Xhmeia Ggymnasiou

AA
OO
2007
41 & ,
.: 210 3608065, Fax: 210 3608197
www. volonaki.gr, mail: info@volonaki.gr
:
:
,
,
.
ISBN 978-960-381-374-3
OOO
, ,

, , ..
,
.

. :
.
,
, , ..
.
.
,
.

, .

.
:
.

.
.

, . ,
.
O
.
1
O - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
13
44
63
76
102
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . .
4. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
125
140
153
171
186
197
3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
213
215
247
264
283
-

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
307
346
374

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
413
431
448
1
- -
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
11
1.
1.1
1.2 O Arrhenius

:

.
Arrhenius.
.
.
,

.

.
1. ;
.

. :
. .
. .
. ,
.
+ .... +
. .
+ .... +
13
2. Arrhenius;
O Arrhenius
(+)
( ).
:
O , , (+).
Arrhenius,
, HCl,
HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4, CH3COOH ..
!
. .. (2O), (3), (CH4) ..
1. .
.
cola .
.
.
14
:
(HCl), , .
(O3 ),
, .
(H2SO4 ), , , ,
.
2. ;
O . ,

. O , , , ..
, ,
, , ,
..
3. .

, . ( ) , . O (CO2).
, ( ).
, , , .
,

. !
15
4. ;

, . . ,
(Cu), (Hg), (Ag),
(Pt) (Au).

, .

2
.
5. :
, ,
.

HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
CH3COOH
6.
.
16
Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
()

H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
()

HO3 (aq) +(aq) + O3-(aq)
()
O
CH3COOH(aq) +(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
()

1. :
, , , , , , cola, , , ,
, .
2. , 1, :
. ............................................
. ............................................
. ............................................
. ............................................
3.
.
.
. .....................................................................................................
. .....................................................................................................
. .....................................................................................................
. .....................................................................................................
17
4. :
. .........................
.
.........................
.
..................................... .....................................
................................ .......................... (3 )
.
.........................
5. (. 4
);
Cu ............
Ca ..................
Zn ..................
Fe.............
Ag ..................
Pt ...................
Mg ............
Au ..................
Al ...................
6. ;
. + .............................................................
. + ..................................................
7. ;
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
18
8. . .
HCl
B
......................................................................................................
9. . ;
HCl, H2SO4, NaOH, NaCl, CaCO3, HNO3, CH4, CH3COOH
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
. :
i. ............... +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
ii. H2SO4 (aq) ..................... + SO42-(aq)
iii. HO3 (aq) +(aq) + ........................
iv. .................................... +(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
10. ;
. + ...............................................................................................
. CH3COO- .....................................................................................
. SO42- ............................................................................................
. Cl- ................................................................................................
. O3- ............................................................................................
19

:
1.
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
. cola
.
3.
.
.
.
.
4.
.
.
.
.
5.
.
.
.
.
6.
.
.
.
.
20
7.
.
.
.
.
8.
. CO2
. CO2
. CO2
. CO2
9.
.
.
.
.
10.
.
.
.
.
11.
.
.
.
.
12.
.
.
.
.
13. Arrhenius,
.
.
.
.
21
14. H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

.
.
.
.
22
:
1. ........................................ .
2. cola .........................................
, .......................
...................... .
3. ................................... .
4. ................................................. ................................................ .
5. O ...................................................... ,
.........................................
6. ................
.................................... , .............................................. .
7. O
..................................,
..................................................,
................................................................
8. ..................................................,
.................................. ..............................................
.
9. ........................................
......................................
10. ....................................... .................................
.
11. ........................
....................... ...............................................
12. O , ...............................................,
.
13.
..................................... .
14. ................................................,
................................
15. HCl ..................................
................................................ .
16. ...................................................
17. :
O3(aq) +(aq) + ..................

18. ......................................................
19. .............................................
20. ......................................... SO42-.
1.
:

.
. cola
.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
2. ,
;

.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
23
24

() ();
1. cola.

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. O
.

6.
,
.

7. O

.

8.
.

9.
.

10.
.

11. O
.

12.
.

13. O
.

14. O Arrhenius

.

15.
.

16.
.

17.
.

18. O H2SO3.

19. O O3 .

20. CH3COO-.

1. :
...................................... ...................................... . .................
....................... . , ......................................., , ...................
......................, .................................... (......).
(3,5 )
2.
:
..........................................................................................................
(2 )
3. :
. .............................................. . .................................................
. .............................................. . .................................................
. ..............................................
(2,5 )
4. :
. : ......................................
. O
: ................................................
.
: ................................ ..............................
........................... (3 )
. O : ....................................
.............
(2 )
5.
:
. ...........................................................................................................
25
. ...........................................................................................................
. ...........................................................................................................
. ...........................................................................................................
. ...........................................................................................................
(5 )
6. ()
():
. .

. O
.

. O O3-.

(3 )
7.
:
. :
.....................................
. :
...............................................................................
(2 )
15 min - !
26
1
O
,
, .
O
, :
,
.
,
.
O

.

( )
.
:
O
F-
-1
Cl-
-1
Br-
-1
I-
-1
S2-
-2
27
:
O
O2
-1
O3-
-1
ClO-
-1
ClO2-
-1
ClO3-
-1
ClO4CO32SO3SO4PO43-
-1
-2
-2
-2
-3
: -
-.
O O
O : xA
x:
: , ( )
,
( ) (
).
O
OOO
.. HCl, HBr, H2S
28
OOO
.. HClO3, H2SO4
OOOO O
A. : HCl, HBr, HF, H2S, HI
O: + ()
+ + - ( )
HCl:
HBr:
H2S:
B. O : HClO3, HO3, H3PO4, H2SO4

O: +
HClO3:
HO3:
H3PO4:
H2SO4:

1. :
HClO:
..............................................................................
:
..............................................................................
O2: ..............................................................................
H2CO3: ..............................................................................
H2S:
..............................................................................
HF:
..............................................................................
H2SO3: ..............................................................................
HCl:
..............................................................................
2. :
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ..................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
29
1.3 pH (-)

:
pH
.
pH.
pH .

.
1. pH * ;
pH .
, pH 7
0, 25 C.

, pH .
+ pH
. O pH .
* .. ,
30
pH
CI CI
36,5g/L
3,65g/L
pH

2. pH 25 C;
, :
2O() +aq) + O-(aq)
, ,
(+) O-, . :
+(q) = O-(aq)
(1)
pH , ,
(1) 7, 25 0C.
31
.
1. ;
. , .
2. ;
O :
+(aq) = O-(aq)
pH = 7, 25 C.
3. + - O -
;
:
+(aq) > O-(aq)

:
pH < 7
4. pH ;
32
, -
, pH. pH ,
7.
A pH 7
, pH .
pH 0
i. , .
ii. , .
, :
pH

pH

pH , 7. ,
.
33
5. pH ;
pH
.
pH . , , pH
. pH .

1.
pH < 7;
.
. cola
.
.
.
.
.
.
2. pH

:
34
pH
2
5
3,5
7
4,5

.
...............................................................................................................
3. pH = 3. pH :
. .
. .
. :
i. pH = 1
ii. pH = 5
.
pH = 3.
pH
pH
(1)
pH
(2)
pH
7
7
3
(3)
(4)
pH
7
..................
..................
(i): ..................
(ii): ..................
(5)
..................
35
4. pH ,
10 ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. () pH = 4
(). ()
(). , () (),
pH = 6 pH = 1; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6.
. pH ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7. pH
pH = 2 pH = 5 ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8.
( ) pH ;
pH
pH
36
(1)
(2)
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9. pH = 4
. : , , , :
.

