y 30 p
valuu oftM wo.lJt{orm.how" ill Pig. 20. (billore Univenity]
15
C-a ------N
y T TIme_ Fi,.20 2T
Solution. Refer Fig. 20. LM. MN .• 30 - 16 _ Iii LN T T Now eDlIJ!iderhe function,)' at any time 't. We have, t PQ MN 15 Th" alepe the curve
.~
-I4-7N-T
Or
Thill glvCII the equation for the function Y•• or Mean square value
tf
ror' one cycle.

2
[15 .. ( ~)t]dt
=t LT
[15dl .. ~ . t •
at]
1 Y•• =? [Ult"
tr
2T
15t
I'
I "'T"[1IiT .. 71lt]=22.f.
<An •• )
~dt.
tr
{lfl + ( ~)
dt
A.Co ClRUJITS
61
""T1 ""T
=
f.~(
0
225r 450 225+"""""T'1"""+r·1 2.25t~ t+~+
rJl
11226
I
450'2l.T 2T
. 1=525
="T I 225T+75T+225T
.. R.M.S. value
.J525
,,22.9.
(AmI.)
Example '''eFig. 2 J.
10. Firul the r.m.a. and average value grIlle trnpuoidol
current wave·form shousn. II< IBalJA(Iiloro Unive ....Uyl
I.,....
-1...
1+---"2---1>1
Fig. 21
Solution. relation,
Refer FIg. 21. The equation
..
of tile current
for 0 < t < 20 .
3T
be found from the
!_~
, . Th e equatten identical
0
(3Tj20)
or
..
,,,
201m
aT'·
...
f th e current
~. 20"< ., ,or 3T
7T. . < 20" is grven
b· = 1";",.' Re Jnem.,.,,-,ng t, t,....,·LP'·I, L_-' ha •.... 'I'
wIth MQN,
R.M.S. ualru o( c""",,t.
1"..... "
(T~
[2 f!'lll ,""dl + C::l!"" th]

{( 20 1
"T
2[
2,~.
)2r.~I20 2 dt } +1""" m-!20dt 2 r1~120]

0
Urhebe"",; htlich ge5c h(jutes M ateri a
62 =
I!l£CrRICAL
TECHNO.LOG'i
H(O.ll!",.r ..
r
I, idl
0.21;""
r) JO.6t!",.
B
= 0.7151......
(An ••)
Average ""Iu. of cUrro!! I. = _1_ 2 r "- Tf2 Jo

L
3TJOO
..
~%[2{~)1 ~ r +1~1 (:::J

Tl20
hTI2II
rlTI?fJ 1..... dt]"
_! [.2 rT"''' T.Io
(~).
ST
t dt .. 1""",
J:m""
r7TI20 df]
.,![2(2O aTM')" 1. (.8T)2 ... 1· ..(7T._ ST)] I' 2 20 .."" 20 20. T

=
![Z(.2O I .')><1.(
T· ST
m
2400·
9T)~ .. I
""'"
X!]'.
5
(Ans.)
1•• " %10.15/", .. "T+0.21.,,,,"tJ
=0.71 .......
Example lI.A ./Ull{wau. oingl. anDde ~llr",r IlIIs" uoltpgcg'uen E,'iml1I~ th« """rage lI<Ilu~on Ih~d.e .• Uk. Solution. The wave form on the d.e, "id. i. as shown in Fig, 22.
by 100 $in ",/ applied:lll it.
Mean/Average d.e, voltage will be ,

1
Uti
= -1
2n
I'
0
100 sin I}. dO
~~~[-C03er
= 31.83 V.
&"I!!.ple
(Ana.)
~
Fig.
2~ 22
3~
12. Calcul4le
bot-ioir« amm.l~r in a circuit whose C""""t wavefo;m is given by 10 oi" wi Solutio ... The e><pre9.ion for instantaneous current is : i" 10 sln wi .. 3 sin 3UlI + 2 sin IKot Th. hot-unre anlnl"I., will read the ·r.m. •. ualu." afth" wave fornl. Now,~ • (10 sin wt .. 3 sin 3...t + 2 sin 1Kot)' ,. R.M.S.
!J<2IUfl 2
{I'OIII Ih. {ir$1 prillJ!iple$, the readiJlg ",hie" Ulould be ;lIdicul.d by " .. 3 sin 3Wl .. 2 .in 5olt,
oftM current
•. [1 , 2n
..
1
J."
=J! 1"
+
d (wt)
[UI} sin." no'
S sin 3...t +.2 sin !1<JJtl'.1(wtH
F
Ult
1 [ 211 0
sin· olt + 3" "in" 3...t .. 2" sin' 5",1.. 2.~, lO x 3 sin
sin 3wt
Il'
.. 2." 11}" 2. sin wt sin 5Ult + 2 ~ S ~ 2 sin aolt .• in 5wtj d(wt)
".c.
ClR.CUrrs
63
=.[-:_ 1."" {10'

... A
(l- 2008 2wt)
3' + 2"U-
coS 6wt)
'I?}.] +"2 (1-coo
W 100II) + • etc. d(rnI)
.AIl the terms containing the product of two slnes when in~tcd j' over th,erllJ!il' 0 m,2K disappeaJ". ThiO, is ..... i1y seen by "plitti.ng "uol! . tenne into the difference of two rosines. '
[...!_ 002 + 3' + 2') . 2l<]112'" (102 • 32 + 2' )". '"( 113)11'
2 2
2" 2 .. (66.5)112 .. 7.62. (An .. ,
Eumple 13. Four brano.hu A. B. C. D in an A. C. eircui: m •• t at a j'unction poinf P. The CurN!nt •. in branchu A. B. C flow towarrh P w.hi'" the current in branch D flows "way from P. Tho cu.rrmh in branchu A. B and Care i", = 2(J _in 6281 ia
= ts a« (6281 - n16)
_in (6281 + 1'013) Find an upr ••• ion for tho illltanlan ... "" value of current in /lro.nch D. and ealeulat. (1lIf/UV!CJ. and (m the htat (watL!) that it would produce whon flowing ill" r•• i$lance o{5 ok"",.
'c=25
m iu
Sob.tlon.
Aaalytlcal method. Let the current flOWing in the branch D be, ill = I Q sin (6281 + ~) !H= 1_ eos 0, + 18_ eM 6" + I"""",OM~. +1"""",1:00" ., 20 c:o& 0" + III COlI (-1116) + 25 cos 7!13 + I EJmu. cos 9 -20+ III x 2'"+26)<'2+I"_"",,Q
J3
.. 20 + 13 + 12.1i + 10-,. cos Q .. 45.5 + 1v.-1lOl! (I
l:V-/"""",
I_,,'n ':. + lc,_ sin Q. +10-. sin 0 .. 2O.in (10 + 15 sin (- nl6) + 25 oin nI3 + 1-.. sin 0 ..(I-Iii •
.in.,'"
2 2 = - 7.5 + 21.65 + ID.....in.; .. 14.15

lit,
.!+ 25)< J3
point P,
+ 1,,",",,";n 9
+
IlJoom. sin"
Since alL the .. f.e.. and
CII.m!J1tIJ
are meeting l:H=O
Le..
Q" 0 or I"""" x cos. ,,- 4S.1i n'=O 14.15 + 10.-, sin 0 ~ 0 or 1-., x sin t '" -14.15 From (i) and (ii), 1-.., = (- 45.S>' + {-H.l5>": .7.6 A.
45.5+1_
cos
...{i) ... (ii)
• = tan·, ._ 4tili
Hence the current
-IUS
,,197' or 3.•4'
in b"""cb D follows the relation. io '" 47.6 .In {578t + 3.441. (An .. ) 211· ~
(i)
Fnqueacy.
(]) 628
(ii)
Bea. produeed -
(~r
2it " 100
fu. (AruJ.)
"R",
(~J
x 5 .. 5620 W.
64 4. SINGLE PHASE
cmcurrs
The study of circuits .in valves three basic types of units (Jl, L, C i.e.. I'CSiatance, reactance and capacitam:c respectively) and four possibleserlcs combination of them. The latter, in tum, may be arranged in many kinds of parallel, serie .. pantllel, parallel-series o.r other complex cireuits. The circuit containing a pure resiatanee given by the equlltion,
4.l, A.C. Through Pure 9hmlc ae.t.tanee Alone R ill .Ihown in Fig. 23 (al. Let the applied voltage be
... Iil
I+----Y----.j
(a)
~----~~r_------~ y .. Y_sln 011
fii
Fig. 23. A,C. tb1oua)1. PI'"' ohaili:
yiP
_ia_
v. alone.
V",... sinc}:"
Than the instantanllOuB value of current flowing through the .rcsiatanee 8 will be,
=s: V.... --8

. v_
sinOlt
...(tIl
The valuo of CU!Tent will be maximum

whnn sin tot .. 1 Or (tot .. 90")
I ,.Ys,.._ .""'" R Substituting tbi. value in eqn. (ii), .... get. i '" 1_8in tot Comparing (i) and (iii), we find that Illtermtillg volltJge and olher as shown in Fig. 23 (b I,. aIao shown vcctorially in Fig. 23 (el.
