Nuclear Physics (MT 2007)

Prof. Hans Kraus

Syllabus:
A: Physical basis of the Semi-Empirical Mass Formula; application to nuclear stability and abundance. B: Qualitative understanding of the nuclear shell model. C: +, , EC, , and fission decay of nuclei, qualitative understanding of decays. D: Radioactivity, simple applications. E: The concepts of cross-section and resonance, including the energy dependence of the BreitWigner formula and the concept of partial widths. F: Rutherford scattering. G: Simple principles of nuclear energy generation, fission and fusion. H: The neutrino, Fermi model of nuclear beta decay. I: Application of Fermi Golden Rule to allowed beta decay, electron capture and +np+e. J: Qualitative treatment of the interaction of charged particles and photons with matter. K: The physical principles involved in the detection of charged particles. L: Experimental techniques in nuclear and particle physics.

Reading List:
Nuclear and Particle Physics: An Introduction, B R Martin, (Wiley, 2006) Nuclear and Particle Physics, W S C Williams, (OUP, 1997) Introduction to Nuclear Physics, W N Cottingham & D A Greenwood, (CUP, 2001) Introductory Nuclear Physics, K S Krane, (Wiley, 1988)

The Lecture Course

1 Introduction
1.1 Context
A general introduction outlining the energy scale at which Nuclear Physics slots in. Use de Broglie wavelength to relate nuclear size to energy scale and contrast Nuclear and Particle Physics. Williams 2.1, 2.2; Krane 1.2.

1.2 Historical Perspective

Begins 1896 discovery of radioactivity by Bequerel. Rutherford and the discovery of the nucleus; Chadwick 1932: the neutron; Pauli and Fermi, early 1930s on beta decay. Williams 1.1; Krane 1.1; Martin 1.1.

1.3 Overview
Very much an attempt to link nuclear scattering experiments to concepts of optics. The components: incoming light, diffracting aperture, screen are replaced by particle beams (accelerators), nuclei in a target foil (concept of cross sections) and detectors (Bethe Bloch and Interaction of Photons with Matter). Williams 2.9, 2.10; Martin 1.6.2, 1.6.3.

2 Experimental Techniques in Nuclear Physics

This chapter expands on the above approach and discusses in turn beam production, crosssections (where the physics is) and detection of particles.

2.1 Accelerators
This section is a quick overview of machines suitable for the energy range of nuclear physics. Particle physics machines build on these concepts.

2.1.1 High Voltage

Cockroft-Walton and Van-de-Graaff; see http://www.aip.org/history/lawrence/epa.htm and http://www.mos.org/sln/toe/history.html; also Martin 4.2.1; Krane 15.1.

2.1.2 Cyclotrons
Cyclotrons reuse the accelerating section multiply by keeping particles on a spiral track. ACacceleration, develops into synchrotrons, towards modern colliding beam machines. Small scale cyclotrons still used in hospitals or laboratory-scale applications. Krane 15.1; Martin 4.2.2. Also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotron.

2.1.3 Linear Accelerators

Drift tubes, etc. Krane 15.4; Martin 4.2.2.

2.1.4 Beam Optics

Particle beams diverge naturally. Dipole magnets are used to bend particle tracks, pairs of quadrupoles (and higher orders) for beam focusing. Martin 4.2.2.

2.1.5 Neutron Beams

Neutrons, being neutral, are produced by accelerated charged particles performing a nuclear reaction in which neutrons are produced. Krane 12.1.

2.2 Cross-section
2.2.1 Rutherford Cross-section
Classical derivation, using concepts of 1st year mechanics. Williams 1.2; Martin C.1; Krane 11.6; Cottingham & Greenwood A.4.

2.2.2 Particle Propagation through Matter

A very brief introduction to various cross sections and how to relate mean free path to it. Williams 2.10.

2.2.3 Density of States

An important concept that appears in many areas of physics and is needed here as part of calculating cross sections. Williams part of 12.5; Martin A.2; Cottingham & Greenwood B; Krane

2.2.4 Fermis Golden Rule

This derivation follows directly Cottingham & Greenwood Appendix D. Also Martin A.3.

