BER and MER Fundamentals

2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cisco Public
BER and MER
Fundamentals 1
BER and MER
Fundamentals
Ron Hranac
2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public
BER and MER
Fundamentals 2
What is BER?
Graphics courtesy of Trilithic and JDSU
BER and MER
Fundamentals 3
What is BER?
Errored bit
Received at the
CMTS: 010001
Transmitted by the cable
modem: 010101
Impulse
noise
BER and MER
Fundamentals 4
BER: The Math
bits) of number (total
) bits errored of number (
BER =
period) t measuremen x rate (bit
) period t measuremen in count error (
BER =
BER and MER
Fundamentals 5
BER Example
Lets say that 1,000,000 bits are transmitted,
and 3 bits out of the 1,000,000 bits received are
errored because of some kind interference
between the transmitter and receiver
BER in this example is calculated by dividing the
number of errored bits received by the total
number of bits transmitted:
BER = 3/1,000,000 = 0.000003
Most BER measurements are expressed in
scientific notation format, so 0.000003 = 3 x 10
-6
3 x 10
-6
also can be written as 3 x 10^-6 or
3.0E-06
BER and MER
Fundamentals 6
Scientific Notation
1,000,000 = 1 x 10
6
or 1.0E06
100,000 = 1 x 10
5
or 1.0E05
10,000 = 1 x 10
4
or 1.0E04
1,000 = 1 x 10
3
or 1.0E03
100 = 1 x 10
2
or 1.0E02
10 = 1 x 10
1
or 1.0E01
1 = 1 x 10
0
or 1.0E00
1/10 or 0.1 = 1 x 10
-1
or 1.0E-01
1/100 or 0.01 = 1 x 10
-2
or 1.0E-02
1/1,000 or 0.001 = 1 x 10
-3
or 1.0E-03
1/10,000 or 0.0001 = 1 x 10
-4
or 1.0E-04
1/100,000 or 0.00001 = 1 x 10
-5
or 1.0E-05
1/1,000,000 or 0.000001 = 1 x 10
-6
or 1.0E-06
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Fundamentals 7
Pre- and Post-FEC BER
Graphic courtesy of Sunrise Telecom
BER and MER
Fundamentals 8
Lets say that in our earlier example of 3 errored bits
received out of 1,000,000 bits transmitted (BER = 3 x
10
-6
), the receivers FEC is able to fix only 2 of the 3
errored bits
The pre-FEC BER is, of course, the raw BER of 3 x
10
-6
The post-FEC BER is 1 x 10
-6
, since there is still 1
errored bit remaining after the FEC did its magic and
fixed the other 2 broken bits
Most QAM analyzers would report these values as
3.0E-06 and 1.0E-06 respectively
BER and MER
Fundamentals 9
A Quick Side Note
In reality, a QAM receivers Reed-Solomon decoder can easily fix the three
bit errors in the previous example, although it is still a good illustration of the
principle involved. In fact, the Reed-Solomon decoder in a DOCSIS cable
modem can fix any three errored Reed-Solomon symbols in a codeword.
This capability is commonly expressed as t = 3. Each Reed-Solomon
symbol is a group of seven bits. A Reed-Solomon codeword or block
consists of 128 Reed-Solomon symbols, of which 122 are actual data
symbols and six are parity symbols that allow for error correction. It
doesnt matter to the decoder if one bit is wrong in a symbol or if all seven
bits are wrong; the symbol is still considered wrong. So, in three errored
Reed-Solomon symbols there can be anywhere from a total of three to 21
bit errors. Thus, the Reed-Solomon decoder can correct up to 21 bit errors
in a codeword, depending how the bit errors are grouped.
BER and MER
Fundamentals 10
Whats the BER?
If weve measured a BER of 3.0E-06, is that really the
BER?
It depends!
A major consideration is the number of bits transmitted
during the measurement. The greater the number of
bits, the better the quality of the BER estimation.
Ideally, an infinite number of bits will give us a perfect
estimate of error probability, but thats simply not
practical!
So, how many bits are enough?
BER and MER
Fundamentals 11
One rule of thumb is that
transmitting 3 times the
reciprocal of the specified BER
without an error gives 95%
confidence level that the device
or network meets the BER
spec.
If one wants 99% confidence
level, the multiplier is 4.61
rather than 3
These multipliers are derived from
some gnarly statistics mathematics
involving binomial distribution
function and Poisson theorem
How Many Bits are Enough?
BER and MER
Fundamentals 12
Lets say we want to ensure the BER at a cable
modems input is 1 x 10
-8
(1.0E-08), at a 95% confidence
level.
As mentioned previously, 95% confidence level requires
transmitting 3 times the reciprocal of the specified BER without
an error
First, lets figure out the reciprocal of the BER in
question:
1/(1 x 10
-8
) = 1/0.00000001 = 100,000,000
The required number of bits to be transmitted is 3 x
100,000,000 = 300,000,000
300,000,000 bits is the same as 3 x 10
8
bits
How Many Bits are Enough?
BER and MER
Fundamentals 13
Assume 256-QAM at 42.88 Mbps
3 x 10
8
bits/42.88 x 10
6
bits per second = 6.996 seconds
What about 64-QAM at 30.34 Mbps?
3 x 10
8
bits/30.34 x 10
6
bits per second = 9.89 seconds
If your BER target is something more aggressive like 1
x 10
-10
(1.0E-10) at 99% confidence level, the required
number of bits that must be transmitted error free is
[1/(1 x 10
-10
)] x 4.61 = 46,100,000,000
The minimum test time for 256-QAM is 4.61 x 10
10
bits/42.88 x 10
6
bits per second = 1,075 seconds, or
17.9 minutes
How Long Does it Take?
BER and MER
Fundamentals 14
How is BER Estimation Performed?
Source: Maxim Technical Article HFTA-010.0: Physical