. O
.
. O
.
. pH
.
10.
:
HNO3
H2SO4
CH3COOH
HCl
pH
2
0,8
4
2,5
...............................................................................................................

:
1.
.
.
.
.
2.
,
.
.
.
. pH
37
3. , 25 C, pH
. 7
. 7
. 7
. 7
4. pH
.
.
.
.
5. :
. 2O(aq) +(aq) + O-(aq)
. 2O(l) +(l) + O-(l)
. 2O(l) +(aq) + O-(aq)
. 2O(g) +(l) + O-(l)
6. O O-
.
.
.
.
7. pH = 7
.
. 25 C
.
. +(aq) = O-(aq)
8.
. +(aq) < 7
. +(aq) < O-(aq)
. +(aq) = O-(aq)
. +(aq) > O-(aq)
38
9. pH
.
. , 7
.
. , 7
10. ,
. +(aq) < O-(aq)

. pH 7
. +(aq) O-(aq)
. pH < 7
11. pH = 4 . pH
. 3
. 5
. 6
. 4,5
12. pH = 3 . pH
. 2
. 3
. 4
. 7
13. pH = 3,5 . pH
. 2
. 3
. 3,5
. 4
14. pH = 3
pH = 5.
pH
. 3
. 4
. 5
. 6
15. pH = 3 pH = 3.
pH
. 3
. 6
39
. 9
. 4,5
16. pH = 2,7. O pH
.
.
.
.
40
:
1. , ....................................... .
2. pH ...................................................
.......................................
3. .......................................
.............................................. ,
....................................... .
4. , pH .............................
7 .............................. 0,
..............................
5. pH
....................................... .
6. , ................
..............................
7. : +(aq) ................... O-(aq)
8. pH .......................................
( ) 7, .......................................
9. : +(aq) .......... O-(aq).
10. ...............................
, ..............
..................... +.
11. , pH
....................................... 7.
12. pH .....................................
................................ .

() ();
1. pH
.

2.
.

3. pH
7.

4. pH 7.

5. pH , 25 C,
7.

6. :
+(aq) = O-(aq)

7. pH = 1
pH = 2.

8. :
2O(aq) +(aq) + O-(aq)

9. ,
.
10. pH 7.
11.
pH.
12.
pH.
13.
pH .
14.
pH .

1. :
..................................
.........................
...................................... . ......................
.......................................
41
, ..............................., ............................
7 ................................... 0,
.......................................
(4,5 )
2.
:
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
3. :
. pH = 7
. pH = 2,5
. pH = 5,5
. pH = 4
. pH = 0
. pH = 6
...............................................................................................................
(1,5 )
4. :
. pH = 7: .....................
. pH: .............................
. : ....................................
. :
................................................
(2 )
5. pH = 3,5. pH
:
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
(2 )
42
6. ()
():
. pH
.
. pH = 7.
. +(aq) = O-(aq).
.
pH .
(4 )
7. () pH = 3
(). ()
. ().
pH () (),
.
. pH = 7
. pH = 0
. pH = 4
. pH = 3
. pH =6
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
15 min - !
43
2. O
2.1
2.2 Arrhenius
2.3 pH

:
.
Arrhenius.
,
.
, .

.
pH
.
pH.
pH .

.
1. ;
.
44
. :
. .
. .
. .
2. Arrhenius;
O Arrhenius
(O-)
( ).
:
,
, (O-).
Arrhenius,
, aO, O. Ca(O)2, Ba(O)2 ..
!
, (3).
3. ;
,
. :
+(aq) < O-(aq)
4. pH ;
pH .
, pH
7 14, 25 C.
45

, pH
.
O- pH
. O pH .
!
+ pH
, 25 C :
7 < pH < 14
pH

10
pH

46
11
12
13
14
1. .
.
.

.

.
O .
2. :
, ,
, ,

aOH
OH
Ca(OH)2
Ba(OH)2
3
3.
.

aOH (s)
H2O
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
47

OH (s)
H2O
+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ca(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Ba(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
3(aq) + 2O(l)
4+(aq) + O-(aq)
4. pH ;
, , pH. pH , 7.
A pH 7
48
, pH .
pH 14
2
;
i. , .
ii. , .
, :
( )
( / )
10
11
12
13
14
: pH 7
pH
14
49

1. :
, , ,
, , , , , , , .
2. .
, ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. pH = 11.
.
pH ;
. p = 10
. p = 8
. p = 9,3
. pH = 12
4. /
:
/
.
. O
.
.
. / aO
pH
7,2
9,3
13,4
8
13
/
.
.
.
.
.
pH
11
7,5
8,5
11,5
12,5
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
50
5. .
( ):
3,
H2SO4,
NaOH,
NaCl,
Ca(OH)2,
CaCO3,
CH4,
CH3COOH, O,
HCOOH,
AgOH
HNO3,
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. :
H2O
i. ........................
H2O
ii. Ca(OH)2 (s)
iii. aO (s)
H2O
+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + .....................
..................... + O-(aq)
........................ + O-(aq)
iv. 3(aq) + 2O(l)
6. pH = 11.
pH :
. .
.
. :
i. pH = 11
ii. pH = 13
iii. pH = 9
pH
pH
14
14
11
11
(1)
(2)
51
pH
pH
14
14
11
11
(3)
pH
14
(4)
:
................
................
(i):
................
(ii): ................
11
(iii): ................
(5)
7. pH = 10
. : , , , :
. pH ..........................................
. O ..........................................
. ..........................................
. O ..........................................
. ..........................................
. ..........................................
8. pH
pH = 13 pH = 10 ;
.
...............................................................................................................
52
...............................................................................................................
9.

pH ;
pH
pH
14
14
(1)
O-
(2)
O-
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10. pH = 11 , . . : , , , :
.
..........................................
. ...............................
. ..........................................
. ..........................................
. pH ..........................................
. .........................................
11. () pH = 11.
(). ()
().
, () (), pH = 12. , .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
53
12. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

:
1.
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
.
.
3.
.
.
.
.
4. ,
.
.
.
.
5. O , ,
.
.
.
.
54
6.
. O. O+
. . +
7.

.
.
.
.
8.
Ca(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

.
.
.
.
9.
,
.
.
.
. pH
10. , 25 C, pH
. 7
. 7
. 7 14
. 7
11. pH
.
.
.
.
12.
:
. OH (aq)
H2O
+(aq) + OH-(aq)
55
. O (s)
. O (l)
. O (s)
H2O
H2O
H2O
+( aq) + O-( aq)

+( aq) + O-( aq)
+(s) + O-(s)
13.
. +(aq) > O-(aq)
. +(aq) < O-(aq)
. +(aq) = O-(aq)
. O-(aq) > 7
14. pH
.
. , 7
.
. , 7
15. ,
. +(aq) O-(aq)
. pH 7
. +(aq) < O-(aq)
. pH < 7
16. pH = 13 . pH

. 14
. 13
. 10
. 7
17. pH = 10 . pH
. 8
. 9
. 10
. 11
56
18. pH =12
pH = 10.
pH
. 12
. 10,5
. 10
. 2

:
1. pH .............................................. 7
14.
2. ....................................
................................................
3. .............................................
..............................................
.
4. ........................................
................................................
5. ..............................
................................................
6. O .........................
7. ............................................ ,
................................................ ,
................................................
8. :
+(aq) ............ O-(aq).
9. , .......................................,
: 14 > pH ............... 7.
10. , , ,
............................. pH , 7.
11.
pH.........7.
12. ..........................................
.................................................
................................................ pH.
13. .............................
14. O ................................................
.
15. ...................................
:
57
Ca(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ca2+(aq) + ...............
16. :
...............................................................................................................
1. pH /
:

. pH < 7
. pH = 7
. pH > 7

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4. cola
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
2.
:

. aO
. O
. Ca(OH)2
. Ba(OH)2
. NH3

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
58
() ();
1. .