2.2.5 Breit-Wigner Formula

This continues from the previous derivation and again can be found in Cottingham & Greenwood Appendix D. The B-W formula appears rather often in all sorts of resonances. The concept of partial widths is also described in Martin 1.6.3. See also Cottingham & Greenwood 8.1

2.2.6 Elastic Scattering

Here, the form factor is calculated and the link made between the scattering amplitude and the Fourier transform of the scattering potential. Williams 3.4; Martin 2.2.1; Krane 3.1.

2.2.7 Examples
As examples I did Coulomb scattering, which results in the Rutherford cross section and scattering by a square well, which is included in Williams 3.4; Martin 2.2.1; Krane 3.1, their chapters on Nuclear Size, for which potential scattering is needed.

2.3 Interaction with Matter

2.3.1 Bethe Bloch Formula
Classical derivation of heavy charged particle flying by a light (stationary) charge particle. Cottingham & Greenwood 14.1; Krane 7.1 (Heavy Charged Particles); Martin 4.3.2; Williams 11.2

2.3.2 Bremsstrahlung
For electrons, a modification to the above plus energy transfer due to deceleration in a Coulomb field. Krane 7.1 (Electrons); Martin 4.3.3; Williams 11.3.

2.3.3 Interaction of Photons with Matter

Here, Photo-electric Effect, Compton Scattering and Pair Production are discussed. Krane 7.1 (Electromagnetic Radiation); Cottingham & Greenwood 14.3; Williams 11.4.

2.3.4 Neutron Detection

This is here largely to look at the 1/v dependence of the cross section something needed later in energy production through fission. Krane 12.3; Cottingham & Greenwood 8.2.

3 The (Stable) Nucleus

3.1 Introduction
Nuclear masses; binding energy per nucleon; the nuclear strong force as short range, nearest neighbour interaction. Williams 4.2; Krane, beginning of 3.3; Cottingham & Greenwood 4.4.

3.2 Semi-Empirical Mass Formula

Liquid Drop Model; contributions to the SEMF; nuclear radius determinations. Martin 2.5; Williams 4.3, 4.4, 4.5; Krane, rest of 3.3; Cottingham and Greenwood 4.5, 4.9.

3.3 Valley of Stability and Abundance

Nuclear Stability against beta decay. Williams 5.4; Cottingham & Greenwood 4.6, 4.7; Martin 2.6.1, 2.6.2.

3.4 Fermi Gas Model

Fermi Gas Model (and link to asymmetry term) in Martin 7.2.

3.5 Shell Model

In analogy with atomic physics. Here, no perturbation theory, but nucleons move in an averaged potential. Shells are just where there are large gaps in the spectrum of binding energies. The sign of LS coupling is opposite to that in atomic physics. Here, higher j-states have lower energy. Krane 5.1; Martin 7.3.1, 7.3.2, 7.3.3; Williams 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.9; Cottingham & Greenwood 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4.

4 Radioactivity and Simple Applications

4.1 Decay Modes
A very basic introduction to nuclear instability. Williams 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4; Martin 2.3; Krane 6.5.

4.2 Decay Laws

Simple laws. Williams 2.3; Martin 2.4; Krane 6.1; 6.3

4.3 Carbon-14 Dating

Krane 6.7; Williams 2.8.

4.4 Natural Decay Chains

Krane 6.4, 6.6; Williams 2.6

5 The Unstable Nucleus

5.1 Alpha-Decay
Limits of stability against alpha decay. Alpha decay as tunnelling phenomenon. Williams 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4; Cottingham & Greenwood 6.1, 6.2; Martin 7.6; Krane 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5.

5.2 Beta-Decay (Nuclear Version)

The neutrino; Fermi model of beta decay. Martin 7.7.1, 7.7.2, 7.7.3; Krane 9.1, 9.2, 9.3; Cottingham & Greenwood 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5;

5.3 Gamma Decay

Krane 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4; Cottingham & Greenwood 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; Martin 7.8.1, 7.8.2.

6 Prinicples of Nuclear Energy Generation

6.1 Fission
Williams 7.12, 7.13; Martin 8.1.1, 8.1.2, 8.1.3; Cottingham & Greenwood 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6; Krane 13.1, 13.2, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8.

6.2 Fusion
Williams 7.14; Martin 2.7, 8.2.1, 8.2.2; Cottingham & Greenwood 10.1, 10.2., 10.3, 10.4; Krane 13.3, 13.4, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3.