8092 THERMOBARIC WEAPONS: THEY WILL BLOW YOUR MIND

Jacklyn Conley (jcc64@pitt.edu) and Evan McMillin (ecm26@pitt.edu)

Abstract - Since the 1960s, thermobaric bombs have been constantly evolving to be specially designed in cave warfare, air-to-ground missiles, and are alternatives to nuclear warheads. Thermobaric bombs work by spreading out certain materials in the air and igniting them to create a high-energy explosion. Explosions caused by thermobaric bombs are most effective in enclosed areas such as buildings and caves because they have a unique ability to wind around corners and through tunnels. Thermobaric usage has drastically increased over the last two decades due to the current locations of United States military conflict in the Middle East. This paper discusses the chemical structure and reactions involved in the creation and detonation of thermobaric bombs and also the use of different materials and their effects on the explosion. Also a comparison to other explosives will be made to show how thermobaric weapons are more effective than conventional weapons. Chemical engineers are at the forefront of modifying thermobaric weapons to be more sustainable and to encompass a larger range of uses. This will make them a mainstay for military use in the future. Current development includes shoulder launch rockets and 40-mm grenades that are suitable for hand-held launches. These significant developments allow this technology to be used on a much smaller scale but still be extremely effective. Key Words-Thermobaric, Fuel-Air, Explosives, Pressure wave

C8

helicopters, and to clear minefields. Also during this time, the Soviet Union developed a branch of the thermobaric weapon called FAE (Fuel Air Explosives) which was used against the Chinese in 1969. The development of these weapons has drastically increased over the past two decades and has become specially designed to have significant effects compared to conventional weapons. In 2002, thermobaric weapons have found a new place in the United States military. The BLU-118/B, an air dropped thermobaric bomb, was used against Al Qaida and Taliban forces in Afghanistan. In 2003, a shoulder mounted launch, called the SMAW-NE, was used in the invasion of Iraq. One team of marines reported that from 100 yards away the SMAW-NE was able to effectively destroy a large masonry type building with only one round [3].

WHAT ARE THERMOBARIC WEAPONS?

Thermobarics are weapons that, at detonation, produce extremely high heats and pressures from their detonation. They differ from many conventional weapons because they do not carry an oxidizer, a compound that supplies oxygen atoms to a reaction. The thermobaric instead uses the oxygen in the air to create an explosion which ignites a fuel, usually a metallic fuel like aluminum, which is spread out in the air by the bomb. The burning of this metallic fuel is slow compared to other explosives but produces a high heat reaction, which in turn creates a destructive pressure wave. This pressure wave has the ability to collapse walls, wind around corners and cause internal injuries to its human victims. To cause these devastating effects, however, the correct detonation needs to take place [3]. Structures In order to work effectively there are three parts to the detonation of a thermobaric weapon. An initial detonation of CH-6, a small booster charge, provides the heat needed to start the anaerobic detonation which is a reduction/oxidation reaction. A reduction/oxidation reaction is the transfer of electrons between reactants in a reaction. An anaerobic reaction does not require oxygen and only takes microseconds to create extremely high pressure within a small area that has the ability to penetrate armor [4]. During this reaction, aluminum particles are heated; when they reach their ignition temperature (950 K or 677C) the particles start a chemical reaction with the surrounding water vapor, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Different sizes of aluminum particles are ideal because it allows for multiple reactions to occur. If all the aluminum particles used are the same size there are two possible outcomes. The temperature of the gas drops and never ignites the particles April 5, 2008

HISTORY
Since the beginning of time, war has been an inevitable part of human behavior, and unfortunately ...there are roughly 50 wars being fought somewhere on the planet at any given time [1]. Since war is inevitable, it is then imperative that the most effective and destructive weapons are created to eliminate the enemy and protect our soldiers. Thermobaric weapons developed out of vapor cloud explosions that are naturally occurring in industries and grain silos. On average, 100 grain explosions occur every 10 years, half of which involve corn. Nearly every organic material can ignite in the form of a dust cloud below 500C. One lit match in the workplace is sufficient to cause a vapor cloud explosion. The explosion due to these vapor clouds is nearly identical to the third part of the detonation in thermobaric weapons. Many systems have been designed to eliminate this phenomenon from the workspace as it results in losses of production and injuries. However, the United States took these concepts and designed a new type of explosive from it. Thermobaric weapons have been used by the United States since the 1960s [2]. They were first used in the Vietnam War to destroy tunnels, clear forest areas for University of Pittsburgh

EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE

1

8092
leaving a nonproductive explosion, or all pieces are ignited at the same time and the reaction happens too quickly. If it happens too quickly, the detonation process would stop at this stage and not have maximum destructive effects. Initial encasement of the reactants decreases the speed at which the products expand and will also convert the energy generated into the thrusting of case fragments. The decreased expansion rate helps to heat the aluminum particles. The kinetic energy used to move the reactants is instead used to displace the casing around the explosive. Without the casing the reaction would spread out and eventually dissipate and never reach its full explosive potential [5]. The case must also be thin enough to maximize the amount of energy devoted to the next stage of the detonation. The second stage, the post anaerobic detonation, takes hundreds of microseconds and is the combustion of the fuel particles that were too large to be ignited in the first reaction. The hydrogen generated during the water vapor and aluminum reaction, carbon generated during the carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and aluminum reaction, and the remaining aluminum particles fuel the progress of this second reaction [5]. As the products expand a fireball is created and an intermediate pressure wave erupts which has the ability to breach walls and bunkers. The final part of the detonation is the combustion of fuelrich species and usually only occurs in enclosed areas and is considered to be an aerobic reaction. Equation (1) shows the combustion reaction of aluminum, a common reactant used in the third part of the detonation. 4Al+3O2 2Al2O3 H= -1669.8 kJ (1) Optimal Materials

C8

Optimal materials are necessary for the detonation of a thermobaric weapon to have the greatest destructive effects. Aluminum is one of the most commonly used materials in thermobaric weapons. Compared to a conventional explosive made out of expensive materials created in labs, aluminum is used in the thermobaric weapon because it is cost effective and therefore more sustainable. However other metals may be used in the third stage of the detonation, including boron, silicon, titanium, magnesium, zirconium, carbon, and hydrocarbons. Each produces a different quantity of heat per volume. Aluminum is not only cost effective but comes second to boron in the amount of heat it produces per volume of material (Heat Combustion) as seen in Table I. TABLE 1 HEAT COMBUSTION FOR FUEL ADDITIVES [4] Fuel Additive Boron Aluminum Titanium Zirconium Silicon Carbon Magnesium Hydrocarbons Heat Combustion (cal/cc) 33,100 20,410 19,130 18,390 17,720 13,820 10,530 9,000

The shock wave produced from this reaction bounces off the surrounding structures and mixes the fuel-rich species with the surrounding air. The reflected shock wave keeps the temperature of the air and fireball constant and can even increase it in certain areas. The shock wave also causes a change in the flow of the fireball, allowing for more air to be mixed with the aluminum and therefore causing more reactions. The increase in the number of reactions creates a greater impulse, a higher heat, and a larger explosion. When the fuel rich species mix with the shock-heated air they undergo after-burning. The energy released through afterburning and combustion lengthens the duration of blast overpressure and increases the fireball [6]. For the aluminum to completely combust, three to six pounds of air are required for every one pound of aluminum present. The volume must also expand to 4000 times its initial volume. The pressure wave is measured to be ten atm, enough to collapse lungs, blow out eardrums and cause other internal injuries. The heat and impulse from the reaction gives the weapon the ability to destroy personnel and equipment [6].