... (iii) """,,lit
on: in
p"_"
with meh
Urheberrec htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri a
A ,C. CI RCUITS
65 Refer Fig. 23 (Cl power,
Power.
Instantaneous
(Constant For a complete cycle the average
-if'~-1f'1f_2JJ!t ~,I:tt
part) (Fluctuating of V... , ~-V ~2 ,.,IInJ'
= ui '" V.... =~ 2
sin lilt >< 1"""" sin lilt '" V_..l....,.~in2mt x 2sin211l1 =
.Ym.......!m...{1- """
2
partl
2U1t)
cos 2 wt ill zero.
Hence, power fur the whole cycle,
PaTz' or
where
r..m.s-
v'"
p", VI watt
R.M.S. value of applied voltage, and
1= R.M.S. value of the Clll't'ent. It may be observed from the Fig. 23 (e) that no part of the power cycl~ at My timb becomes negative. In other words tho power in II purely "",istive circuit newr b""",,,,,, ~~ro. Hence in pure re.idi"" ciN:uit we have: 1. Curront i. in phase with the voltage. 2. Current [•
If where
I and V are r.m.s. values of curront and voltage. Alone

a pure inductance V ofL henry.
a. Power
in the circuit, P '" VI '" PR.
4.2. A.C. Thro1lllh Pure Inductance

Fig. 24 (a) ahows the circuit centoining
IrJ
L
~----~nv~----~ V.... sin

11.
1).11
(a) FiI,24(0) Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by th,e equation, u=V .... ainlllt ...(1)
Whenever an alternating voltage ill applied to a purely inductive coil, a baek e.m.f is pnr duccd due to the self·inductance of the coil. This bael< e. mf. Dppose1l the rise or fall of th e current through the coil, Since there is no ohmic drop in this cue, therefore, the applied voltage has to overcome this induced e.m.f, only. Thus at eve!}' step.
Urbcberrcchtllch qeschutztes ~lalcria
ELECTRICAL 'TECHlSOLOGY
if
vi
iif
f----!---T-----"...-----r--,-I(b)
IP 0 r.----+--+-,,-+---+=--r---L..
Fig. 24 (bl. (e), A.C.lht"Olll!h pure inductan ... alon e. Resultan~
P<''''''''
oero.
v~L!!!. or
or Integrating
<It
I'JlIIU:
sin wt" L!!!. dJ

-
di"~Sinlllldt hnth sides, we ge~
Jdi~
J~sinlllldt
or
wh,,",
i" V",., &in[wt -~]2, X~
•.. (ii) Bnd is
XL" Iill.. loppo.ition offered to the How or oltemating current

reactance. The value of current will be maximum i. when sin (rut -
tailed Inductive
by 8 pure inductances) It is given in ohms if Lis in honry ond to is in radi.nn/secon.d.
i)"
XL Substituting this value in eqn, (ii), we get

~!P
"v .....
...(iii)
Power. Refer Fig. 24 lnstantaneeua power,
(e)
. . P"l"" V""",smUJI"
1 ....
810
. (' t OJ
-"2,
n)
-_V_l_ sin rut. eos

• -~
V,[
ll)I
~2sinllll"".rut
"-iff· T . ,2l1li sin

Urheberrec htl lch gesc hutztes Iv! ateri a
A.C. CIRCUm;
6; ~
:.
Power for tile whole cycle. P" - ~
L";in 2wt"
Hence (Iveroce power cOlUium.a in a pure indu.ct'''. circuit i. zero. Hence in apure ind'ru:lilHl CircllU, we have:
1. Current! ~
.Y.. '" .!.'"_y_ x; .>L 2rr{L
amp.
2. Current alwny. lags behind tile voltngc by 00". 3. Averag<) power consumed is z.,,'.
VarIation orxL and r: Since XL = ruL =' 'bt/L. and hero if L is constant, tIlen
Fig. 25. shows the vaeintion, As tTequc.n,c:yi8 increased XL increasoe and the current taken by the circuit decreases,
. 4.3. A.C. Through Pure Capacitance Alone
X£Mf
tl::_
,_
Fig. U. Variation of Xl, with f. 1-
The eireuit containing" pure capacitor "fcapacitance C r..rod is shown in Fig. 26 (nl. [.ct the alternating voltage applied acrtl!lilthe circuit be given by the equation,
Cv ..
~----_,,~~----~ ~=V .... lin<ol
(a) -
tt
vi
f----l<----+---r---,-->--
I" I....
sin (0)1.. ~I
(b)
(e)
'-;11'. 26. ,A.C. through puro caplcitwloe .1....... Reoultont power io zero.
tlt::;_V
sin(l'll
... w
Charge
On
the capacitor at any in.ta,;-;:'

q=Cp
Urhcberrec htllch gcsc h(jutes M ateri"
68 Current through the circuit, i _ dq
Or
i~ i"
The denominator
i:sin( +~)
101 offered to tho now of alternAting in radian/second. when sin current
=dt
~!!:.. ICV
dt
sin
ain lOll ~ """'."'"
(j)
CV
cos 101
(wt+i)
...(iil by a pure
Xc"
1 lllC' (opposition
capacitor)
is known as cOjKlcitilJe reactance.
It is given in ohms irC is ill farad and", The valuo of current .. Substituting will bII maximum 1
(Olt +~)- 1
......- Xc
_.k.
this value ill eqn. (UI, we' get i = 1 sin .....
(!lit
i)
+~)
~ sin 2101
.•.(iii)
Power. Refer Fig. 26 kl

Instentaneeuapcwer, p = u, = V""" sin 101 ~ J.... sin (101
~V l_ sill wt CO" 101 ,,~. .....

Power ror the whole cycle = ~.~
v._
1'
Iz"
0
sin 2"'t "',0
This fact is graphically illustrated in Fig. 26 (e), It may be noted that, during the firl!tqulUtOr cyde, what 80 ever power or energy is supplied by the souree ,•• tared the eJeetrl,c field set-up between tho eapaeitor plate •., During the next qwuter c;ycle. the electric field col.1apse& Dnd Iha power or energy stored in the field i. returned to the souree, The PI'IICeS" is repeated in each alternation and this circuit dOC$ not absorb any power.
,n
Hence in app",
V
capaclti~
cireult, we have
1.1- Xc .. V~ 2,lI/Camps.
2. Current always leads the applied voltage by 90·. 3. Power consumed is uro. Variation Since Xc = of
Xc lI,ud
f' than
'b!/C
and if'e Is kept constant,
XC",
F'ig. 27 .• hews the variation. decreases. so the current increal!!left~
1 inereasee
As the frequency
Xc
,Fig. 27
Urheberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ateri"
",.c. (JMCUm; 4.4. Ph ..... r A1,ebra The following' 11.1"<) tho mothoos of I"l'Preseoting vector quantities : l. Symbolic ,ntltlltil>n 2. Trigonometrica! form 3. E~ponont;al form 4. Polar form. A vector as shewn in Fig. 28 may be described above fonos as follows : I. Symbolic nolotion 2. Trigoll(Jm.trical : Eea form : in the
69
v.
+jb
E .. J,,2
+11-
v: (rosO+js,nO) ]>;g.28 .•....in general
= JIl2 +62 (cos 0 ±j "i,nO)

3. Exponential fonn : E" ~ o·}J
=JIl'+bae'l" •. Pol",.
..... .in general
to"" :
,is a, symbol of an operation. It is used to indicate the ceurrter-cloekwise rotation ofa vector through 90'. It, is usigned avalue of Fl. 'The doublo operation of j en a vector rotates it eeunter-eloekwise (CCIV) through 180' and hence ,..,,,e rses its sen se because, j • j = p =
9.ip!tlcanC8
E .. JIl~ + I} L. 0 " J,,2 + b2 L' ± 0 or operator J. Tho lolter j used in tho above expressions
...... in general
J( -
0" = - 1.
In gene ... I" each "" eeess ive multiplication of t, rotates tho pbnso. further by 90' as given below (Ref". Fig. 29)
:90"
J=Fi
... 90' CCW rototion from OX·",.;.
p={Flj"
=-1 from OX·oxi.
...180' CCW rotation
? ..(Fij" = j' :
F1 ~,j
from OX.I1l<'S 1 fromX·axi.
... 270' CCW rotation
tv '"- lY,.270'
Pig. 29
(FI)1 "'+
..,360' CCW rotation It should elso be noted that, 1J j -rf~ -1 =-J..
Example I•• Wrile tho equ'oolenlpot.ntillJ .,...Ior by IIWJII>' of diu,grom..
and polar formsofu.<:tQr6
+j8. Also mustmte
tM
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M aleri a ~
10 Solution. Magnitude Refer Fig. SO.
EUCTIl!CAL
'lECH NOW! Y'
of the veetcr
..