Layer Performance: Testing the Bit Error Ratio (BER)
A data source transmits a
bit pattern through network
or device being tested
The error detector has to
either reproduce the original
pattern or somehow directly
receive it from the data
source
The error detector
compares on a bit-by-bit
basis the original pattern
with the one received from
the device or network being
tested
BER and MER
Fundamentals 15
How is BER Estimation Performed?
This method is usually an
out-of-service test, so it isnt
used very oftenat least
not on cable networks
Most QAM analyzers dont
perform BER
measurements this way
Instead, they use an internal
algorithm to derive a BER
estimate based upon what
the FEC is doing
As noted previously, in a typical QAM analyzer pre-FEC BER is
estimated after the Trellis decoder, descrambler (derandomizer), and
deinterleaver, but before RS decoding. Post-FEC BER is after RS
decoding.
BER and MER
Fundamentals 16
Factors Affecting BER Estimation
The type of data sent during a BER measurement can affect the
outcome
A long string of the same bitssay, all 0swill generally yield
different BER numbers than when doing the same measurement
with a pseudo-random bit stream (PRBS)
This is unlikely to be a problem with DOCSIS signals: A randomizer
or scrambler is used in the data transmitter to make sure all
constellation points are approximately equally populated, and that a
long string of identical bits isnt transmitted over the channel
Why is a long string of the same bits a problem? That long string
of identical bits may result in something called deterministic jitter
(and other distortions) which could affect the integrity of the BER
measurement
For these reasons, most true BER measurements use a PRBS
BER and MER
Fundamentals 17
Avoid False BER
Under some circumstances a QAM analyzer might
incorrectly indicate the presence of bit errors
Two typical scenarios are too much or two little RF
input signal level
Too much input signal level may overload the QAM analyzer,
which causes bit errors to be generated inside the analyzer
Too little input signal level means low carrier-to-noise ratio at
the analyzer input, which also causes bit errors to be indicated
Make sure the QAM analyzers RF input levels are
within the range specified by the test equipment
manufacturer
BER and MER
Fundamentals 18
A Few Causes of Degraded BER
Adjacent channel interference
Spurious signals from other channels
Sweep transmitter interference
Laser clipping
In-channel ingress (including impulse or burst noise)
Improperly aligned or defective amplifiers (poor CNR, excessive
distortions, incorrect levels)
Improperly installed, loose, damaged or intermittent connections
Severe impedance mismatches (think micro-reflections, amplitude
ripple/tilt, group delay)
Incorrect signal levels
BER and MER
Fundamentals 19
What About MER?
To understand modulation error ratio (MER), we first
need to understand the basics of digital modulation!
Information such as sound (audio), images (video), and
digital data can be transmitted from one point to another
using radio waves
This is done by modulating an RF signala carrier
with the information to be transmitted
Modulation is the variation one or more properties of an
RF signal to represent the information being
transmitted: frequency, amplitude, phase
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Fundamentals 20
Basic Digital Modulation Formats
FSKFrequency shift keying: Information is transmitted
by shifting between two frequencies to represent zeroes
and ones
0 1
BER and MER
Fundamentals 21
ASKAmplitude shift keying: The amplitude of a carrier
is shifted between two states to represent zeroes and
ones
0 1
BER and MER
Fundamentals 22
PSKPhase shift keying: The phase of a carrier is
varied between two states to represent zeroes and ones
0 1
If the phase shift between the two states is 180 degrees, the
modulation is called BPSK, or biphase shift keying
BER and MER
Fundamentals 23
A Look at Carrier Phase
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
BER and MER
Fundamentals 24
More About Carrier Phase
These graphics represent
RF carriers in the time
domain with different
phases relative to one
another. They all have the
same frequency and the
same amplitude.
Assume that the top
carrier is assigned an
arbitrary phase value of 0
The second carriers
phase relative to the first
one is delayed 45, the third
carrier is delayed 90, the
fourth carrier 135and so on
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
BER and MER
Fundamentals 25
Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and
direction. Examples of vector quantities include
displacement, velocity and force. A vector can be
represented graphically using an arrow. The
length of the arrow corresponds to the vectors
magnitude, while the way the arrow points is its
direction.
Two vectors can be added together, or subtracted from each other.
EAST
2 miles
+
=
0.5 0.5 1
1
-
=
0.5 0.5
-1
+
0.5
=
- 0.5
Wind vector graphic courtesy of U.S. Dept. of Commerce/NOAA
BER and MER
Fundamentals 26
Vector Components
A northwest vector has a northward part, and a westward part
= +
=
+
An upward and rightward vector has an upward part, and a rightward part
West
N
o
r
t
h
w
e
s
t
N
o
r
t
h
U
p
Right
U
p
w
a
r
d