There are many advantages for using these materials. They have low sensitivity, which means they will not react in their natural state, and are ideal for explosives that must only explode when desired. Another advantage is that the output of the explosion can be modified. The materials can be tailored to produce a high blast or a high heat explosion. Effects of Pressure Wave The most significant characteristic of a thermobaric weapon is its pressure wave. There are many qualities that make the pressure waves both significant and unique. Humans and mechanical devices cannot withstand a pressure wave exceeding ten atm. The pressure wave interacts with the tissues in a human body which includes skin, bone, and muscle, which differ in density and elasticity. When a pressure wave makes contact with these tissues, they are compressed, stretched, sheared or disintegrated by overload [6]. This pressure wave also dramatically affects hollow internal organs such as the lungs, intestines, and ears by collapsing and rupturing them. In addition to tissue and organ damage, the body is prone to fractures by being thrown from the blast. [R]esearch has shown that there are neurological, biochemical and blood chemistry changes caused by blast effects [6]. As mentioned earlier, not only will the pressure wave cause many internal organ injuries within a human but they April 5, 2008

University of Pittsburgh

EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE

2

8092
also will result in major devastation of mechanical devices. When equipment and systems are destroyed, the facility they are located in can also be destroyed or down graded. This results in what is called a functional kill. Depending on the purpose of the facility and the level of damage, a functional kill can be as permanent as a structural kill, which means the fortification and its equipment are no longer useable [7]. The ability to wind around corners, and blow out specific floors in a building is another characteristic of the pressure wave. A study showed that a thermobaric weapon has the ability to blow out only one floor of a building with multiple floors [7]. As mentioned earlier, the thermobaric pressure wave bounces off the surrounding structures to remix in air with the reactions products to prolong the blast effects. Since it deflects off of the surrounding structures; it does not destroy them and leaves the building still standing but everything inside destroyed. With increasing conflict in the Middle East, these weapons have been used more often in tunnels and multi-room buildings in urban locations. The destructive effects can be calculated using (2).

C8
sees the use of thermobarics in clearing houses converted into bunkers by insurgents. Another potential use of thermobaric weapons is to defeat biological and chemical weapons. American intelligence before the war in Iraq indicated that chemical weapons were present, thus leading to the development of weapons to safely remove these threats. The future is bright for thermobaric weapons in the American arsenal. Currently, there are projects focusing on making hand grenades and flash-bang grenades. The hand grenades have the potential to be more deadly in enclosed spaces than traditional hand grenades. Flash-bang grenades are designed to temporarily blind and impair hearing ability. The thermobaric flash-bang is designed to be safer to both the user and the target. Due to the thermobaric explosive contained inside of it, the grenade can be tailored to produce a lower but effective blast. Since the reaction lasts longer, the blinding effects have a longer duration. The lighting effect is approximately 100 times brighter than the sun viewed from the earth for 0.06 seconds. Due to the lower blast, the overpressure wave is also lower, causing less permanent damage to the surroundings. The xm1060 The xm1060 is a 40mm grenade designed to be fired from either an M203 or the new M32 grenade launcher. The M203 is a single shot grenade launcher mounted on the bottom of an infantrymans rifle. The M32 is a support weapon that holds six rounds and is used to pin down the enemy by providing accurate shelling. This round is designed to be a replacement for the High Explosive (HE) rounds [9]. The thermobaric rounds are more effective at injuring and incapacitating infantry than the high explosive rounds. Thermobaric rounds cover the entire blast radius equally causing damage that decreases radially from the center of the blast. The rounds were designed, tested, and manufactured in only five months. They are being used in Afghanistan and Iraq mainly for clearing out buildings and caves because of the increased blast damage due to afterburning in enclosed areas. This is the smallest thermobaric weapon in use today and before testing, it was not certain how effective a small thermobaric weapon would be [9]. A new round called Direct Air Consuming Ordnance (DRACO) is being tested. DRACO will replace the xm1060 as the 40mm thermobaric grenade used by the Army. The xm1060 was manufactured in only five months because the HE and xm1060 grenade and similar, differing only in the explosive. DRACO will contain a new fuse and a smaller casing designed to maximize the effects of the weapon [9]. SMAW-NE

D= (1/3) (CnE)

(2)

In (2), D is the distance in meters to a 1 psi overpressure. C is a constant for the damages inflicted by a 1 psi overpressure and is approximately equal to 0.15. The variable n is the yield factor for the thermobaric explosion and is derived from the mechanical yield of combustion. This value is approximated to be 0.1. Lastly, E is the energy, in joules, given off by the explosive part of a thermobaric weapon. This equation is only an estimate of the thermobaric weapons destructive abilities and is usually an underestimate.