JS2 + 8
A .10':53.1·
2 ~
10, tan. 0 " ~
! .,
10ei5.l-'·
0" 1ruI-1(~)=5al'
_. Exponential fonn .. In (AJu.) The lingle mDYIII." be uprnssed in rudian».
PollirConn The vector is illustrated .. 10 L 63.1'. CAus.) in Fig. 30. by means of diagram
0''''''.
6
Fi~. 30
F."ample 15. A vector is represented Uy30.-""iJ. Write down the liIII'lou,cquilJalentform. of Ih" vector ""d i1lustmt~ uy """'118 of" vector di"ltram. the mtZltrU'tad. and pruilion of 1/", abo""
uector. 'k' Solution. I
RefltT
Fig. 31. Draw tho vector in II direction

In
2fI 2xl80,. rna mil' an ling"" f 3"" --3- ~120 direction

(i)
th
0 C DC
. wise
(sinee the angle is negative).
Rectangular
fonn :
" " 30 cos 1'- 120·)" - 15 b " 30 sin (- 120") .. - 25.98 is .. (-15 - j 26.08). CAuL)
..
Exp...,...ion
(ill Polar form

Addition
.. 30 L - 120'.
(Ana-)
A Fic·al
and Bubt ...."tion otveetor
qn_tilies:
For addition and. subtraction of veeter quantities recto ngut a r form ie best sui ted. Consider two voltage phllso,,.. represcn ted lUI :
AddIUo.n.
V z V, + v;.
v; zo,
+jblDnd
~ "a2+jb.
"'''.)
"(a, +jb,) + (a, +jb,) ~ (II,
+j (b,+ b".l
The magnitude of the resultant vector The position of V with respect to X_is
Subtraction. is
v '" .Jro, + "2P;:

e"'tan-'(~)
(b, "~J2
a, +0,
"2)' + (~ - 6;,)'
V '"if; -
v;. ,,(a,
respect
+ jb,) - (a~+jb,) = (a, - "0) + fib, - b:J
The magnitude
The position of
of the ..,.ullrult
vector
to X-axis is
V " J(a, 0 ..
V with
1ruI-1(~)
"1 -
p:!
Multiplication
and division of vecto.r quantities:

in the polar exponential I"(!p,."""ntcd as where Corm, their maltiplieation and division
nth .. vectors oro represented becomes VO'l}' easy and simple. C<ln.ider two voltage phase,..
V, = a, +jb, = V,Le,.
e, = tan~'
(~l
71
Yo
!lllIlliplication. i.e.
= II, + jb.=
V,Lo,. where
0," tan-'
(~J
in I"'la, from) arc
When the phasor quantities are represented in polar (arm, while multiply. ing their magnitudes nre multiplied and theirQngl~sadded"lilwmicul1,Y.
DilJu;o.n. In this ease , the mng.nitudes of phaso dlvided and their angles subtracted algebra~lly i.e. quanti tie. (expressed
if, .. V1L01 =
V2
V2L02
VI. Lto
V.
.l
_0
1.
E"ample 16. P"rfi>rm Ihe following operotion and. OJ:{Iressthe fiMI resr,1t ill polur form: 10 ao' + 16 L-30·. 10 ao· - 10 (cos 30· ...j .in 30') .. 8.66 .. jS Solution. 16L-!l0· = 16 [cos (- 30·) ...j sin (- 30")] " 13.86 -jS lOaO' ... 16L- 30·" (8.66 ...j5) + (13.86-j8) = 22.62-j3
"I J22.6i'
E"Bmple 17. $ubtmcllhclollowing
+ 3' )tan-I
(-
(-
3122.62)
(AnL)
",22 ..12 tan-I
3/22.52) = 22.12 L-7.6·.
giuen {H!ClOrs{rom one another.
A"'
Solution. A - B
J5 .. j28 and
a-19.75 -j7.18.
= CO'
(15 +j26)-
(-19.75 -/1.18)
= 84.75 ;')33.18
Magnitude
or (5 = J34.752 ... 33.18'
= 48
Slope of C "t.a.n-I (33.18134.76)" 43.68· (5: 048 L43.68·. Eumple """Iors

(AnI.)
g'''''''
18. Perfom, flu! opemti<m~B
and expres« th« final resuu ;n [XJIar form for Ih" ...O· .. j
below ,
Solution.lwnrrllnging
A .. LO+jlO; Ii " J5L.- J20'; C ,,5 vectors A and in poln.· form, we have
A = 10+)10
C"
6 + jO"
= J102+ 102 t.a.n-l (10110)= 14.14L4S·
Js' + 02 tan6LO"
(015) =. SLO' 14.14" 15 (41;. 120' "II L. .. -.-) O'
C"
AB
1·4.14L4.5'" 15 L. - 120"
(An~.)
= 42.42L - '71i..
E><ample 19. Th. "",'aman,oIU "ulue.·oluIJo
""rro"ts', and;" aregwm

C06
I, s 5 sin Find tlu! ~.m.•. ooi.",
(Ill! +~)a'lll I.,. 2.5
((111-
i)
(1,.-
<>l " ... ~
using compte>; n~mi>.r rep=enlo.lion.

fKoroJa Unive",ity)
72
IlLEClRICAL'I'EOINOLOG
Solution.
Gill<!ll :
i. .. 5 Bin (lUI +
i2 '"
jJ.
2.5
COlI
(~I-
i)"
2.5 sin
[90" +(IUI= 6.03
il]=
2.5 sin lUI
I" /2<
The
, = 5 lew 46· + j sin 45') = 13.53 ,+ j3.53) , " 2.5 I cos 0' + j sin 0') = (2.5 + jO)
cu,rrontis 1""",= 13.63 + j3.fi3) + (2.6 + jO) + ja.53 = 6.987 L30.3'·
1l1IlX'mum value or resultant

aM.S.
6.987
VWUD -
Tz .. A. <1.94
(0
<Ans..)
Dumbe.,. Two numbe.,. OM! soid to be conJugate if theydjffer onJ,y in the oigebrok sign oft~ir qrrodra~
Col\lup&e complu
componen/&.
A=l"dingly,
the numbers
+jb) and (n - jb) are conjugate. ond their djffUIJIICO
• 'Ihc .um of two conjugate
numbers gives in-phase or act."" component !pva. qlUldrature or "",eli ~ component. i.e. (0 + jb) + (a, - jb) .. 2a (i.~.• activo compooent), and
(0
+ jb) - (0 - jb) -j2IJ
(i.e.. readi
v8 component). numbeOi contain8II<> quatirotUfl!
'The resultant is the sum of two verti<:.e.l eomponents only. The result.ant,arl."" Qutofthemuilipli(:otion oftwltconjugate i.e." (a + jb)x (a - jb) .. 02 - j'lb2 .. 02 + b' ill u.ed to determine
component.
The conj upte in complex fonn. or" complex number the appo,..",t power of an A.C. circuit --
Power and roots
or veatoNlphaaorlo
ThapOluers and mots of vectors can be found conveniently in polar form. If the vector are not, in polar form, these should be converted into polar form before carrying out the algebmic operations, as menticned below. Powers. Then Eumple. Then, Eu.lIlple. Then, Suppose Consider Suppose a vector ph11l1Orquantity represented in polar form
n&
.it
=A':::O,
(.itl"'=A'Lln~O)
it is required to find cube of the vector 4LIZ' (4L12.'jS '" (<1)3L (3" 12") ~ 64L36' quantity represented in polar form as (A)lIn ~ it I. requ; red to find cube mot of 125 L60'
Rootl. Consider a ve<:tor(phasorl
uU"" LO{IJ.
(125 L"60·) '" .. (125)1/3 L60'/3 ,.5L20·.
The 120' operator In case of a-phase work, where voltago vectors are di.placed by 120' Crom one another (Fig. 32) it ;1 convenient to ...... an operator, w hieb. retates a v~tor/ph8S0r through 120' toward or backwards without altering ita length. This operator is '0' and any operotor which is multiplied by 'a' remaina unaltered in magnitude but is rotated in CCW (coun ter-clodr.wise) di reesien by 1.20'. -
a = 1 L120·
In cartesian form, n ,. coo 120' + j sin 120' - - 0.6
+I
0.866 Urheberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ateri"
.... . CJRCU ITS c

Similarly,
73
1 Ll2<l' x 1 L'l.20'" I L240'; CDS 240' +] sin 240' " - 0.. - j 0,866 5 Hence the operotor 'a' will rotate tho in CON by 240' which is tho same as rotating the vector in CW(clock.wisel direction by 120' . ., a~ = 1L- 120' Similarly
a' "
a'
I ':;360'
(Numerica.1ly, a i9 equivalent to the cube root of unity.)
U A.C. Seri... Cin:uit.s

Under this heading we shall di5Cll8S R.L, R-C and R·L·C series circuits.