&

r
i
g
h
t
w
a
r
d
=
0.707
?
0
.
7
0
7
+
c
2
a
2
b
2
Adding these kinds of vectors is possible using Pythagoreans Theorem: a
2
+ b
2
= c
2
(0.707)
2
+ (0.707)
2
= 1
2
1
0.707
0
.
7
0
7
BER and MER
Fundamentals 27
Carrier Phase and Amplitude: A Graphical
Representation
0
180
We can use a vector to graphically represent an RF
carriers relative amplitude and phase. For instance, a
horizontal arrow pointing to the right might be used to
represent a carrier of a certain amplitude and phase.
Well assign an arbitrary phase value of 0represented
by the angle the arrow is pointingand an amplitude
represented by the arrows lengthof 1.
If we flip the arrow horizontally so that it points the
opposite direction, we can say that the carrier phase has
changed 180 from its original value. Note that its
amplitude is the same as before.
1
1
Likewise, if we rotate the arrow so that it points up, we
can say that the carrier phase has changed 90 from its
original value. Here, too, the amplitude is the same as
before.
And we can change the amplitude, but leave the phase
unchanged.
90 1
0.5
BER and MER
Fundamentals 28
A Closer Look at BPSK
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Low-pass filter
Oscillator
Balanced amplitude
modulator
Data RF
0 180 0 180
BER and MER
Fundamentals 29
A Closer Look at BPSK
1 0 1 0
0 180 0 180
Bit transmitted
RF envelope
Relative phase
Note phase shift when carrier
power goes to zero between bits
Vector representation:
BER and MER
Fundamentals 30
I/Q Modulation
Amplitude and phase can be modulated
simultaneously and separately to convey more
information than either method alone, but is difficult to
do
An easier way is to separate the original signal into a
set of independent components or channels: I (In-
phase) and Q (Quadrature)
The I and Q components are considered orthogonal
or in quadrature because their phases are separated
by 90 degrees
The I and Q components are summed in a modulator
circuit
BER and MER
Fundamentals 31
Polar vs. Rectangular
Polar displayMagnitude and
phase represented together
I-Q formatPolar to rectangular
conversion
BER and MER
Fundamentals 32
Polar vs. Rectangular: An Analogy
conversion
The relationship between polar and rectangular might be considered analogous to directions to
get from ones house to the grocery store. In polar representation, one could say that the
grocery store is 1 mile northeast of the house. A rectangular representation would describe
the stores location as 0.71 mile east on Main St., then 0.71 mile north on 2
nd
Avenue.
1

m
i
l
e

n
o
r
t
h
e
a
s
t
East
North
West
South
0.71 mile east
on Main St.
0
.
7
1

m
i
l
e

n
o
r
t
h
o
n

2
n
d
A
v
e
n
u
e
BER and MER
Fundamentals 33
Polar vs. Rectangular: Vectors
conversion
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