USES IN THE MILITARY

The United States military began using thermobaric weapons in the mid 1960s in the conflict against Vietnam. These early versions were called fuel-air explosives and were used to clear obstacles such as trees, mines, and beach defenses. After the Vietnam War, the Navy and Army developed smaller and smaller bombs which saw use in Operation Desert Storm. The Army was finally able to get the warhead of their thermobaric weapons down to one explosive part. Before this development, thermobaric bombs were released in subsections that each had their own ignition system. This breakthrough, along with Americas new theatres of war in Afghanistan and Iraq led to the production of small arms and missile variants such as the xm1060 and AGM114-N. These two theaters are different from any major conflict that America has been in since World War II because a fair amount of the fighting involved is indoors. In Afghanistan, the main warfare is against forces operating from caves in the northern mountain regions and from militants in the cities patrolled by the U.N. Coalition. The fighting in Iraq University of Pittsburgh

The SMAW-NE, which stands for Shoulder Mounted Assault Weapon-Novel Explosive, is a weapon designed for Marine Corps use in Afghanistan and Iraq. The weapon fires April 5, 2008 EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE 3

8092
an unguided rocket containing a thermobaric warhead. There are a multitude of rounds used in the SMAW for different purposes. Novel Explosive is the term used for the thermobaric warhead in this case. The other two rounds used in the SMAW are High Explosive Dual Mode (HEDM) and High Explosive Anti Armor (HEAA). The HEDM is used to penetrate soft targets such as concrete walls or light armor. The HEAA is designed to penetrate hard targets such as tanks or reinforce infantry fighting vehicles. The NE is not designed for penetration like the other types, but is instead designed to destroy targets using the pressure wave created by the thermobarics. The rounds first use is the demolition of one and two story buildings that have been turned into enemy pillboxes, which are bunkers above the ground. One report from Iraq says "one unit disintegrated a large one-story masonry type building with one round from 100 meters [3]. Since the weapon was introduced in early 2003, it has become a mainstay for clearing out houses believed to contain hostile forces of both the Marine Corps and the Army, who has to borrow the weapon from the Marines. The only downside found to this weapon is that it must be fired through a hole due to its lack of penetrating power. The Marine Corps Gazette says: "Due to the lack of penetrating power of the NE round, we found that our assault men had to first fire a dual-purpose rocket in order to create a hole in the wall or building. This blast was immediately followed by an NE round that would incinerate the target or literally level the structure"[3]. The second use of the Novel Explosive round is to clear out caves in the mountainous regions of Afghanistan. The thermobaric round is ideal for the clearing of caves due to both the pressure wave it creates and the fact that it uses the oxygen in the atmosphere as fuel. The pressure wave bounces off the walls in the cave and bounces around corners to injure or kill all of the caves occupants. The lack of oxygen created after the explosion suffocates any survivors of the pressure wave. This weapon has the potential to save American soldiers lives by keeping them outside of a cave because they effectively clear it out [3].

C8
has the same guidance and control section and propulsion section used in the AGM-114K, which is an anti-armor missile [10]. The new addition in the AGM-114N is a warhead section that is designed for an enhanced blast performance by containing a new warhead casing. As previously discussed, one of the most effective components of all thermobaric weapons is the pressure wave. In the AGM-114N, the pressure wave is more sustained and destructive compared to conventional weapons whose waves have a sharp pressure spike followed by a rapid decay. The blast created is very effective against nontraditional targets such as tunnels, bunkers and multi-room structures expected in urban locations. This hellfire missile is specially designed to only destroy the first floor of a building leaving the others completely intact [11]. Its ability to wind around corners allows the blast to propagate throughout buildings and tunnels to extend its lethal effects.

FIGURE 1 HELICOPTER FIRING THE AGM-114M [11].