4.5.1. R.L eVeult ffielutauce aud lnductance in ""ries) Fig. 33 la) M.OWB 0. pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance
,eri es. Such a circuit is known as R-L circuit (u.ually met a ernss in practice).
L connected in
....V... IR-+-Vc-Ix......,
Iot----v ----.I
C\ '-:/ v
10;
o
IQt
fl
V~"'IR
(b)
x,_ .
A I
VI!IP $in
(a) Circuit dIagram C
Ph...... dIagram (I lags V by angle 0)
A~~'~
R
(e)
Impedanca lriangle
(d) 1lags V by angle 0
~\
.... "lS
&
..
'I
.s-:
v (I)
.,. __ -' •• --_ ••• -
(e)
RII$OIUIIon 01 I
Powur cu"'us
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M ate,i a
74
Ill.ECfRIC .. L TECHNOlOGY
Let
V~· R,M.S, value I '" R.M.S. value Va'" lR '" Voltage V L = IXt", Voltage
of the applied voltage, of the resultant current drop aeross R(ill p/1tJM with n, and drop aero •• L· (com, ahead of I by 90'.
Ii."" VR and V,),
Thevoltage drop Va an.d VI. and shown in voltage triaJlgleOAB in Fig. 33 (b),lbeing taken as the reference vector in. the pheser diagmm, Ve<::WrOA repre.ento ohmic drop VII.andAB represents inductive drop VL. Vector represents Ille applied voltage V which is Ille veCtor Bum of the two
on
V", JV~"+VL' ",J<IR1' + (LXL)' =IJ(R2+

Or
Xt')
where Z =. JR' + XL' (total opposition altered to the now o£alternating current by R.L series eircuit] ill known as Impedance of the circuit. As seen from the "impe<UUlce I,iangle~ABC iFig. 33 (dl, Z''''K'+Xt2 i.e.. (]n>pedancej2 '" (Re"istanceJ2 + (Inductive reactonool' Prom Fig. 33 (1)) it i. evident that voltage V I"ads the <'Urrent by an angle 0 such that, tan ~ _ VI. ~ v - VI!
"Eik,. ~".
lR
.R
mL _ Inductive roactan"" RResistance
The same is illustrated grophiClilly in Pig. 33 (dl.

In other words lIaRS V by an angle O. Power factor, cos "'''
% iFrom
P.ig. 33 (e)]
Thu s, if the applied voltage is given by "'" V....• in wt, then current equntion is given as. i _,J"",. sin (wt- 9), where
In the Fig. 33 (e), I has been shown resolved into two components, J cos 0 along V IUldI Bin <p
in quadrature
(ie., perpendicular)
with V.
Mean power consumed
"v K J cos 9 (Le., component of] which is inph_ with V p" V J cos 0 (.• r.m .... voltage" r.m.s, current x co. <»
by the ci!"<:uit
The term 'cos i)' is ealled the·pow"r factor (-
%) efthe
circuit
It mny noted that: -.in A.C. circuit the product of r.m.s, volta lind r.m.s, amperes gives volt-amperes (i.e ... VA) nnd not true power in watt ... True pow"r ('IV) • volt-amperes (VA) ~ power fader
Dr
Watts" -
VA (Apparent. power) x coa Q is du~ 10 ohmil: f"t'istoru:e only since pure inductance consumes no
The power consumed power.
U rheberrcc
htl lch gcsc h (jutes
M ateri"
A,C. CIRC'll1n
75
i.e.
RV P= VI cos':' = VI ~ Z~ZIR=I
~fR "PR. watt'!

(':. C<>8 Q
,.!lIZ and
not
Z " l)
Thi& show. dmt power i. actually consumed in rt!8i.lanceonly: the indtJctordDcs ImYJiOwer. The power lXlosumed in R·L cireuit il.how •• grnphicnlly in Fig. 33 (fl. Thu. in R·L circuit we have:
COll8111n"
1. Impedance. Z " 2. Current, 1 ,.
JR
Z ..
Xl. ~ (where XL " ruL ". 2IT. .,
Ll
Z
COlI
3. Power factor,
(or angle of lag, Q"
R( True power W) -Z~ "A "'-V " pparent power A 008-' (Ill Zll
<> ..
4. Power consumed, P Symbolk Nolation :
= V t co••
( ""/Z x I x ~
'='
l~
Rl
Z=R·.jX" The numerical value ofimpedanee In polar form : vector _"

Q ""
J~. X,,2
tan-' (X,,/RI.
The phase angle with the ref."."nce ""io,
Z " ZL(JQ.
AppaJ'(!nt, Active (True or real) and Reactive Power: Every eireuit current, has two components: (i) Active component and (ii) Reactive component. 'kt,,,,, comJiO,,,mt' C01l8"""'S power in the cin:uit while ·reactiue component" is responsible
for the field which lags or leads the main current, from the voltage.
In Fig. 34. eetive eemponent ;81_

Aclillll :
.. .1COS O.and, reactiveco,mponent·is

VI cos 0
I... ,.;" . ".l.in
0)
Q
I I
:o,i
,.,.:
~: I,aino
,,:
0:
Jl'
, , ,
I sin Q
t .._ .._._.'_ .
I
e~
K:
(Di
~-:
VI sin
Fill. 34. Mtive and I'e""Uve <o"'ponenll orcirculttun'entI.
Fig, 3S. Apparent. true and "",otjve power.
So,
76
EUCl'II,ICAL
TEOINOl.OOY
Refer Fig. 35. (i) Apparent power (S). It i.o given by I~ product "'( r.m.s. ~al1U!3 o( oppli«l wJtag~ and circuit current. .. S .. VI .. (lxZ).l"PZvolt-amperes{VA) (ii) Active or true Or real power (P or W).ltis t~ power which is aduollydiosipated in. the cire~it ITsi.8tatICC. p ~ PR .. VI cos o)watu (iii) Reactive power (Qj. A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not CO!lIUll1e any power, since in a balf cycle what so OVer poweris l"C<:ei~"Cd from the 8OUI"CO these components ti>.e.I4m.e is by returned to the 8OU1"OO. Tbis power which nllws back end forth (i.e., in both directiolUl in the cil"CUit) or reacts upon itstlf is called ·rt'(l.(:liue PO""'~'• It moy be noted that thccur",nt in phou wilh tho ~ producu ""tiue or true or I"ftd power whU. IIUJ eurretu 90' out o( phas£ with tho uollage co.nUwuu. 10 reactive power. In II R.L circuit, reactive power which i. the power· developed in the inductive reactance of
the circuit, is given as ; Q" [' X~" flZ .•in. ,,[. UZ) sin (I
" VI sin IIIvclt-amperea-reaettve

These three powers IIr"C shown in Fig. 35 Rolotion between VA, IV and VB
WAR)
and, Power focter· (p.f.)
W= VA CO" iii VAR '" VA .in. (I W VA,,-"""9 VAR VA ".-c-_·

.mO W· True power power
...w
...(if)
... [From. (il) •••[From (ii))
" VA " Apparent
The larger bigger units of apparent,

and kVAR (or MVAR) respectively.
true and reactive power are.k VA (or MVA), kW{or MW)

If it is made equal to the active ~
The power factor depends on the rea ctive power component. power component, the power factor Ileal""", unity.
EJtalllple 20. A coillak~$ 2.5 amp'. when ~0"1I«ted ocro" 200 uolt 50 Hz maillS. TM power co",ullWd by th« wil is (o/Uld to be 400 watts. Find tho indl.ldal1Cl! and tho fJOUJU (oemr coil. SoIUt!OD. CUrTeRt taken by the'coH, 1 " 2.5 A
""tho
Appl,l'!dvoltage, Power consumed. We know that or
V= 200 volts P,,400W
p", VIcos~
400 .. 200 x 2.6 x
COlI.
or
COlI
0 .. ~ .. 0.8 ~ 200><2.5
Hence power faeter of coil is 0.8. IAn .. )

Impedance Also of tho coO, Z
g
Y. '" 200 I 2.5
,,80
Urhcberrec htl lch gesc hutztes M aleri a
A .C. CI RCUITS
77
.80 sin
Q~
80Jl- cos~~
= 80JlBut
0.s2 "80 ~ 0.6 " 48 D.
Xt "2n/L
L z ~,. 211[
~
2n x 50· = 0.1529 H (hen'""). (An .. ) -# ..
Example21.A 100 V. 80 Wlamp U.f<>be optJl'Otrd on 230uoll', 50 HzAC s ..pply. C'<ie.dMe II", inductull"" ofu... cJwke required '" be colUleckd iI, ,erie, with luntp {or it6 operotion. The /(lmp can be hJkC_R ~ cql,J.irmknt to ci. tum indClctilM re,i$ta:nte. Solution. Current through the lamp when connected aeross 100 V supply.,
lz!!=~100' ..OaA V
Rel!i,ta.nce of the lamp,
R,.