=

1
0
90
180
270
Phase =
45
I value: 0.71
Q value: 0.71
Q
I
0
+ =
0
.
7
1
2
0.71
2
1
2
0
.
7
1
0.71
1
BER and MER
Fundamentals 34
I/Q Modulator
A single carrier generated by a local
oscillator (L.O.) circuit is split into two paths.
One path is delayed by an amount of time
equal to of the carriers cycle time, or 90
degrees.
The second path has no phase shift.
The two carriers are amplitude
modulatedone by the I signal, the other by
the Q signal.
The two modulated carriers are combined
in a summing circuit.
The output is a digitally modulated signal
that is the vector sum of the amplitude
modulated I and Q signals. The output
signal contains amplitude and phase
variations.
90phase shift
Q
I
L.O.

BER and MER
Fundamentals 35
QPSK
QPSK: quadrature phase shift keying
Quadrature means the signal shifts among phase
states that are separated by 90 degrees
The signals phase shifts in increments of 90 degrees
from 45to 135, 315, or 225
Data into the modulator is separated into two channels
called I and Q (in-phase and quadrature)
Two bits are transmitted simultaneously, one per
channel
BER and MER
Fundamentals 36
QPSK
Each channel amplitude modulates a carrier
The two carrier frequencies are the same, but their phases are
offset by 90 degreesthat is, they are in quadrature
The two amplitude modulated carriers are combined
and transmitted
The resulting RF signal is a double-sideband,
suppressed carrier signal, and is the vector sum of the
original two I and Q carriers
QPSK has four states because 2
2
= 4
2
n
is the total number of symbol states required to represent all
possible bit combinations (n = number of bits/symbol)
Theoretical bandwidth efficiency is two bits/second/Hz
BER and MER
Fundamentals 37
A Closer Look at QPSK Modulation
Low-pass filter
Oscillator
Balanced amplitude
modulator
90 phase shift
Low-pass filter
Balanced amplitude
modulator
0 180 0 180
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
90 90 270 270
225 315 135 45
00 10 01 11
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Half of the bits go to
the I channel
The other half of the bits
go to the Q channel
BER and MER
Fundamentals 38
QPSK Symbol Mapping
BER and MER
Fundamentals 39
QPSK Constellation
Symbol
Transmitted
Carrier
Envelope Phase
Carrier
Envelope
Amplitude
00 225 1.0
01 135 1.0
10 315 1.0
11 45 1.0
I
Q
45
0
90
135
180
225
270
315
BER and MER
Fundamentals 40
QPSK Constellation
Symbol
Transmitted
Carrier Phase Carrier
Amplitude
00 225 1.0
01 135 1.0
10 315 1.0
11 45 1.0
Q
I
90
45
0
315
270
135
180
225
BER and MER
Fundamentals 41
QPSK Constellation
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
00 225 1.0
01 135 1.0
10 315 1.0
11 45 1.0
90 phase shift
(225 to 135)
Q
I
90
45
0
315
270
135
180
225
BER and MER
Fundamentals 42
QPSK Constellation
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
00 225 1.0
01 135 1.0
10 315 1.0
11 45 1.0
180 phase shift
(135 to 315)
Q
I
90
45
0
315
270
135
180
225
BER and MER
Fundamentals 43
QPSK Constellation
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
00 225 1.0
01 135 1.0
10 315 1.0
11 45 1.0
90 phase shift
(315 to 45)
Q
I
90
45
0
315
270
135
180
225
BER and MER
Fundamentals 44
16-QAM
16-QAM: 16-state quadrature amplitude modulation
Four I values and four Q values are used, yielding
four bits per symbol
16 states because 2
4
= 16
Theoretical bandwidth efficiency is four
bits/second/Hz
BER and MER
Fundamentals 45
16-QAM
Data is spit into two channels, I and Q
As with QPSK, each channel can take on two phases.
However, 16-QAM also accommodates two
intermediate amplitude values!
Two bits are routed to each channel simultaneously
The two bits to each channel are added, then applied
to the respective channels modulator
Each channel uses amplitude modulation
The resulting RF signal is a double-sideband,
suppressed carrier signal. It is the vector sum of the
original two carriers, and has phase and amplitude
variations.
BER and MER
Fundamentals 46
16-QAM Constellation
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
0
90
180
270
45
315
225
135
BER and MER
Fundamentals 47
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
I
Q
BER and MER
Fundamentals 48
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 49