BLU-118/B

The BLU-118/B (Bomb Live Unit) is yet another type of thermobaric weapon that has unique and destructive abilities. The BLU-118/B is composed of an advanced thermobaric explosive that, when detonated, generates higher sustained blast pressure in confined spaces such as tunnels and underground facilities [12]. Soon after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, a team of military and industry experts was organized to identify, test, and field an enhanced weapon to counter underground targets. A group of explosive experts, led by Nguyet Anh Duong a chemical engineer, at the Naval AGM-114N Surface Weapons Center created a device that provided Early in 2002, Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps (HQMC) superior blast effects. The group then performed static identified the need for an enhanced Hellfire missile warhead testing on the fuse to show that the initiation of this new to attack multi-room structure targets [9]. An experienced explosive was reliable. The weapon was finished in only team of scientists, engineers and military experts at the three short months when the GBU-24 (which is a laser Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division developed this guided weapon) containing the BLU-118/B warhead was new type of hellfire missile called the AGM-114N. The launched by a ground-attack aircraft called the F-15E. The AGM-114N is an air-to-ground missile (AGM) and explosion created showed improvements in overpressure and considered a Metal Augmented Charge (MAC) Thermobaric pressure-impulse in tunnels compared to an earlier model warhead. The MAC is a main component of this weapon (BLU-109). The significant difference is the use of a FMU that has increased the effectiveness against enclosed targets (Fuel Munitions Unit) to initiate the explosion. When drastically. This weapon has roots in earlier AGMs. The detonated in enclosed spaces the result is lethal. This AGM-114N has same electronic safe, arms/fire device used weapon can be dropped from an airplane with the guidance in the AGM-114M, which is a fragmentation missile, and of a laser. When dropped vertically it can detonate at or just University of Pittsburgh April 5, 2008 EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE 4

8092
outside of an entrance way. A vertical drop is used to penetrate, overburden, and detonate inside the opening. This approach penetrates doorways at a maximum distance. It is ideal to penetrate an opening into a tunnel because the result is the detonation occurring within the tunnel system. These detonations within a tunnel are known to increase the propagation in a facility significantly. The more the blast propagates, the easier it becomes to travel through intersections, rooms, and multiple levels. In areas where the United States is now in conflict the ability for the BLU118/B to penetrate deep into the ground, through concrete barriers and then igniting everything inside is imperative. The BLU-118/B, after being created and tested within six months, was used by the United States on Taliban and Al Qaeda forces that had fled to the caves 90 miles south of Kabul in Operation Enduring Freedom in 2002 [12]. GBU-43/B The GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB) is currently the largest nonnuclear weapon in the United States arsenal. The weapon was nicknamed the Mother of All Bombs by soldiers and the press. The MOAB contains 18,700 pounds of warhead consisting of Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX), aluminum particles, and trinitrotoluene (TNT). It can currently only be dropped by the C-130 aircraft as it is too large to fit in a bombers bay. This weapon was designed to replace the BLU-82, a Vietnam era bomb. The GBU-43/B has more power using less explosives and its destructive radius is 150 meters from the center of the explosion. The MOAB is used to destroy bunkers, soft armored vehicles and personnel. The detonation of this explosive device is massive enough to level an apartment building. Other uses of the weapon include clearing landing zones for helicopters, clearing mine fields, and clearing beach fortifications and obstacles. The weapon is guided via GPS on the aircraft and has pinpoint accuracy. More importantly than the physiological damage the weapon can cause to the enemy, its psychological damage to the morale of the enemy is essential. It can keep the enemy pinned inside of trenches and bunkers for fear of being hit by this massive thermobaric weapon [13]. Agent Defeat Weapons

C8
incendiaries against the chemicals in a facility without letting any escape. The ADWs effectiveness is measured by how many people it doesnt kill-while it destroys stockpiles of horror weapons [14]. Multiple programs have been set up and are designed to neutralize enemy chemical and biological assets. HTI (High temperature incendiary) is used to ignite the chemical agents, and munitions in place. Research is currently developing an Inter-Halogen Oxidizer weapon that will use incineration techniques to defeat and destroy chemical and biological agents within the blast radius. Fragmentation explosives may be used to penetrate chemical containers without creating a large explosion. The large explosion could potentially cause the agents to be blown outside of the facility. Even air-delivered weapons have been considered. These weapons are still currently being developed and airdelivered weapons are at the forefront of this new technology [14].