2. pH 7.

3. O .
4. .
5.
.

6. ,
.

7.
, .

8. O Ca(OH)2.
9. :

: +(aq) < O-(aq).
Ba(O)2 (s)
H2O
Ba2+(aq) + O-(aq)
10.
11. pH
7 14.
12. , 25 C, :
14 > pH >7.
13.
pH.
14.
pH.
15. ,
pH, pH
pH .
16.
.

1. :
..........................
.................... . .............................
. ,
............................, ,
........................., ................... (......).
(3,5 )
2.
:
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
59
3. :
. O ........................................................................................
. Ba(O)2 ........................................................................................
. aO ...........................................................................................
. 3 ..............................................................................................
. Ca(O)2 .......................................................................................
(2,5 )
4. :
. O : ..............
. : ............................................
. O : .........................
. : ....................................
(2 )
5. ()
():
. pH = 11
pH = 13.
.
.
. Ca+.
(3 )
6. :
. pH = 7
. pH = 8,5
. pH = 7,5
. pH = 14
. pH = 11
. pH = 12,4
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
7. pH = 12. pH
:
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
(4 )
60
15 min - !
OOOO
O . O
: (O)y
y:
:

:
O
()
a+
+
g+
Ca2+
a2+
Mg2+
Zn2+
l3+
+1
+1
+1
+2
+2
+2
+2
+3
: +
aO:
O:
Ca(OH)2:
Ba(O)2:

1. :
Mg(OH)2: ..............................................................................
KOH: .....................................................................................
Zn(OH)2: ...............................................................................
AgOH: ..................................................................................
Al(OH)3: ................................................................................
Ca(OH)2: ...............................................................................
61
2. :
: ......................................................
: .......................................................
: ....................................................
: ............................................
62
3.
3.1

:
.

.

.
.
1. ;
.
(+) (O-) , , :
+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
,
, , .
63
.
1.
;
.
2. ,
;
, :
, ,
,
, .
3.
;
.

.
.

.
4.
;
64
.
,
, , ,
.
, .. , .

1. pH ,
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2.
pH ,
;
0
14
pH
14
pH
14
pH
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
65
3. pH = 3. . pH
;
. p = 3
. p = 5
. p = 7
. pH = 9
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4.
. :
. 3 / aO
. 2SO4 / O3
. Ca(OH)2 / CH3COOH
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. pH = 11. pH
pH = 2;
pH
pH
11
11
(1)
(2)
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6. pH = 3. :
.
.
pH = 12.
() ();
66
pH
pH
3
7
3
V
(1)
(2)
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7.
, pH = 10, :
OH-

()
1 - 4:
OH-
OH-
OH-
(A)
OH-
OH-
OH-
OH-
H+
OH-
H+
OH-
OH-
OH-
H+
H+
OH-
(1)
(2)
H+
H+
(3)
(4)
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8. :
. ,
.
,
67
, ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9. pH = 11 pH = 2.
: , ,
, :
. ..........................................
. ..........................................
. O ..........................................
. pH ..........................................
10. () pH = 11.
(). ()
().
, () (), pH = 3.
, .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
11. (, ), ,
:
12.
OH-
68
OH-
OH-
OH-
(A)
H+
H+
H+
()
()
,
:
. (); ..............................................
. ; ..........................
. ; ..........................................
. ()
; .............................................
. pH <7; .............................................
.
(); ..................................

:
1.
.
.
.
.
2. O
.
.
.
.
3.
.
.
.
.
.
4.
. +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(aq)
. +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
69
. +(l) + OH-(l) H2O(l)

. +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(g)
5.
.
. pH = 7
.
.
6.
.
.

.

.
. pH 7
7. O
, .
.
.
.
.
8. pH = 3 pH = 10. pH :
. 10
. 7
. 5
. 3,5
70
9. pH = 7.
.
.
.
.
10.
, , .
. pH < 7
. +(aq) < O-(aq)
.
.

:
1. ......................................
................................................, +
........................ ,
...........................................
2. :
................................................................................................
3. ................................................
................................................
4. ....................................
.
5. ...........................................
............................................. ,
.
6.
................................................
7. :
+(aq) ............ O-(aq).
8.
................................... ,
................................
9. pH = 3 ,
pH = 11. ............ < pH < ..............
10. ................................................
................................................,
71
1. pH , :

. pH < 7
. pH = 7
. pH > 7

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.

() ();
1.
( ) :
+(aq) = O-(aq) = 0.
2.
,
.

3.
,
+(aq) = 0.

4.
.

5.
. pH = 7.

6. ,
.
72
7. +(aq)
O-(aq) .
8. +(aq)
O-(aq) .
9. :
2O(l)
+(aq) + O-(aq)

10. pH = 7, .
11. pH < 7, 25 C,
.

12. , , ,
.

13. .
.

o
14. pH = 11, 25 C, ,
.
.
73

1. :
:
. ; ......................................
.
,
; .............................................
. .
i. ; ...............................
ii.
;
.......................................
iii.
; .............................................
(5 )
2.
:
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
74
3. ;
. ( )
.
.
(2 )
4. :
.
: ................................................
. :
................................................
. pH = 7 25 C.
; ............................................
(3 )
5. ()
():
. , .
. O
. , + O-
.
(3 )
6. O
:
aO (s)
H2O
a+(aq) + O-(aq)
. .
...............................................................................................................
.
;
...............................................................................................................
. pH ;
...............................................................................................................
(2 + 1 + 2 )
15 min - !
75
4.

:
.
.
.
.

.
1. a+ Cl-,
HCl aO, ;

aO HCl,
2O,
. , .
2.

HCl aO;
76
a+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NaCl(s)
3. ;

.
4. ;

:
+ +
.
1. ;
O
, 2SO4, , Ba(O)2.
(+)
(SO42-), , :
H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

(Ba2+) (O-), , :
Ba(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
, :
77
. + O- ().
.
, ,
. O
:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4 (s)
2.
;

.
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4 (s)

.
a+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NaCl (aq)

.
Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) Ca(NO3)2 (aq)

3. ;
78
,
.. (NaCl), (AgNO3)
..
, .. (CaSO4), (AgCl) ..

1.

;
,

,
(+) (O-), . (+)
(O-) ,
:
, :
a+ = CI- > + = OH2.

:
Ca2+ = Cl , ;
:
HCl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)

(2) :
Ca(O)2 (s)
H2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2O-(aq)
79
, :
+ < O, !