Y z 100
J
If a choke nf'Induetanee L hen.ry .i8connected the <."IIlTCnt through the ehoke will alao be 0.8 A. The impedance
o.s
125 Q in series with the la.mp to operate in series with the lamp, it on 230 V,
of the circuit when eheke i. connected
Z=
Reactance
7 0:8
E
230
"287.5 n .~. J.-28-7-.(;-=-2----lU-.

~2 ..
or.hake coil,XL
..
JZ2
X
-~
258.5 n
But
or Hence inductance curron/·/olt.en
XL = 27f/L
L
Example 22. A coil has " rui"ance of 5 n and an. induclance of 31.8 mli. Calculate lire by ,hI! coil and power {ador when connett.d to .200 V; 50 Hz supply. Draw 1M II«tor diagram. If (1. non·indfJCtiue I't$i$tunee of 10 n 10 then c<>nned¥d ill series with roil, calculate th. flew val". af~t and ih powu foetor. Solution. R • 5 !J L = st.s m8 Qr 0.0318 H XL " 2#L
K
or choke
=~ roil, L.
258.5 211~ 50 ,,0.825 0.826 8. (An.. )
2It" 50 ~ 0.0318
= 10!J
L(031.BmH)
~------;~r-------M
2OOV, 50 Hz (a) R-LorQ.lil
VA-IA
(bl_"j)fla .... ~gram
78
Impedance of the coil.
z .. JR7+X/
" J5~
Z"
V
tlf
,,11.18
c
. Current
taken by the coil. 1 "

CO"
200 11.18
1~.9 A. (An!!.)
Power fncwr.
0=
zR
5 11.18 = 0.4.415. (An,.)
Fig. 36 (bl shows the vector diagram. Total resistance
Who" IIo"·,,,,I,,cl;,,,, ",.;.ta',,,,, of lO!l;s """"."/ed inseries wuh the coil: in tho eircun, R' - 5 .. 10 z 15 n Reactance in the circuit. XI.' '= Xt " 10 n
of the circuit,
2 Z'" JR,7 .. X' ~7 = + 102 "IS V 200 1"" "F -""""is = 11.11 A. (Ans.)
Impedance
b5
Current through the circuit.

Power fact"rofthe
Example 23. A o{ SA. (Illws tllrough a IICII-ilUi,u;titl<) n!si$IlI,,'. in IH!ria wiJh " c/Whing coil wI! ell ,"pp/i<-d at 250 V. 50 H~. 1{the ""Itage =8 the ",.ista """ i& J 25 V and a.crrJ8I the ctJiI 200 V, calculate:
.n,,.,,,,'
circuit, eos
~ "'"F"
R'
18 ,,0.833.
15
(AD"')
Imped,,,,.e. '''!lela''c. altd re.~tallce a{th. <oil. Tile po!J);!J' abscrb"d .by the coil. (iiil The tala Ijl<lwer. Draw the oeetor diag",,,,.
(i) (iii
(Elect.
Enre.
Madra. Valv,)
Snlution. Non· induct; vo rc.ist:nncc eoanoeeed io series with coil " l~_ .. 25
Refer Fig. 37 (b I.
SA
'(II)
250V.501U
..J
Se,I.. ,",,,,,it
Fig.
(bl_IO'~
37 ...(il ...(ill
BC2 .. CD' .. (2001' .. 40000

U 25 + BC)" + CD' = (2.50)' = 62500
Subtrncting cqn,
(i)
from eqn, (til,
WI!
get
(125 .. BC)' - BC"J c 62500 - 40000 = 22500 15625 ... BC"J + 250BC - BC"J '" 22500
BC", 27,5V;
CD"
JI2(0)2 -
m.5)2
198.! V
Urheberrec htl lch gesc hutztes Iv! ateri a
79
Z"
VII
D
6
5
200
= 40
n n
(Ans.
JR • Be ~ 27,& ar
OR - 27.5
R" 27.5 ,,5.li Abo,

.•
(Ans.)
V." IX. "CD = 199.1

198,1 ~ X L = -5- = 39•82 ll. (''--.) ~ (Ans.)
(iii Power absorbed by the cell, P = PR = 52 • 5.5 = 137.5 W.

(iii)
The total power
= VI eoa 0> = 250 • 5" AD = 250 • 5 •
AC
(An a, )
(125 + 27.5) 250 =762.5 W.

(ADs.)
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 37 (6). BffedilH! rui8lanCf': of the coil.
£sample Z41. An ira, ... ",,..d coil ha. a D.C. f"l!sulllnCf': 6 ohms .. When it i. conllecled to 230 V, 50 H. maiM. I"" current 10k,,,,, U 3,5 A at II poWll,r ~tar of 0,5. Determin« :
(i) (Ii) (iii)
or
r=
IndJl(:tollce of coi/. Ruul:ati£e which "'presents ,"" effect of ,'''' ira,,, [013. SoIutioD. Giwn: D.C. 'resistance (True resistance), R" 50 Hz, 1= 3.5 A; 0.5.
I""
OT
(i) Effective _1.taD,co or the can, R.: Total power' eonsumed by the iron-cored choke coil, P. Power loss in ohmic resistance + Iron 10!llIin eere '" PR .. P; P ,Po, P ]I" '" R .. where l' is known as effect;"" ",s,u/ance of the coil.
p.r. "
n ; 'supply
volw.gc " 230 V,
it,
.•
Iii)
Effective ..... latanee
• •~[2" ---;r-=
Z=
VI"". (I
230 ex 3.5 x 0.5
(3.5)'
".
32 86
n.
(ADs)
IJIduetaDce olthe coil, L:

ofthe coil,
Impedance Inductive
T"
230
3.5 = 65.7 II
reactance of tho eeil,
X."
..
(iii)
Jz" - R,,' '" J<G5.7)' - (32.86)' .&.= 211.56.950 , = 0.1811 II. L • 21'( x
-66.911;
(Ans-)
Resistance
1'8pl'eRlltillg iron loss ,
Sincc
Effective resistance. :. Re.istance
R. = Trull ..... istanee + Resi.tan.CI! representing Iron loss 32.86 = 6 .. Resistance ,."pre.onti ng iran I""" representing iron 10Sll" 32.96 - 6 26.86 (Ans.)
D
Urheberrec htllch ge5c h(jutes Iv! ateri"
so
Elrnmplc parameters ," 25. Three <oils cO~lIec/ed in seri .. acr"", a 100 V, 50 Hz supply
"'w" tJUI 1<>Ilawing
R,".18 0, L, "'0.012 H ;Rz '" 12 Q, Lz =0,036 H,. R. = 3.6 0, L. = 0.072 II Dotermine Ihe pal""t.io:l drop and piuJse anglo lOT ench coil. Solution. Fig. 38 .• how" the circuit diagram, Total resistanoe in the circuit, R = R) + R. +R, '" 18 + 12 +,3.6 ~ 33.6 Q Total inductance in the circuit. £ '"£, + L... La eo 0.012 .. 0.036 .. 0.072 " 0.12 H
Impedance ofcoil-l, Impedance of coil-2,

C<:III-l
Z,"
Jii/ .. (2'1f/ L,)'1 '" JUe'f .. (211"

E
50 ><0.012)·"
18.39n
Z." JR,,2+(2.tIii.z'f
J(12)';
(2n'" 50"
~
3.8
0.,(35)'1 = 16.49 n
.----"-----..
1811 0,012 H
C<:II~2
0.036 H
Coll~
1211
0.072 H
v
100 V. 50 HZ Fig. 38. Circuit diagrnm.
Impedance ofooil-3. Z, = Impedance of the whole
JRi~+(211 f La)· =,J(S.61' .. (211)<50 ><O.072}'l = 22.90 n circuit, Z ". JR2 .. (2ft { ty- " J133.6)2 + (2~ ~ 50;'; O.12)~ .50.5
Z100 50.5 " 1.98 A
_ . V Cu rrent Ih rough the circuit, 1=
Polen tial drop across roil-I. V L "JZ 1 1.98 " 16.39" 36.41 V Potential drop serosa roil-2. V. = IZ. = 1.98 ~ 16.49 = 32.65 V
(Ani.) (An •• )
Potential d!,<,p acress eeil-a, V. " lZ, " 1.98 " 22.90 = 411.34 V (An ... ) Phase angle or roil-I. (I" """-, (}lIZ,)" cos-' (I8f18,39)" 1l.82·. (Ans.) Phase angle ofroil-2. 0. = cos-'l.Rtz!) = cos-'{12l16,49) - 43.S·. CAllao) Phase anglo of coil-a, ~ ,. "",,-1 fJlIZ31 .. cos-'(S.6122.9Q)= 80.96'. (Ans.) Example 26. An ai.ternating IIOl:age of(176 + j132J is applied to" circuit and the cur""'t the circuit is gioen by (6.6 .. j 8.8) A.1ktermine: (i) Volue, of elemente oft."" circuit. (ii) Power ractor oll.h. circuil.
(iii)
in
Power consumed.