COMPARISONS AND SUSTAINABILITY

Thermobaric weapons are very unique compared to conventional weapons because they not only produce an effective blast and pressure wave but also are considered to be more sustainable. For a weapon to be considered sustainable it must have lower costs, lower environmental impact or decrease the mortality rate of United States soldiers. Thermobaric weapons encompass all of these aspects when compared to conventional weapons. When compared to conventional explosives, thermobaric weapons contain cost effective materials such as aluminum where conventional weapon materials are created in labs and are made up of expensive compounds. Having cost effective materials allows more weapons to be created for the same amount of money. Conventional high explosives are sensitive to mechanical or thermal energy. Insensitive high explosives, like the thermobaric, require significant stimuli before any reaction can occur. A unique quality of insensitive explosives is that detonation will not occur if they are incinerated, or struck by a bullet or fragment. This is significant because the weapon will not detonate unless the correct stimulus is applied and will fulfill their performance and operational requirements only on demand. This also decreases the amount of deaths due to friendly fire or accidental explosions. Even though the time it takes for the reactions to occur are longer in thermobarics than in conventional weapons, they are able to potentially produce significant damage because of the quantity of energy released. As seen in Figure 2, a comparison between thermobaric explosives and high explosives is made. Even though the peak pressure is higher for the High Explosive (HE), compared to the Thermobaric Explosive (TBE), the pressure dissipates more quickly.

Agent Defeat Weapons (ADW) has been upgraded since the attacks on September 11, 2001. These weapons are specially designed to eliminate chemical and biological agents. Conventional weapons would not be effective against the facilities that house these harmful agents because it could result in these agents spreading to nearby areas that civilians occupy. This would also cause significant damage to the surrounding environment. Both the AGM-114N and the BLU-118/B have been integrated into the agent defeat weapons. The thermobaric component is vital because the blast effects can be tailored to have higher heats and longer durations. The thermobaric uses high-temperature University of Pittsburgh EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE 5

April 5, 2008

8092

C8
blast. The fragmentation grenades are not as efficient because the shrapnel produced does not strike everything in its blast radius. High energy rounds used in conventional fragmentation grenades use their explosion to create shrapnel from the shell casing and the environment that travels slightly below the speed of sound and has the same effects on the body as a bullet would. The spread of shrapnel in the explosion is inconsistent, which means there are gaps where no damage is done to the target.

SUMMARY
Without the expertise of chemical engineers like Nguyet Anh Duong, thermobaric weapons would not be as successful as they are today. Nguyet has led the development of ten high performing explosives since 2001 and has left her mark in the future of modern day weapons. The thermobaric weapon has many significant abilities that make them superior to other conventional weapons. The effects of the thermobaric pressure wave and its ability to wind through tunnels is perhaps one of the most important aspects of a thermobaric weapon. The high heats created from the detonation have the ability to incinerate chemical and biological agents, which is imperative when facing weapons of mass destruction and ensure that innocent civilians are not affected. Being a non-sensitive material, thermobaric weapons are therefore, more safe to transport and will not detonate randomly. Thermobaric weapons have raised the bar for modern weapons to become safer for the environment and also become more effective.

FIGURE 2 PRESSURE HISTORY OF HIGH EXPLOSIVE (HE) AND THERMOBARIC EXPLOSIVE (TBE) DETONATIONS [6] Thermobaric weapons are explosives optimized to produce heat and pressure effects instead of armor-penetrating or fragmentation damage effects [6]. However, thermobarics are able to outperform conventional weapons that are effective against armored vehicles but lack effectiveness against buildings, bunkers, and fortifications. A shaped charge is one of these conventional weapons. Its blast has a narrow damage radius and travels linearly, compared to the Thermobaric waves that can wind through tunnels. Fragments from conventional weapons are stopped by tunnel and cave walls and do not propagate throughout the facility. Conventional countermeasures such as barriers (sandbags) and personnel armor are not effective against thermobaric weaponry [6]. When compared to nuclear weapons, the interval at which overpressure takes place gives the thermobaric weapon an advantage and allows the explosives to be useful against bunkers, minefields, and armored vehicles. In addition, persons outside of the blast radius but deep in a tunnel will experience internal damage and suffocation due to the pressure wave and high heats that are produced. Being better for the environment is a surprising, positive aspect of the thermobaric. As they do not radiate any radioactive material and do not contaminate the environment, they therefore, have an edge over nuclear and conventional bombs [15]. Thermobarics also have a higher energy density compared to conventional weapons. For example, whereas TNT yields 4.2 MJ/kg, hydrogen produces 120 MJ/kg [16]. When compared to fragmentation grenades, thermobaric grenades have a better chance of destroying their intended target. Thermobaric grenades, like the xm1060, cause a pressure wave that has equal potential at all points, meaning that everything in its blast radius will be affected from the University of Pittsburgh