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 50
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 51
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 52
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 53
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 54
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 55
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 56
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 57
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 58
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 59
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 60
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 61
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 62
I
Q
Symbol
Transmitted
Amplitude
0000 225 0.33
0001 255 0.75
0010 195 0.75
0011 225 1.0
0100 135 0.33
0101 105 0.75
0110 165 0.75
0111 135 1.0
1000 315 0.33
1001 285 0.75
1010 345 0.75
1011 315 1.0
1100 45 0.33
1101 75 0.75
1110 15 0.75
1111 45 1.0
BER and MER
Fundamentals 63
16-QAM Symbol Mapping
Gray-Coded Symbol Mapping
BER and MER
Fundamentals 64
16-QAM Symbol Mapping
Differential-Coded Symbol Mapping
BER and MER
Fundamentals 65
64-QAM Digitally Modulated Signal
Frequency domain:
Amplitude versus frequency
Time domain:
Amplitude versus time
=
Spectrum analyzer view Oscilloscope view
BER and MER
Fundamentals 66
What About Impairments?
This is what is transmittedthe RF
signals instantaneous amplitude and
phase represent the symbol 11
I
Q
BER and MER
Fundamentals 67
This is what is received after noise randomly
mixes with the transmitted signal
somewhere in the transmission path.
Because the received RF signals phase
and amplitude didnt change very much from
what was actually transmitted, the data
receiver interprets the signal as 11.
I
Q
BER and MER
Fundamentals 68
I
Q
The next time the symbol 11 is transmitted,
the RF signal randomly mixes with noise
again. But this time the received signals
amplitude is a little lower, and the phase is
shifted slightly. The received phase and
amplitude are still close enough to the ideal
position to be interpreted by the data receiver
as 11.
BER and MER
Fundamentals 69
The same symbol transmitted multiple
times mixes randomly each time with
noise in the transmission path. As a
result, each received symbols plotted
position on the constellation is slightly
different. In this example, all of the
received signals phases and
amplitudes are able to be interpreted
as 11.
I
Q
BER and MER
Fundamentals 70
Here a large burst of noise mixes with
the RF signal, causing the received
phase and amplitude to be outside of
the decision boundary for the desired
symbol. The data receiver is not able
to correctly interpret the received
signal as 11, so an error occurs. As
we shall see, this generally does not
affect MER!
I
Q
BER and MER
Fundamentals 71
Modulation Error Ratio: Modulation Quality
Modulation error
Transmitted (or received)
symbol
Target symbol
Q
I
Modulation error = Transmitted symbol Target symbol
Source: Hewlett-Packard
BER and MER
Fundamentals 72
Modulation Error Ratio
MER = 10log(average symbol power/average error power)
Average symbol
power
I
Q
Average error power
(
(
(
(
\
|
+
|
\
|
+
=
=
=
N
j
j
j
N
j
j
j
Q
I
Q
I
MER
1
2
2
1
2
2
10
log 10
In effect, MER is
a measure of how
fuzzy the
symbol points in a
constellation are.
Source: Hewlett-Packard
BER and MER
Fundamentals 73
Modulation Error Ratio
I
Q
I
Q
A large cloud of
symbol points means
low MERthis is not
good!
A small cloud of
symbol points means
high MERthis is
good!
BER and MER
Fundamentals 74
MER Measurements
Modulation Format Lower E
S
/N
0
Threshold
Upper E
S
/N
0
Threshold
QPSK 710 dB 4045 dB
16 QAM 1518 dB 4045 dB
64 QAM 2224 dB 4045 dB
256 QAM 2830 dB 4045 dB
Good Not so good
Graphics courtesy of Filtronic Sigtek
BER and MER
Fundamentals 75
A Few Causes of Degraded MER
Transmitted phase noise
Low carrier-to-noise ratio
Non-linear distortions (CTB, CSO, XMOD, CPD)
Linear distortions (micro-reflections, amplitude ripple, group delay)
In-channel ingress
Laser clipping
Improperly aligned or defective amplifiers
Severe impedance mismatches (see linear distortions)
Incorrect signal levels
Data collisions
Improper modulation profiles
BER and MER
Fundamentals 76