1.
:
1:
2:
3:
4:
. :
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
1
2
3
4
80
O
HCl
KOH
H2SO4
Ca(OH)2
. :
. 1 2.
.
...............................................................................................................
. ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. 3 4.
.
...............................................................................................................
. ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. 4 34 ,
() ().
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. 4 34 , :

NaCl
AgNO3
CaCO3
AgCl

a+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NaCl (aq)
3. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4. . :

. :

. ;
...............................................................................................................
. (
);
...............................................................................................................
81
.
;
...............................................................................................................
5. :

1: HCl
2: HNO3
3: H2SO4

4: NaOH
5: AgOH
6: Ca(OH)2
.
2, 3, 5 6.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
.
aO3, CaSO4 AgCl;
aO3
CaSO4
AgCl
x + y
.
,
( 4 34
);
...............................................................................................................
6. , ; O3, aCl, CaSO4, Ba(NO3)2, Na2SO4, AlCl3, K2SO4, AgCl
:
82
7. :
NaClO3,
MgCl2,
BaSO3,
Ca(NO2)2,
K2CO3,
AlBr3,
Al2(SO4)3,
Ag3PO4
:
O
ClO3
NaO
NaClO3
MgCl2
BaSO3
Ca(NO2)2
K2CO3
AlBr3
Al2(SO4)3
Ag3PO4
8. pH = 11 pH = 3.
pH = 5.
. N
:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ; ..............................
. ; ...................
. ;
. ...........................................................................
.
pH = 7;
i. HCl
ii. 2O
iii. NaOH
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9. pH = 3.
.
pH = 9;
i. O
ii. 2O
iii. 2SO4
...............................................................................................................
83
. ; ..............................
. ; .....................
. ; .
...............................................................................................................
.
pH;
pH
pH
11
(1)
(2)
pH
pH
(3)
84
(4)
10. , pH = 13, pH = 2.
pH = 3,5.
. pH ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ; ........................
...............................................................................................................
. ; ...................
...............................................................................................................
. pH;
pH
pH
4
7
(1)
(2)

:
1. , 25 C,
. pH =7
. pH =7
.
.
2.
:
. H2O(aq) +(aq) + O-(aq)
. +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(g)
. H2O(l) +(aq) + O-(aq)
. +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
3. :
. a+ = Cl. a+ = O. a+ = +
. a+ < O4. , 25 C,
, :
a+ = SO42 :
. pH = 7
. pH > 7
85
. pH < 7
. pH 7
5. , , , , .
:
.
. pH = 7
.
.
6.
a+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
aCl(s)
:
.
.
.

7. :
.
.
.
. a+ Cl-
86
8.
.
. BaSO4
. BaSO4
. BaSO4
9. (BaSO4)
.
.
.
.

10.
.
.
.
.
11. :
. + +
. + +
. + +
. + +
12.
. 2SO3
. BaSO3
. 2SO4
. BaSO4
13. aO2, O2, O3, O3, O2,
Ca(NO3)2
. NaNO2, HNO2
. HNO3, KNO3
. NO2, Ca(NO3)2
. KNO3, Ca(NO3)2
14.
.
.
.
.
15.
. AgCl
. NaCl
87
. AgNO3
. CaSO4
16.
.
. 25 C
.
.

:
1. ......................
aO HCl,
2O, .............................
2. , ......................................
.....................................,
........................ ..................................... .
3. 2SO4 Ba(OH)2
.................................... ...................................
4. O :
Ba2+(aq) + ........................ ...........................
88
5. ..........
..................... ....................
.
6. :
+ .............................. ............................ +
7.
........................................ ..................................
.
8. ......................................
............................................., ,
...................................................
9.
.....................................
...........................................
10. ........................................
......................................... (. . 34
) .
1.
, :

. HCl
. HNO3
. Ba(OH)2
. H3PO4
. KOH
. AgOH
. NaOH
. H2SO4
. Ca(OH)2
. H2CO3

........ 1. NaNO3
........ 2. AgCl
........ 3. K2SO4
........ 4. CaCO3
........ 5. Ba3(PO4)2
........ 6. CaCl2
........ 7. AgNO3
........ 8. BaSO4
........ 9. Na2CO3
........ 10. KNO3
2. ;

.
.

........ 1. NaNO3
........ 2. AgCl
........ 3. CuSO4
........ 4. CaCO3
........ 5. BaSO4
........ 6. CaCl2
........ 7. AgNO3
........ 8. NaCl
........ 9. CaSO4
89

() ();
1. Arrhenius
.

2. .

3. .

4. .

5.
.

6.
.

7. :
BaSO4(s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
8. O
.
9. BaCl.
10.
.
11. , ,
.
12. .
13.
.
14. .

90
1.
.
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ;
, .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(3 + 3 + 3 )
2.
, :
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
3.
:
. ........................................................
. ........................................................
. ........................................................
. ........................................................
(4 )
4. : , .
. :
i. ........................................................
ii. ........................................................
iii. ........................................................
. ;
O: ........................................................
: ........................................................
.
:
...............................................................................................................
(1,5 + 2 + 1,5 )
15 min - !
91

O : xAy
y+:
x+ :
x:
y:

.
:
xy+ + yx+ xAy
! . , ,
, .
.

.
CaF2 .
1 :
CaF2 Ca2+ F- (..:
, ,
1 ).
2 :
Ca2+ + F- CaF2
3 :

. .
92
Ca2+ + 2F- CaF2

1.
a(O3 )2 .
a(O3)2 a2+ O3-.

:
a2+ + O3- a(O3)2

. :
a2+ + 2O3- a(O3)2
2.
Al2(SO4 )3 .
Al2(SO4)3 Al3+ SO42-.

:
Al3+ + SO42- Al2(SO4)3

.
:
2Al3+ + 3SO42- Al2(SO4)3

, .

. :
y+
x+
xAy
93
a+
F-
NaF
Ca2+
Cl-
CaCl2
Ba2+
S2-
Ba2S2 BaS*
Zn2+
NO3-
Zn(NO3)2**
Ca2+
SO42-
Ca2(SO4)2 CaSO4*
Ba2+
PO43+
Ba3(PO4)2**
Al3+
CO32+
Al2(CO3)3**
Al3+
PO43+
Al3(PO4)3 AlPO4*
* 1 .
**
.
O
, ,
, ( ) ( ).
OOO
.. aCl, Br, a2S
OOO
.. Ca(ClO3), 2SO4
A. : NaCl, KBr, Ag2S

O: + - +
aCl:
Br:
Ag2S:
B. O : aClO3, KO3, Ba3(PO4)2, K2SO4
O: +
94
aClO3:
O3:
Ba3(PO4)2:
K2SO4:

1. :
Cl-
OH-
CO32-
PO43-
S2-
NO3-
a+
Ca2+
Ca(OH)2
Al3+
NH4+
Mg2+
K+
2. :
ClO: ..............................................................................
a: ..............................................................................
Ca(O2)2 ..............................................................................
BaCO3: ..............................................................................
Na2S: ..............................................................................
AlF3: ..............................................................................
K2SO3: ..............................................................................
AgCl: ..............................................................................
3. :
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
95

1. , , :
ClO: ..............................................................................
a: ..............................................................................
Ca(O2)2 ..............................................................................
BaCO3: ..............................................................................
O: ..............................................................................
AlF3: ..............................................................................
K2SO3: ..............................................................................
AgO: ..............................................................................
2. . :
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ...................................................
: ................................................
: ...................................................
. ( );
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
96
3.
:

. 2SO3
.... 1.
. Mg(OH)2
.... 2.
. AlBr3
.... 3.
. KClO4
.... 4.
. H2S
.... 5.
. Na3PO4
.... 6.
. H2CO3
.... 7.
. Al2(SO4)3
.... 8.

, .. . ,
, .

.

. , , , .