Solutio.n. Given: Supply voltage. V = 176 + j132 " 220 L36.87Circuil current.
j ,. 0.6 .. j 8.8 = 11 L53.l3-
A.C. CIRCUITS
(I)
81
Values of elo.ment. otthe circuit, It, c:

Z- "
Circuit impedance,
!~L53.1l" 220 L36.87· I 11

(Arul.)
,,2i1 L-18.26' ..
,,20 (ros (- 16.26') + sin (-16.26')]

%
20 (0.96 -
i 0.28)"
09.2 - j5.6J.Q
(An •• )
R = 19.211
Xc = 5.6 Q Or C"
(ii)
1 1 2n{Xc = 2lt x 50 x 6.6 F = 56Il.0I,!IF.
Power (a.cCUrot'the circuit

<XIS (I ..
I C03
0: ,,0.96 (leading).
(An .. )
Z "20
19.2
(iii)
Power (true) cOlUnuned, P :

power,
Apparent
s"vxi
.. 220 .L36 .. 'r • 11 L-53.IS' S
.. 2420 L- 16.,26' = 2323.,2 - j 677.6 .. True power, P" 2323.2 W. (Ana.) (Alternatively, P = VI ..... (I = 220 ~ 11 ~ 0.96 = 2323.2 WI. &ample '1:1.1... a circuit, the equalio'" for ;I1,lan1411<{)O$ ooittJgc "lid current are 8'0"" by, n V - 141.01,," ("" - 23 ), !!oil and i = 1.Q'llill (""
(i)
-iJ.
"mp, ,,,he,,,,,,,, 314 radt sec.
Sutch" IUI'" phnsar diag,."", {Or the circuit
(ii) UK polar "olalio .. to ealculsue impedallce with Jlh" •• angle.

(iii)
Cnlcui"le aV'lll8e paw.r. (iv) CulculaffllM instantan""""
palW!l"at the insmnt : ~ 0

and i = 7.07 sin ("" -
Solutio .....Gi"",,: v .. 141.4oin (." - ~),
i). where
{Pulle Unlve ....ltyl

OJ"
314 rod/B.
(i) PhalOl' diagram : From the voltage equation, it ill soon that the voltage Ings behind the referenee quantity by
211 180 . 8 md or 2 x = 120'. Similarly,
""3
current
lags behind. the reference quantity by
" 180 '2 Tad or ""2
,., 90'. Between Fig. 39 (b).

(ii)
themselves,
voltage lap behind the current by (120' - 90')
= 30' no shewn in
Impedance
with pbase angle (polar notation) V ~ .141.4 V ., ,/2=--:]2 ~ 100 ; ".2 .. 5A. and /.5 L-90' 90" .. 20 L-30'11 (An.. )
1=~g~ J2
Z"
V~ lOO·L-12il· 1 6L-
Y .. 100 L -120"
Urheberrec htllch gesc hutztes Iv! ateri"
ELE.CTRtCAL nc.H NOLO(W
(8) Fig.
fb) 39
(iii) Average power:

Avcrnge power (iv) InstantaneoUi At .. t ,,0;
v ..
power
VI cos 41 : 100 ~ 5" cos SO' = 433 W. at t. 0 :

g
(An ... )
141.4 sin (O ~ 120') - - 12,2.46 V
i : 7.07 sin (0 - 90') ~ - 7.07 A In stantan !lOU. power (It I = O. vf 10 Dhm.
P .. v,'" (-122.45)" (-7.07)" S65.7 W. (Ans.) Rxample 28. A I.iVltag. eflJ .. 100 si" 314 I u appl;.d III a, series circuit CWIB~ti"lf resistance, 0.0318 henry inductance and a <opa,.;I01"o{63.S IIF. Dourmine: (i) E:<pro .. ion for i(tJ. fii) Phase angle ildw«n .voltnge and "!Uf"'fnt. riii)- Power ("clor. (;v) klil.lf!,{HJlv.r consumed.
(v)
Peak value ofpulslIlina
CMI'8Y.
Sou.tio,n. Glue" : til) : 100 sin 314 t, R = 10
a. L ,: 0.0018
UlIdOJ"e UnJv e "I~)') H. C = 63.6)lF = 63.6 'x 10-<' F.
hf
Fig. 40 Urhcberrec htllch gesc h(jutes M ateri"
A.C. CIRCUITS
83
Ill"
Here
314 radl. ; XL" .IL ,,314 ~ 0.0318.

X
10 Q ; Xc"
1 314 ~ 63 6x 10- d = 50
Q;
= XI. - Xc " 10 - 50 J
K
- 40 Q (cllpacitive)
,,10 _ '40:; 41.2 L-76"
i 'z
".£." (1001/2) - LO· ,,1.716 4L2 L 16"

¢I:
L76" .
1..... " I (i) Expre8s1on ror 1ft),

i(t) " (ii) (jj)
,fi " 1.716
~ ,/2 = 2.43 A (AIls.)
2.43 sin (314 t + 76').
PhRH angle between voltage and current,

¢I • 76' with current lend; ng.
Power factor, eo. 40 :

COB
<II
cOS
76' • 0.24 (lead).
CAn.. ) 0.24
(w)
Active power consumed. P: p. VI <.'lIS,," (1001,/2) (2.431,/2)" Peal! value or pultatlng enercy:
energy
= 29.16
W.
(An •• )
(w)
Refer. Fig. 40. The peak value of pulsating
_ Vmu Jmu + VmIU lmu:. cos Q 2 2
" 11;••• I",,,, 2
(l
+ cos q,)
100 x 2.43 (1 + 0.24) _ 150.66 W.
(An s, )
4.1>.2. R-C cIrcuit (Re..-istanceand capacitance in aeries) Fig. 41. ra) shows a pure resi~tan"" R (ohms) and a pure capacitor connected in series, Such a circuit is known as R·C circuit. Let, V" R.M.S. value afthe VR" IR "Voltage applied voltage, current, C, lagging I by 90'. I " R.M.S. value of the resultant of capacitance C (farads)
drop aC1'Q8B (in phase with l) and R

IlCI'OII8
V c " !Xc = Voltage drop
O~~
V~A~A_ -+ _
14----v ----+I
v
z
Vrf/lU
sin (01 (b) Pllasor diagram
B
(I leads V by angle ~)
(a) Circuit diagram
Urheberrechtllch
qeschutztes
~la1eria
itt
c
(0) Impedance triangle
tp 0 f-----'-'-'-~...........__..In_
(II)
Powar CUM!
Fig. 41. R·C -circuit {Ro.Bimm()1llnd
c:apacitance in 1Ori..efJ~.
Vol tug" drops V~ and V L IIre shown ill vel tage triangle. DAB in Fig. 41 (b) 1 bei ng takAm as the reference vector in the phasor diagram. Vector OA represents ohmle drop VII and AB represents the eepacitive drop Vc' V""tor DB re presents the applied voltage V, which is the vector sum of the· VII and Vc)
V'" JVII"" V/ '" J(lRP + (!Xc)· =1

or where
V I=JR'l+X/
Z" JR" + Xcz
(total opposition
V
Z
J~ ..Xc'
offered to the flow of alternating
cu"..,nt
by
R·C
series
cirouit) is known as the impedance
of the circuit,
As seen frcm the «imped"""" Iriangl," ABC !rig. 41 (cll,
z2 =Rt ...Xc' i.e..

(lmpOOanoc)!'" tall C '" (Re.istnnce)2 .. (Capacitive reactanoo)'! From Fig. 41 (b) it i. evident that/lead!! the voltage Vby an angle II> such that, ,,(]fmC) ., CapaCItive reactance R Resistance
.!£ = !Xc '" Xc

VIt IR R
Q= tan-I (~)
The same is illustrated gra phi cally in Fig. 41 (d). In other words I leads Vn by an angle 9.
Power factor, co. 0 = ~ Power. Rofer Fig. 41

Instantaneous power,
(d),
IFrom Fig. 41 (el) p - vi - V__ sin

cot ~
I""" sin (M + ~)
= V"",-, 1",~ ~ 2 sin hut .. 0) sin .. t 2 V. 1 -~ x =jt leos (J - <:<I. (2 .. t + ¢Ill

Average power consumed P '" Average in the circuit. over a complete cycle. of
-1f-. ~
cos II- Average of ~.
co.' (2wt .. ~J
Urheberrcc htl lch gesc h(jutes M ateri a
A..C CIRCUITS or
85 p ~ , .. .. CO:!l'~ -r zero, 2 2 ' P _ V,.=~ ~ 1",._, cos <) = VI COS Q
'7rV J:l
er
Alternatively,
where cos <) is the pawer foewr of the circuit: P - VI cos Q - IZ ~ consumed
t « !!.. - PR
Z
in rflsislonco Oll/Y ; the capacitor does not <0"·
Su"'"
This shews thnt power is actually o"y paw.r. Thus in R·.C circuit, we have:
L Impcdenee,
2. Current, 1-
Z"
JR~ + Xc~
(whe:.re Xc .. ..l, .. ' . ,1, we 2#, C being
In
farad
." )
Z
Z True power. _~) Apparent power VA
S. Power [actor, cos <)_ !!..(_
(or angle lend, i> - cos-' {RIZ)] 4. Power eonsumed, P - VI <:(I" <) (= PRJ.
or
E>:alllple 29. A capaeiumce ,,{20 !IF and "" ~sislonce of 100 okms are conltl!t;t.Yi in series across 120 V, 60 Hz main .s, Determin« Ihe ,,"v.rose pawu ~mied ill Ihe circuit.