Transmitted phase noise
BER and MER
Fundamentals 77
Low carrier-to-noise ratio
Graphic courtesy of Trilithic
BER and MER
Fundamentals 78
Non-linear distortions (CTB, CSO, XMOD, CPD)
BER and MER
Fundamentals 79
Linear distortions (micro-reflections, amplitude ripple,
group delay)
BER and MER
Fundamentals 80
In-channel ingress
Graphic courtesy of JDSU
BER and MER
Fundamentals 81
Laser clipping
BER and MER
Fundamentals 82
Cable3/0 Upstream 0 is up
Frequency 25.392 MHz, Channel Width 3.200 MHz, QPSK Symbol Rate 2.560 Msps
Spectrum Group is overridden
BroadCom SNR_estimate for good packets - 26.8480 dB
Nominal Input Power Level 0 dBmV, Tx Timing Offset 2035
Data collisions or improper modulation profiles
The CMTSs reported upstream
SNR actually is MER
BER and MER
Fundamentals 83
Downstream Performance: QAM Analyzer
Pre- and post-
FEC BER
MER
64-QAM: 27 dB minimum
256-QAM: 31 dB minimum
Constellation
Graphics courtesy of Trilithic and Sunrise Telcom
BER and MER
Fundamentals 84
In this example, digital channel power,
MER and the constellation are fine, but
pre- and post-FEC BER indicate a
problemperhaps sweep transmitter
interference, downstream laser clipping,
an upconverter problem in the headend,
or a loose connection.
BER and MER
Fundamentals 85
TroubleshootingIntegrated Upconverter
Verify correct average power level
Integrated upconverter RF output should be set in the
DOCSIS-specified +50 to +61 dBmV range
Typical levels are +55 to +58 dBmV
Also check BER, MER and constellation
CMTS
88-860 MHz downstream
RF output
(+50 dBmV to +61 dBmV)
Attenuator
(if required)
To headend downstream
combiner
BER and MER
Fundamentals 86
TroubleshootingExternal Upconverter
Verify correct average power level, BER, MER and
constellation
CMTS downstream IF output
External upconverter IF input
External upconverter RF output
CMTS
RF upconverter
88-860 MHz downstream
RF output to CATV network
(+50 dBmV to +61 dBmV)
Attenuator
44 MHz downstream
IF output
(e.g., +42 dBmV +/-2 dB)
44 MHz IF input to
upconverter
(typ. +25 dBmV to +35
dBmV)
BER and MER
Fundamentals 87
Combiner Output and Fiber Link
Check signal levels and BER at downstream laser
input and node output
Bit errors at downstream laser input but not at CMTS or
upconverter output may indicate sweep transmitter
interference, loose connections or combiner problems
Bit errors at node output but not at laser input are most likely
caused by downstream laser clipping
BER and MER
Fundamentals 88
Out in the Field
If everything checks out OK at the node, go to an affected
subscribers premises.
Measure downstream RF levels, MER and BER, and evaluate the
constellation for impairments. Look at the adaptive equalizer graph,
in-channel frequency response and group delay. If your QAM
analyzer supports it, repeat these measurements in the upstream.
Measure upstream transmit level and packet loss
Use the divide-and-conquer technique to locate the problem
BER and MER
Fundamentals 89
Whats Good?
BER: Ideally, there should be no measurable bit errors
shown on the QAM analyzer, anywhere in the system!
DOCSIS assumes a worst-case post-FEC BER at the cable
modem input of 1 x 10
-8
(1.0E-08) at specified RF input levels and
carrier-to-noise ratios
MER: The higher the better!
Good engineering practice says to keep unequalized MER 3 to 6
dB above the unequalized MER failure threshold for the
modulation type in use
Many cable operators use the following unequalized MER values
as minimum acceptable operational values: QPSK ~18 dB; 16-
QAM ~24 dB; 64-QAM ~27 dB; and 256-QAM ~31 dB
BER and MER
Fundamentals 90
The Takeaway?
BER and MER are not the same thing!
BER is an estimation of the ratio of the number of errored
bits to the total number of bits, typically expressed in
scientific notation.
MER is, in effect, a measure of the fuzziness of a data
constellations symbol landings, and is expressed in dB.
MER is somewhat analogous to baseband signal-to-noise
ratio.
Both BER and MER should be measured. The two
together tell a more complete story than either by itself.

BER and MER Fundamentals

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2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public

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