1. (CaSO4 ) . 100 g
, 25 C,
0,21 g .
. g 250 g
;
0,21 g 100 g
x; g
250 g
=
0,21 250
100
= 0,525 g
, 0,525 g .
. g 0,63 g
;
0,21 g 100 g
0,63 g
x; g
=
0,63 100
0,21
= 300 g
, 300 g .
97
. g 200 g
0,5 g ;
0,21 g 100 g
x; g
200 g
=
0,21 200
100
= 0,42 g
, 0,42 g 0,50 0,42 = 0,08 g .

. (0,08 g), ;
.
, .
2. (aCl) . 100 g
, 25 C, 36 g
. 200 g , 25 C,
.
20 C, g ;
20 C, 10 g 100 g .

(200 g), 25 oC...
36 g 100 g
x; g
200 g
=
36 200
= 72 g
100
... 20 oC:
10 g 100 g
x; g
200 g
98
10 200
100
= 20 g
,
. , 72 20 = 52 g .
3. (O3) . 100 g , :
/ C
g / 100 g
20
40
60
80
100
30
60
110
170
250
g / 100g
. .
250
200
x
150
x
100
50
37
x
x
20
25
40
60
80
100
/ oC
.
;
.
. 25 C;
37 g 100 g .
99
. g 300 g , 60 C;
110 g 100 g
x; g
300 g
=
110 300
100
= 330 g
, 330 g .

1. (KNO3) 400 g 120 g, 20 C.
20 C.
2. 25 C 50 g
37 g (CaCl2).
25 C;
3. (aNO3),
100 g , 25 C, 87 g. g
125 g .
4. (CaSO4) . 100 g
, 25 C,
0,21 g . g 300 g ;
100
5. (CuSO4),
100 g , 25 C, 20,5 g. g 4,1 g .
6. g , 25 C, 3,7 g
(CaCl2);
, , 74 g 100 g .
7. ( )
70 g (NaCl) 200 g , 25 C;
100 g , 25 C, 36 g.
8. (CaSO4),
100 g , 25 C, 0,21 g.
( ;)
4 g 2 Kg .
9. 100 g , 40 C, 60 g (O3).
, 65 g ;

;
10. O (O3),
100 g , 60 g 40 C, 170 g
80 C,. ,
50 g , 80 C 40 C.
101
5. ,

5.1
5.2 : ,

5.3
5.4

:
, .

, .

.
.
pH
.
,
,
.
.

.
1. ;
102
(SO2, SO3) (O, O2) .

(SOx) ,
,
(). O , , ..:
S + O2 SO2
, SO2
.
(NOx) , .
, .
O
,
.
. SOx (H2SO3) (H2SO4) Ox (O3).
2. ;
(, ) . O :
. , , , , Taj Mahal ..
. , ,
, , .
. Ox SOx

.
. pH -
103
,
.
. pH ,
,
.
.
1.
.

:
. , .
. , .
. ,
.
. O .
. pH 4,7 8,
, ( ).
2. ;

pH = 2 .

(, ). , ( ) .
3. pH ;
104
pH = 7,4,
. -
pH .
pH 7,2 ,
7,6 .
4. ;
,
, .
5. ;

(.. ) .
()
.
6. pH ;
;
, , ,
pH 5 5,6.
, .
,
.
7. ;
( ) a+
. a+

.

.
105
8. () ;
() (CaCO3). .
.
9. ;
. (3), (aO). ( ).
10. ;
.
, RCOOH,
(aO).
RCOOH + NaOH RCOONa + H2O
, ,
RCOO- a+.
RCOOa RCOO- + a+
RCOO- (
) (R-) (-COO-).
106
() (R-)

(-COO-)

,
.
,
.

(),
.
11.
; pH ;

.
, , ,
, .
.
(.. )
, .
. pH 4 8.
pH 7. (+) .

pH .
pH Ca(OH)2.
pH
6,0 7,0
5,4
5,0
4,9
5,5
6,0
107
12. ;
, , , , , . (w/w)
, ( P2O5) ( 2O).

1. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. () :
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. , ..

;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
108
4. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6. . ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7.
, .
,
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8. .
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10.
:
pH
6,0 7,0
6,0 7,0
5,0 6,5
4,6 5,6
6,0 8,0
. ;
. ;
109
. o ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
11. :
. 5 9 - 6
. 6 7 11
. 12 8 10

;
...............................................................................................................
12. ,
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
13. .

pH 7;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
14.
;

.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
110
1. 50 Kg : 12 5 8.
. ;
. Kg (P2O5)
;
. . Kg (K2O) ;
. % w/w ,
(P2O5) (2O) .
100 Kg 12 Kg , 5 Kg
( P2O5) 8 Kg (2O).
. : 5 Kg P2O5 100 Kg
x; Kg P2O5 50 Kg
=
5 50
100
= 2,5 Kg P2O5
. : 8 Kg 2O 100 Kg
x; Kg 2O 150 Kg
=
8 150
100
= 12 Kg 2O
2. 250 Kg 20 Kg
, 35 Kg ( P2O5) 30 Kg (
K2O). ;
: 20 Kg 250 Kg
x; Kg 100 Kg
=
20 100
250
= 8 Kg
: 35 Kg 250 Kg
x; Kg 100 Kg
=
35 100
250
= 14 Kg
111
: 30 Kg 250 Kg
x; Kg 100 Kg
=
30 100
250
= 12 Kg
8 14 12.

:
1.
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
.
.
3. , pH 2
.
.
.
.
4.
.
.
.
.
112
5.
.
.
.
.
6.
.
.
.
.
7.
. +
. a+
. +
. O8. , ,
.
.
.
.
9. ()
.
.
.
.
10.
. HClO
. HClO2
. HCl
. HClO4
11. O
.
.
.
.
12. :
.
.
.
.
113
13.
.
.
.
.
14.

.
.
.
.
15.
.
.
.
.
16. pH
. 4 - 8
. 5 - 9
. 5 - 8
. 4 - 9
17.
. aO
. O
. Ba(O)2
. Ca(OH)2
18.
. Na, P, K
. N, P, Ca
. N, P, K
. N, F, K
114
19.

.
.
.
.
20.
. HNO2 HClO3
. HCl H2SO4
. HNO3 H2SO4
. HClO3 H2SO3

:
1. pH ......................................,
................................................. .
2. ................................... pH = ....................
3. O pH pH ................................................ 7,2.
4. ..................................
....................................., , ..........................
5. , .................. ...................
6. ...........................................
.....................................................
7. ..............................
..................................... .
8. () ................................................... ,
...............................................
9. ............................
10. .................
11. .....................................
........................................
12.
............................. .
13.
............................ ,
............................ .................................
14.
....................................... ,
................................................. .
15.
(...........),
( .........................) ( ...............).
115
16.
17.
18.
19.
.........................................
pH ......................
.................................. .
(SOx) ....................................
(NOx) ...................................
20. .....................................
.
1. :

.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3. ()
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
2.
:

. aO
. CaCO3
. Ca(OH)2
. HNO3
. NH3
. HCl
. H2SO4
. NaCl
116

.... 1. pH
.... 2.
.... 3. SOx
.... 4. a+
.... 5. ()
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.

() ();
1. .

2. pH 7,4
.

3.
.

4. .

+
5. a .
6. .
7.
.

8. () .

9. , , .

10. ,

.

11. .

12. O
.

13.
,
.

14. Ca(OH)2.
15. Ox .

16. .

17. NOx O3 SOx
3SO4.

18.
.
117
1. 25 Kg.