Also drow the vector dUll/rom.
SOb.tion.
R - 10(1 n C - 20 lIP '" 20
10-" F (farad)
(a)
R·C circuft
Fig. 42
(b) Vectorlphasor diagram
Gapnci tive reactenc:c,
X ., _I_c_
c 'bt/C
2
Impedance of the cireui t,

Cu rrent through the ci reuit
Z" 1~ ~9P
Jii + X,:/ - Jioo'J+

!.E,l20
Z 188 ,,0.638,/\
ZIt" 50x 20 x 10=1l
,= 1590
Q
1502 = 188
Power factor,
Average power expended
!!.._IOO" 0.632 Z 188
in the circuit.
,. =VI""",,
Fig. 42 (b lsbows tho veetarlphnsor
" 120 " 0.638 x 0,.632 - 40.75 W. diagram,
(A;n&.)
86
in with C'" 100 J.'<Jlverill the circuit,
f.LECIllICAL
TEClINOI.OGY
..,ri".
Example 30. A voltage u '" loo.tin 3141- 50
lIP.
COIl
3 U~ i8 applied
I<>
II
circuU hllving R" .2() n
Obta;n expre .. ;on.(or in.lanl<>neorlS 0""""71/.•r.", .s, va/r.e o{Currenl ,wd the (PTU, 1999)
SelutioD. GiV"t! : v = 100 sln 3141- 50 _ 3141 ; R " 20 n ; C = 100 "F. The R.C:circuit and the phase diagTam ro. the glven instantaneous voltage are shown in Figs. 43 and ~4 respectively.
200 R
100)lF
IOOV
v'" 100 si" 9141 - 50 cos. 3141 l>il:.43
SOy
Fig. 44
l1LSV
Results nt VOltage,
V-..til! =
(I ..
J(l 00l~ + (soy,

taD-I (
Phose angle with the horiUlntal.

Now, UIl = 314 lor
III
-:&.) ,= -
,,111.8 V
21l.56'
= 314
v = 111.8.in (314t - 26.56') Xc
:. Capacitive reactanee. Circuit impedance. Maximum value of current,
"we -
I . 314", 100 '" 10'" ,,31.85
Z = JR'+ Xc~ "J(20)~ +(31.85)~ = 87.6 Q
I ",!!...r. ",111.8 ,,291 A ..... Z 31.6 .. Phase d iITe..,nee between voltage and current,
Q•
ens-I
(!!) "COS·, (3!...) Z 37.6
,,61.86'
(leading)
:. Instantaneous
00"
value ofcurren.r i .2,91 sin (314t - .26.56' + 51.86')" 2.97 sln (3141 + 31,S') i ,,2.97 [ain 3141 . cos 31.3' + eos 314t, sin 31.3'] i ,,2.M Bin 3141 + 1M COB 314t. (Ana.)
or
RMSvaIf' "~,, ·the current. I " 1""",2.97 = Il.l A. (AD .. ) T2

Power in til. circuit, P .. VI cos Q V"""'RI. " --:r;:- ~I E:o:ampJe 31.A two dement + 20') V. The cumml in the circuit PQrom.ters of the circuit.
eos
T2 '"
e=
m,s =x :
2.1~· cos (57.86') .. 88.32 W (An",)
8erit8 circuit;.,
conn",,/ed aero ss an A. C ..• ou""" e = 200./2 .in (i:u! 10/2 cos (314. t - 25·) A. iklerm""
Ihen ill fOlJ.1ldto b. i=
(Allahabad U nivenl.ty)
Solution. Given ,.
e"
i=
1M cos: (314
'};(}fJj2
sin (Ull + 20')

t-
25')
Urheberrcc htlich gesc h(jutes M ateri a
s; C. CIRCUITS Parameters The current of the circuit, i ean be written

COS ..
81 R, Xc and C ,
as, i ~10,/2 .in (314 t - 25· + 90·) '" 10,/2 sin (314 t .. 65')
It i. 600n tbat applied voltage lead. by 20· and current leads by 65' with regard. reference quantity. their mutual difference is 65' - 20' .. 46'. Hence. p.r. cos I'> a COS 45" a 0.707 (lead). (MS.)
to tbe
Now. •.
V.... : 200./2 and 1••", = 10,/2
Z= ~~ 200./2" ",20e 1,",,< liiJ2 R .. Zws9" 20 x 0.707 = 14.140.

Xc: Z sin. : 20
x
(An s,) (Ans.)
0.707
14.140.
Also.
where
Xc:..2.... fa
we
=_1_
2'1!fC
= 14,14
1 50x C
314 =50 Hz 2"

X
Xc'" 14.14 '" 2'11

or
C..
14.14"
1 Zn
50
= 225.1 J1F.
fAD •• )
Hence Ibe given circuit is an R· C circuit.

4.11.3. R·L-C cl...,u1t (Realatance, Inductance and capacitance In geries)
Fig. 45 ..hews a R·L·C circuit.
~----~'~'r-----~
(8) R·L·C C<'cui'
Impedlnoe lriangle
v,
(bl x,_
>
l<"
._
(ell<".
Fig.
x,_
in Kerie~.
-45. Resi.lanee. inductance
and capacitance
Urheberrechtlich
geschutztes
Material
88 Important f01'n".I""
1. Impedance, :
Z" Jlfi + (XL - XC)2

:[wbcroXL"'
21t/L. L in henry and Xc ,,~,
C in r..rOCd]
2. Current, 3. Power factor,
cO$O"
1.. ! ·Z R
[angle of lag (when Xl. > Xc) or lead (when 4. Power consumed &'OIJ4n<:e 10" R,LC ,,1're .. U~
(a).
Xc
> XL 1,0" ooo-'~]
• VI cos. (.. PR)
Refer Fig. 45
!
<J
jt--+-H--
Fig. 46. Rcaetnnee (X) ,./. frequency (fl.
Fig. 17. Gurn>nt in R-L·C circuit vii f""l""ncy, in the cirouit ,;..
The fr<'qutncy of Ike IJ()liage which gi/)e$ Ihe mo.rimum VQluo a{t.A. currerlt caJhd re,o .... '" freque, ..:y, and tho cireu(t is said to be re.o .... nt,
At resonance,
XL" Xc '2JL",_1_,_.
.....
(i.o:, Z" R)
C
,.e
. where
2n',
f," f;"
Resonance frequency vari:6tion Fig. 46 shows frequency f.
2nJtc
...(5)
in henry; and C" Cllpacitance XL - Xc) with in farad. variation of
in Hz; L '" Inductance of XL'
Xc
a!ld X (total reactance"
At .erie.
Fig. 47 shows the variation of current, reSOnlUlce, it is seen that,:
m with
fr<!«uency
ifJ.
1. Net reactance of the circuit is ·zero i.~., XL - Xc" 0 or X = O. 2. Tho impedance of tho eireuit i. minimum and equal to tho resistance (i.e., I ~
(R)
of tho ciro:uit
*).
ConsequenUy
circuit admiaone«
is maximum.
3. The eurrene drawn ;s maximum (i,e..l,," 1...). 4. The phase angle between the current and veltagets
zero ; the patoer fOC/1)r is u"'!y.
89
5. The resonant
frequency
is given by
f,"'
2rtJiC ;'if the (re.qru",ey
is belou: tho resonant
frequency the net reactance frequency, the net reactance
in the circuit is clJPo.du~ and if the frequency,js above the resonant in the circuit is ,indur;tilUl. 6. Although Vt: = V", yet V... is greater than Vc because of ita resistance.
HnlI power Irequenci,es, Bandwidth and Selectivity Hall power (cut-om frequencies: The 'half power frequcneJes are those fr"'l""n' cin at which the power dissipatwn in the circuit is halfaftl,e power dtnipotion at n"",...,1It frrquenc, fr They am the colTesponding frequencies " and at the value of current 1 = 1,lJ2 ; whereJ, is the current
r.
i 0.7071
...
I, -----------
~
I I
M,
1 --------
' ---t--I
M,
t • -
at resonance
in R·L·Cseries
circuit (Refer Fig. 48). by the circuit at the ••.(6) I,2R
Hence pow er , P, drawn
I"UallanC<! is
ii
r,
Fig, 48
P, .. J,3R Power in the circuital
f, = f."
Power in the circuit at
(~r i ("*r i
R=
R" R
t! f~ "'oquency ___
{.. half the power at resonance) {,. hair the power

lit
1/ R
reso nance)
A180,
R f,= '"'- "IlL
f. =t; + 4,d.