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to first thank our Co-Chair Mike for our fun meetings and for ripping our paper apart and giving us good feedback. Thank you to Rob for giving up your time to be the chair of our conference, we greatly appreciate it! Also, we would like to thank John, the EMT, for helping us to procrastinate on writing this. And of course we would like to thank our moms and dads for birthing us and persuading us to pursue a career in engineering. And finally to the writing center for reading and editing this paper.

REFERENCES
[1] Thermobaric weapons under fire again. 22, November 2005. Gizmag.com http://www.gizmag.com/go/4856/ Accessed: 2008, February 10. [2] Fuel/Air Explosives (FAE). FAS Military Analysis Network. 15 February 1998. Fas.org http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/dumb/fae.htm Accessed: 2008, February 25. [3] Hambling, David. Marines Quiet about Brutal New Weapon. 14 November 2005. Military.com April 5, 2008

EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE

6

8092
http://www.defensetech.org/archives/001944.html Accessed: 2008, February 10. [4] Ludwig, Chris. 2003. Verifying Performance of Thermobaric Materials Defense Technical Information Center http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2003gun/lud.pdf Accessed: 12, January 2008. [5] Kim, Kibong. Effects of Particle Damage during Detonation of Thermobarics on Subsequent Reactions. 21st ICDERS. 23-27 July 2007. Poitiers, France. [6] Wildegger-Geissmaier, Anna E. April 2003. Aspects of Thermobaric Weaponry ADF Health. Vol. 4 (3-6). [7] Pike, John. Thermobaric Explosives 2005. GlobalSecurity.org http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/mu nitions/thermobaric.htm Accessed: 12, January 2008. [8] Hambling, David. Defense Tech: Kinder, Gentler Thermobarics DefenseTech.org August 2006. http://www.defensetech.org/archives/002621.html Accessed: 29 February, 2008. [9] Mistry, Percy. Multipurpose Cartridges Developed and Fielded in Record Time. August 2003. RDECOM Magazine. Vol. 1 [10] AGM-114N Metal Augmented Charge (MAC) Hellfire Missile DTRA Fact Sheets. July 2007. http://www.dtra.mil/newsservices/fact_sheets/displ ay.cfm?fs=agm114n Accessed: February 29, 2008. [11] Pike, John. AGM-114N Metal Augmented Charge (MAC) Thermobaric Hellfire 2005. GlobalSecurity.org http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/mu nitions/agm-114n.htm Accessed: 12, January 2008. [12] Pike, John. BLU-118/B Thermobaric Weapon 2005. GlobalSecurity.org http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/mu nitions/blu-118.htmAccessed: 12, January 2008. [13] Pike, John. BLU GBU-43/B Mother Of All Bombs MOAB - Massive Ordnance Air Blast Bomb 2005. GlobalSecurity.org http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/mu nitions/moab.htm Accessed: 12, January 2008. [14] Schneider, Barry R. VIII. Solving the challenge of targeting WMD assets: Thermobaric (TB) and University of Pittsburgh EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE 7

C8
Agent Defense Mechanisms (AWDs) In the Counterproliferation Papers Future Warfare Series No. 22. Counterforce Targeting Capabilities and Challenges, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: USAF Counterproliferation Center Air University. pp.24-25. [15] Singh, Dr. Paul. Saying goodbye to nuclear bombs. The Tribune. 23 November 2007. Chandigarh, India. [16] Elert, Glenn. Chemical Potential Energy. The Physics Hypertextbook. 2008. http://hypertextbook.com/physics/ Accessed: 2008, March 29.

April 5, 2008