: 7 11 6.
. Kg ( P2O5)
;
. . Kg
( K2O) ;
2. 300 Kg 24 Kg , 36 Kg 27 Kg .
;
3. Kg ( K2O) , 50 Kg, :
. 8 12 - 6
. 9 4 8
. 6 5 - 7
4. 50 g , 2,5 g , 3 g 4,7 g .
;
5. % w/w
:
. 8 12 - 6
. 9 4 8
. 7 5 - 7
50 Kg.
6. 50 Kg 4 6
10 150 Kg 8 6 6,
;
118

1. :
....................................... ,
.............
.......................... ..........................,
...................... ................................
(5 )
2. ( ) :
. : .................................
. pH : .................................
. : .................................
. : .................................
. () : ............................
. : .................................
(3 )
3.
, :

.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
(4 )
4. :
. O : ............................
. O
: ................................................
. : ...............
. : ..........................................
. O : .................................................
(5 )
5. 6% w/w ( 2O), 10% w/w N 4% w/w P ( P2O5);
(3 )
15 min - !
119
120
1
1. :
() .
. ; .........
..............................
. ()
(, , ); ..............................................................................................
. (); ...............................................................
.
; .................................................
. pH
, 25 C; .................................
.

; ....................................
. ; ...........................................
.

: ......................................................................
(4 )
2. :
. ,
: ................................
. pH , 25 0C: ....................
. : .................................
.
: .................................
. : .................................
.
: .......................................................................
(3 )
3.
( ).
.
, :
O
.
:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
.

;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. :
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(5 )
4. pH = 3, 25 C:
.
;
...............................................................................................................
.
.
...............................................................................................................
. i.
ii. ;
...............................................................................................................
121
.
pH
;
pH
pH
(1)
(2)
pH
pH
(3)
(4)
(4 )
5. 20 Kg 1,2 Kg , 0,6
Kg 2 Kg .
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
1 - !
122
2
T
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
123
1. O
1.1 ...
1.2 : O
1.3
1.4
;

:
.
.

.
.

.
1. ;

.
,
.
125

O ,
,
, .

. , = 11 : 11Na.
2. ;

, 1
,
.
, .
3. .
126
O
.
4.
;
O :
1 ,
, .
2 ,
.
17 .
18 .
1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1
2
3

4
5

6
7
5. ;
.
, , .

() 1. 1 . .
,
. , .
127
, .
6. ;

. .
,
, , ...
O ,
, .
.
.
1. ;
128
1860 60 ,
.
Newlands, . O Newlands .
O 1870 Mendeleev. . O

.
. O
Mendeleev
,
. .
2.
;
O :
1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
5 18
6 32 ( 14
)
7
:
2 3 8
4 5 18

1.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. . ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
129
4. .
: Cs, K, I, He, Ca, Rn, Li, H, Be, Fr, Ne, Na, Sr, F, Mg, Xe,
Cl, Br
5.
. .
: F, He, Ca, Rn, At, Li, Mg, Xe, Cl, Cs, K, I, Be, Fr, Ne, Na, Sr
O
6. :

..........................
........................... .
7. 2 2 .
;
...............................................................................................................
8.
:
130

1
18
81
12
2
86
88
20
55
11
.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ;
...............................................................................................................
. (
).
: .........................................................................................
: .......................................................................................
9. , , , ,
16, 12, 8, 20 38 ( );
...............................................................................................................
10. 3 17
. :
. ;
...........................................
. ; ........................................................
.

:
;
:
1 2 , 2 3
8 , 4 5 18 . 2 88 1818!
131
1
.
! 2 3
3 12.
1
3
2
4
10
12
21
54
. ; ........................
.
;
; ................................................
.
, ,
.
. :
i. ; .....................
ii. ; .....................
iii. ; .....................
iv. ; .....................
132
11. 4 2
. :
. ;
....................................
. ; ........................................................
. ; ....................
. ; ................
12. 1 1
.
.
; ........................
. ; ........................................................
. ;
........................................
.

; .......................................................................................

:
1. O ():
.
.
.
.
2. 1860
. 40
. 60
. 80
. 100
3. O Newlands
.
.
.
.
4. O

. Mendeleev
. Newlands
. Bohr
. Moseley
133
5. O
.
.
.
.
6. O
. 7
. 18
. 18
. 8
7. 1
.
.
.
.
8.
.
.
.
.
9. 18
.
.
.
.
10.
.
.
.
.
11.
.
.
.
.
134
12.
.
.
.
.
13. ( );
. - a
. - e
. He - Ne
. Na Ne
14. ( = 56);
. Z = 1, Z = 2
. Z = 1, Z = 19
. Z = 12, Z = 11
. Z = 12, Z = 20
15.

.
.
.
.
16.
.
.
.
.

:
1.
.......................................................
2. O Mendeleev ........................................ .
3. ................................. .
135
4. O ...........................
, .....................................
................... , ....................
5. ...................... , 4
5 .......................... .
6. ...........................................,
........................................
............................. .
7. 1 , ....................................,
..................................................
8. ............................ .
9. .......................................... .............................................
10. ...............................................
.......................................
.
11. ..........
.................... .................... .
12.
..................................... .
13. O ..............................
14.
..................................... ....................................
.
1.
:

.
.
.
.
136

.... 1. 2
.... 2. 18
.... 3. 1
.... 4. 17
2. ,
( );
.
.

.... 1. Cl
.... 2. Mg
.... 3. Fe
.... 4. F
.... 5. H
.... 6. N
.... 7. Na
.... 8. Br

() ();
1. O Mendeleev

.
2. O

.
3. O 18 .
4. 3 4
.
5. 1 .

6. 1 .

7. 2 .
8. .

9. .

10.
.
11.

.
12. O

Mendeleev.
13.

.
14. 6

.
15.

.
16.
.
137

1. :
. .............................. .
. .....................
, ..................... .
. O .....................................
.............
O
.............................. ............................
.
(3,5 )
2. :
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(1 )
3.
( );
, Fe, F, H, Ca, N, O, Mg, Cl, C, Na
: ..................................................................
: ................................................................
(5,5 )
4. , , , , 1, 4, 8,
10, 11, 18.
:
1 : ..................................................
2 : ..................................................
3 : ..................................................
(3 )
138
5.
:
1 : ..................................................
2 : ..................................................
17 : ................................................
18 : ................................................
(4 )
6. ()
():
. 17
.
.
. O 7.
(3 )
15 min - !
139
2.
2.1
2.2

:

.

.
.

.
1. ;
1
. (Li), (Na), (K),
(Rb), (Cs) (Fr), .
2. ;
140
:
.
. ,
.
,
.
O , .
, ,
. ,
(OH-) . , O-, .
3. ;
O
. 1
, , .
4. (.. ) ;

. ,
, . , , , ( Coulomb )
.
, ,
.
141

A e
.
1. ;

,
, .
2. ;
.
.
, (a+)
(O-), (2), :
2Na(s) + 2H2O(i) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
142

a+;
a+ ,
-
. Cl- ,

.
3. ,
;
1 ,
.
+1.
a0 Na+ + 1e
4.
(.. , , ) ;

.
, , .
g/mL
20C

(C)
(C)
Li
0,53
180,5
1342
Na
11
0,97
97,8
890
19
0,86
63,6
754
Rb
37
1,53
38,9
688
Cs
55
1,88
28,5
690
143
2

1. ,
:
.
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
144
5.
:

500 mL, 3/4
. ,
.
.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ;
;
...............................................................................................................
. , ;
()
()
()
...............................................................................................................
. ;
...............................................................................................................
. .
...............................................................................................................
. ;
...............................................................................................................
6.
;
...............................................................................................................
7. : Na, Cs, Li, K, Fr, Rb.
:
. : ...................................................
. : ..............................................
8.