21tl. Bandwidth and Selectivity: Tho difforoncc Cf.- f,) is called tho bruuiwidth (BA"Jof the resonant network. The mtio of the bQMwidth to the re&QIUlIIU {requeru;y iJ defllled (18 the .electivity
circuit. Wben frequency ia varied in R-L·C circuit, the .•electivity becomes
,..(7)
f;.-f, .. ...!!....
of the
·V;' - ft) 1 --f,-~Q
whore Q, is the quality (actor oftheresonant circuit. ·ReI.Uan between bandwidth and qu.alJty factor in ,",rie. resonant condition. : A sen....R·L·C circuit ill ooT"iidered. The 'resonant frcqu"ncy and rutguJa. frequency arc expressed by f,and oJ, respectively. In the above circuit, the current (J) can be described 8S follow. : 1=
2
JR +(wL-
where V, R, L and C are the source vDltage, rt!8i.stance, inductance res peetively,
~r
.
andcapacilancc'
of the circuit
90
The current.
1 '.
at apower, half of the maximum

series resonant .
power devolopod at resonent frequency,
is
721" where I, is the

A=rding
"".Trent~ ..
V
R'
to the delinition ofbnndw,dth,
TzR~J~(
or
or According
R + wL--
we
1)2
RI ,,( mL - ~
J"g-. +-(-ruL-. --u>C-1--::"r

to Fig, 48
".fiR
or
r
".Iii)
wL-_'!_,,±R.
me
to¥- - _j_
Adding equation~
(i)
and (ill, we get
w-P
...Cil
or Since
AgBin
w/ "'
r1.
[w, is the angular

(i)
frequency
at reStlnant eendition.l
Subtruding
equations
L(w2 -N,)
and (iii, We have
_!(~ -WI)
C, W~I
(Ill! -III,)
,,2R
"
or or or
(0'2 - ",,)
+ _!_ LC
!lI~,
2R L
2R
(1112 - "',)
+ 0I1"l2
01 ' ( 2 - 011) " WjOO2
,:
o'jOO."
_!_] LC
(~-OI,)"
1! L
frequency
or
!liz -<I),." _!_ (1)0 "'oL [''It,is the angular

tIl2 -'tol
at resonant ccndition]
OT
='(J)o x~
R
Of
': [OIL]Q~-t-
Urheberrcc htllch gesc h(jutes M ateri"
AC.
CIRCUm;
91
or
or Bandwidth at series resonant condition " ~.
1·.- b'" 21r/l
Q-factor
circuit: The Q·factllr of an R·L·C""ries circuit can be defined in the following diffenmt ways:
(/1 Q-ftu:tor i. de{",.d
1l81h.
or a reSODant ""ries
[Q"
ban;~dth"
<Y'"'.:<YI
"ifL-¥- RIre ·li~]

in the drouu at the time of resonan ... , coil at eapaci~e:, 1,
ooItage nllJllni{"".titm V
Since at reaonanee tor"
current
is maximum
"Ii ' the

wL T
R
voltage aeresa either Reactolla! Resistance CR
I,Xv or I,Xc. and supply voltage, V. I,R. . YM_ I,Xv

.. Voltage 1ll8gnificabon =V
':1
1,R. R
!I.!:.
R --
or
Vo- ~ I, xC, •
V 1, R Q.factllr " ~"
&. Reactance ~ _I_

Resistance
OJ,
where
a i. the
(At (ii)
circuit power factor 0111/1. cftlle coil. may also be d.e{1m<i as under; Q·factllr " 2"
2T!{,L '" tan 0
... (Stal)
resonruu: .. , circuit pbase angle 0 • 0, and Q " ton 0 " 0)
The Q- factor
"""rgy dissipated
1 t: 1),,21)~
[2
maximum
.tored energy per cycle
...... in the circuit
"2'
1U2
,,21t rZRT, But reSQnant frequency. Putting
"2111'iR{u{")
(,"
,,'bt{,L
"~" 211(,."
w,L (
"wrCR
1)
(.: T,.".!) t:
.•. [S(b))
1 211M
or
""JiJ!
this value in eqn, 8(0), we get Q.Cactl!r '" 'btfrL
In series resonance, wall ao higher selectivity of the tuning coil.
"LC RVC higher quality factor i.e; Q-factor means higher voltage magnification R R
,,!:. x ~.!.
fI
as oro
Example 32. A naiAtasu:e 12 on induetane« of 0,15 H and a ctI';"citance conn.octed in series o.cross a 100 V. 50 Hz .~pply. Calculate:
(i)
a.
of /00
I.F'
The "UMmt.
t:UN'tlnt
Iii) TIw phase di(fer:ence betw •• n

(iii) POUler (lC)1I$1IIIIed. Draw liu! vecl"r dfugmm of.upply
and the supply oollalJe.
Solution. Gi""n :
I/Oltage and the IiIUl current: 12 n. L = 0.15 H or XL = 2nfL = 21! " 50 x 0.15 = 47.1 Q
C" 100 or X
C
!IF" 100
~
" lo-"F 10 ....
~ _1_
2II/C
1 211x 50 x 100"
= aI.811
Urheberrechtllch qeschutztes ~lalcrial

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eel ieal ehnolo J

(F , G.J.U. and K.U., Haryana)

rtclNrnU O'~ pMtocopyins. of liae publl$hu:

Ra. 195.00 O~,..

Fim Edition : 2O().l IUprint : 2006

C-lSllMlOMO Prinud <II : /II..".. 0IIie1 PrMo. Ne. DeIhL

Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"

AND NETWORK ANA,I,ysIS

HighIilliUo 041",11"" TYpe QIUlBlion. Thggrytirni QuestWIIS Un.olved Kramp/.s A.C.

Objedi"" 7)11"' T~Q"".<tioJu

6.1. 6.2. ,6.3,

188 100 100

Urheberrec htlich gcsc hutztes Materia

Tron.fo"""" Cool in g 8..1. Cooling methods

2.Il! 2!l5 2117 2Il9

Rcgu I ation f.I r n tl'nn.sfomt~l" Perc.otago rogj~UlD cc and r.actan""

9.14. fun.former efficienIT 9.16, AU-dar .mcl"ney 9 16 Trnn!5formu nolsel

2fiO 2G5: 2li6. 267 2l!1

ROTATING I\IACHINES Dir",,! Ourrnnt m.C) Macl!Un~"

1.2. 1.3. 1.4, 15

GIAMifiratjQD orA C mollllS Cqnsttn

1162 iW3 aM alii

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes M aleria

Ptr",~ il1iEi 367 361

HighliGhls-Sinsle p~ Mota,.,. Obj •• ll"" DpeQ" ••limu TI_~lical Qu.s""""

El"""".oaI Priodp 1"" ofOper-atioo Electrloal [ndiontlng Instruments ;) 1 _Essential_n·", b nys

U rheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes M a\eria

type (PMMC) instrument.. iDStnlml!nt.s

Irt; P'D WjJJttmQt,crB

Integra 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8-4.

9.3., ill 12.

Snoot' l! I tj on method Measurem"n. of resist an .. by the ",beam!.n.

Meggs. In.tru.mont Tron.former,s

'-'t8 n !frO rmers r P T' )

] 2 2 Curroni trg,nsOtrmers (C T ) High/in/u. Th«Jrwll:ol 9"".1;""" UMOII.I<ld ihtlmplu

1.1. 1.2. 1.3.

1.5. 1.6. Speed 2.1.

Cillli Jillli aia

Prin~iple of aD e_tBYcon'vcrslnn Faraday's laws of eleetnlmagnetic

520 52lI 6lll 522

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M ateri"

Urheberrec htl ich gesc hutztes Materia

Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"

1. Ci"",iL A cotldlU:ling pit/I> through which lin electric

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h "Illes M aleri a

!E " UR rises = 1: potential drops

FIlfI In YOIIage, I-v} o~

FaHh YOItage (-€)

Urhcberrec htllch gesc hutztes M ateri"

nc C1RClII.TS AND NETWORK "':-<.H'ISIS

Rise In voltage (.. VI .L

Rise In voltage (+e)

lUu.tratlon. Fig ..4. Con.ide.ring

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c hutztes M ateri a

4 Solullon. Let the eurreets be a~ .hn""n in Fi,::. 6.

(AD.,) (Aua.) (ADs:.)

of tile batteriu shown

fill. 7 U rheberrec htl lch gesc h "Illes M ateri"

20 - 201. - 121\ - 121...

Solution. Refer Fill". 9.

Urheberrec htlich gesc hutztes M ~teri"

Hen.,,, dischnrge (iiIEu'

I,,~, 0.2 A, orbau..,,,)' A = 1.= 0.2 A. IAn s, '