. ;
...............................................................................................................
145
9. :

11
19
20
e

2, 8, 1
2, 8, 8, 1
2, 8, 8, 2
. , ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ,
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

:
1.
.
.
.
.
2.

. Li, K, Na, Rb, Cs, Fr
. Li, Na, K, Rb, Fr, Cs
. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
. Li, Na, K, Cs, Rb, Fr
146
3. 1 .

.
.
.
.
4. O
. Ru
. Ra
. Rd
. Rb
5.
.
.
.
.
6. Na .
.
.
.
.
7.
.
.
.
.
8. ,

.
.
.
.
9.
.
. ,
. , ,
.
10.
.
.
.
.
147
11.
.
.
.
.
12.

.
.
.
.
13.
.
.
.
.
14.
.
.
.
.
15. O
.
.
.
.
16.
. e
. e
.
.
148
:
1. ........................
, ................................................
2. ...............................
.
3. , ............................................ ,
.........................................., ...............................
4. , ...........................,
.............................................
5. .................................................
............................................ .
6. ............................................
.
7. ......................................, ..................................
.
8.
.......................... .................................,
.............................................
9.
.........................
.....................................
10.
...................................
11. ........................................ .
12. ........................................ ,
.......................................... .
13.
.......................... , .............................
, : ....................................
14. : ...................................................................................
15. ......................................
......................................... e
.
16. , ............................................ ,
................................ , ,
.
149
1.
:

.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1.

.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4. Li, K
.... 5.

.... 6.
4
2.
:

.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2. Cs
.... 3. a
.... 4. Fr
.... 5. Rb
.... 6. Li

() ();
1. :
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
150
2.
.
3. .

4. 1
, .
5. 1
. ,
.
6.
.
7.

.
8.
.
9. ,
.
10. e .
11. .
12. .
13. +1.
14.
.

1. , :
......................................
. ......................................... .

.............................. O ............................

.............................. .......................
.
(3 )
151
2.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
3. ;
, Fe, Cs, F, H, Rb, Ca, Fr, Li, N, O, Mg, Ra, He, Rn, C, Na
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
4. :
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
5. :
. .
...............................................................................................................
. .
...............................................................................................................
. .
...............................................................................................................
(6 )
6. ()
():
. 1
.

. +1.

.
1 .

(3 )
15 min - !
152
3.

3.1
3.2 O

3.3
3.4

:
.
.

.
.
.

.

.
1. ;

. .
153
2. ;
:
.
.
.
.
.
, .
, .

.. (Na), , .
3. ;

, +(aq)
.
4. .
HCl H+(aq) Cl- (aq)

HCI(aq)
154
H2O
+(aq) + CI-(aq)

: (aq)
(s)
(l)
(g)

(
, 2SO4), . , H+(aq), .
, H+(aq), Mg2+(aq).
, H2 (g), ,

, . . , ,
, +(aq), .

,
. ,
. :
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(aq)
5. ; .
O
.

,
. .

Mg > Al > Fe > H2 > Cu
155
6. .
, CuSO4(aq), , Cu2+(aq) CuSO4(s)

, :
CuSO4(s)
H2O
Cu2+(aq) + SO2-(aq)
, , , . O Cu2+(aq)
Fe2+(aq) :
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq)
H2O
Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
(Cu) ,
. ,
, - , Fe2+(aq).

.
;

(s)
, .
7. ;
. :
Li > K > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > H2 > Cu > Ag > Pt > Au
156

.
: Li > K > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > H2
-, - - () -
: (Pt), O ,
(Cu), (Ag) (Au)!
8. ;
,
:
.
. , .

.

,

,
, ,

, .
.
1. ;
157
,
. ,
, .
2. ;
, ,
.
3. ;

, .
4. ;
.
, ,
, .
:
O , , .
O (), -, .
, . , , , ..
, ,
, , .
158

,
.
:
.
.
.

.
;

,
. O O 1 .
1
Zn(s) + H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

: +1
... = 2
: +2
, 2 [2.(+1) = 2]
1 ()
[1.(+2) = 2]
: / = 2 / 1
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

: 2 = 2
: 1 = 1
: / = 2 / 1 ()
2
Al(s) + H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + H2(g)
: +1
: +3
... = 3
159
, 3 [3.(+1) = 3]
1 () [1.(+3) = 3]
: / = 3 / 1
Al(s) + 3H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + H2(g)

: 3 2 ... = 6
: Al(s) + 6H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
: 6 = 6
: 1 = 1
: / = 6 / 1. 2
. :
2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
: 6 = 6
: 2 = 2
: / = 6 / 2 = 3 / 1 ()
3
Al(s) + Zn2+(aq) Al3+(aq) + Zn(s)
: +2
... = 6
: +3
, 3
[3.(+2) = 6] 2
[2.(+3) = 6]
: / = 2 / 3
Al(s) + 3Zn2+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + Zn(s)

: 1 2 2
: 3 1 3
: 2Al(s) + 3Zn2+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3Zn(s)
160
: 2 = 2
: 3 = 3
: / = 2 / 3 ().
1. pH , ;
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. , ,
, ,
.
. pH
;
...............................................................................................................
. ;
...............................................................................................................
.
,
;
...............................................................................................................
.
;
...............................................................................................................
3.
.
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
161
4. ()
.
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. :
. ...... Ca(s) + ...... H+(aq) ...... Ca2+ (aq) + ........ H2(g)
. ....... (s) + ....... +(aq) ...... +(aq) + ........ 2(g)
. ...... Fe(s) + ...... H+(aq) ...... Fe2+ (aq) + ........ H2(g)
. ...... Al(s) + ...... H+(aq) ...... Al3+ (aq) + ........ H2(g)
. ....... Zn(s) + ....... Cu2+(aq) ...... Zn2+(aq) + ........ Cu(s)
. ....... Al(s) + ....... Ag+(aq) ...... Al3+(aq) + ........ Ag(s)
. ....... Ca(s) + ....... Ag+(aq) ...... Ca2+(aq) + ........ Ag(s)
. ....... Al(s) + ....... Fe2+(aq) ...... Al3+(aq) + ........ Fe(s)
6. ;
. Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
. a(s) + +(aq) a+ (aq) + (s)
. Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
. 3Fe(s) + 2Al3+(aq) 3Fe2+ (aq) + 2Al(s)
. Ca(s) + 2Na+(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2Na(s)
. 2Ag(s) + 2H+(aq) 2Ag+ (aq) + H2(g)
...............................................................................................................
162
7.
(CuSO4) . ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8.
(AgNO3) .
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9.

:
. .........................................................................................
. ...........................................................................................
. ().............................................................................
. ...........................................................................................

. , .

,

10. ,

;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
163

:
1.
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
.
.
3. :
.
. ,
.
.
4.
.
.
.
.
5.
.
.
.
.
6. Mg, Zn, Cu, Al
.
.
.
.
164
7.
. H+(aq) Cl- (aq)
. Hg+(aq) Cl- (aq)
. H+(aq) ClO- (aq)
. H+(aq) ClO3- (aq)
8.
. 2(l)
. 2(g)
. +(aq)
. Hg(l)
9.
(H2SO4) ()
.
.
.
.
10. O
.
.
.
.
11.
. Mg Al Fe - Cu
. Mg Fe Al - Cu
. Mg Al Cu - Fe
. Cu Fe Al - Mg
12.

.
.
.
.
13. (CuSO4)
.
.
.
.
14. ;
.
. Pt
165
. Ca
.
15.
.
.
.
.
16.
. Fe2+(aq)
. Fe(s)
. Cu2+(aq)
. Cu(s)
17.
.
.
.
.
18.
.
.
.
.
19.
.
.
.
.
166
20. O
.
.
.
.

:
1. .............................................
.
2. ..................................,
, ........................................
....................................
3. , ....................................
.
4. O ...................................... .
5. , .................
6. ,
..................................................
7. ................................... .
8.
......................................
9. O .................................
10.
..........................
:
......Al(s) + ......... ...... Al3+(aq) + ......................

11. n, Fe Cu
....................................
12.
pH .....................
13.
...........................................
.
14. :
Li, K, ......, Na, ........., ........., Zn, ......., H2, ........, .........., Pt, ...........
15. .................. ,
......................., .........................
16. O , .......................... .
17. O ................................
18. O ................................
19.
.............................................
167
20. O , ......................................
1. , ,
:

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
.... 9.
.... 10.
2.
:

. O
.
.
.
. O

.... 1. Fe - C
.... 2. Hg Ag Sn - Zn
.... 3. Cu - Sn
.... 4. Cu - Zn
.... 5. Al Cu Mg - Mn
168
() ();
1.
.

2. O .
3. , .
4.
.
5. , .
6. .
7. , ,
.
8. O .
9. , H+.
10. O +
.
11. pH .
12.
(CuSO4),
(Cu2+) .
13.
: Mg, Al, Fe, H, Cu.
14. (+) .
15.
(CuSO4) .
16. O
.
17. .
18. O .

1. , :
................., .................
169
........................, .........................
........................ .......................................
(3 )
2. , .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
3. ;
, Ag, Fe, Ca, Li, Cu, Mg, Na
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
4.
:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
5. ;
. Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
. 2Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq) 2Ag+(aq) + Cu(s)
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
6. ()
():
. : Fe2+(aq) + 2Al(s) Fe(s) + 2Al3+(aq)
170
. pH = 3 pH pH > 3.
. O . (AgNO3)
.
. O .
(4 )
15 min - !
4. O
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

:
.
.

.
.

.
1. ;
O 14 .
2. ;
O .
, ( ) , ,
171
(CaCO3), ,
(CO) (CO2).
(, , ,
, DNA, RNA)
, ,
.
3. ;
O :
. (, )
. .
4. ;
,
,
(10
Mohs).

www.amnh.org/exhibiotions/diamonds/
,
.
5. ;
172
O (0,5-1,5 Mohs)
. ,
.
6.
;
. O
.

,
.
Mohs
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
7. ;
O
( )
. , : , ,
.
.
8. (CO2 );
O CO2 3-4 v/v . CO2 ,

, .
. , ,
,
. , .
173
.
1. ;

.
:
,
(. ),
,
.
, ,

.
, , , . .
(. ), ..
2. ;
(CO32-).
(CaCO3), (Na2CO3),
.
, .
174

:
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
,
(CaCO3), .
,
(CaO,
):
CaCO3(s) CaCO(s) + CO2(g)

O -
: , CaCO3
: , CaO
+ : , Ca(O)2
3. ;
(, .).
4. ;
,
.

(CaO) [Ca(OH)2]; :
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
5. ;

(), , .
175
,
, :
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(i)

!
,
. , ,
.
6. ;
.
75% 25%.
. () . (bton). ,
, (bton arm).

1. :
, , , , , , , ,
176
. : .......................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
. : ......................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
2. ,
;
...............................................................................................................
3.
; ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. , , , Ca(OH)2,
(CO2). O ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7. ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8.
;
...............................................................................................................
9. O , ,
. ;
...............................................................................................................
177
10. ;
...............................................................................................................
11.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
12. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
13. ;
...............................................................................................................
14. (CO2)
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
15. pH , ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
16. , ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
178
:
1. O
. 4
. 14
. 10
. 14
2.
.
.
.
.
3. O
. , , ,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
4.
. CO2, CO
. CO2, CO3
. CO, CO22. CO, CO325. O
.
.
.
.
6. O
.
.
.
.
7. O
.
.
.
.
8. O (CO2)

179
. 3 4% v/v
. 3 - 4 v/v
. 34% v/v
. 34 v/v
9.
.
.
.
.
10.
.
.
.
.
11.
. O2
. CO2
. CO
. 2
12. (CaCO3)
.
.
.
.
13.
. ,
. ,
. ,
. ,
180
14. , (CaCO3)
.
.
.
.
15.
.
.
.
.
16.
. 25% 75%
. 25% 75%
. 50% 50%
.

:
1. O .......................... ........................
.
2. , ...............
.................................. , ,
..................................... .
3. O ................
(, .................................)
...................................................
4. O , .............................................,
......................................
...................................................
5. O ........................................

, .
6. ...........................................
..................................................
7. O .............................................
8. O .........................................
.
9. ...................................
.
10. O ............................
3 - 4 v/v, .........................................
.
181
11. ..........................................
......................................
12.
............................................... (.................)
13. .....................................
.............................................
14.
....................... ( ).
15. ...................................
, .........................................
...........................
16. ............................ ..........................
.
17. .......................
.....................................
18. ....................................... .
1.
:

182

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
.... 9.
.... 10.
2. (1:1)

:

.
.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.

() ();
1. O .

2. , ,
.

3. O .

4. .

5. O

.

6. O
, .

7.
, .

8. , .

9. O
.

10. O
3 - 4 v/v.

11. .

12.
, .

313. CO3 .

14. (Na3CO3) .
183
15. .

16.
.
17. O Ca(OH)2.

18. (Bton) , ,
.

19. .

20. .

1. :
. : .......................................................................................
. : ......................................................................................
(5 )
2.
.
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
3.
.
;
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
184
4. :
. : ..........................
. O :
....................................
. O : ....................................
. : .....................................................
. : .....................................................
. : ..........
. O : ................................
. ( ): ..............................
. : ...........................
. : ......................................
(5 )
5. .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
6. ()
():
.
.

.
pH = 4
.

. O

.

. .

(2 )
15 min - !
185
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

O
O

:
.
.

.

.
1. ;
14 ,
, .
2. ;
186

, .
(SiO2)
, (-
, ) (, , .).

( ).
3. ;
O , .
(SiO2),
(Na2CO3), (CaCO3)
, .
(K2CO3) ,

.

, (pyrex)
.
4. ;
:
T , , ,
- .
, , ,
, .
O ,
, .
, (MgO). , ..
187
5. ,
;
O ,
, , :
. , , ,
, ,
. ,
, ,
. ,
. ,
. .
.
1. ;
, , ,
. , ,
.
2. ;
,

.
,
( ).
188
3. ;
, ,
, .
Al, Si, H, O. , , . , .
, .
4. ;
, ,
.
. O
,
, .
.
5. ; ;
O
, . , ,
. O (Si).
189

1. .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. .
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3.

.
..........................................................
..........................................................

(.). . ... .
(.). . ...
,
.
4. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. , .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
190

6. H Silicon Valley (
Si, Silicon.
)
,

. O .

.......................................................
Silicon Valley.
.......................................................
...............................................................................................................

:
1. , , ()
.
.
.
. 14
2.
. SO2
. SiO
. SiO2
. SO3
3.
.
.
.
.
4.
.
.
.
.
5.
.
.
.
.
6.
.
.
.
.
7.
. ,
. ,
. ,
. ,
191
8.
.
.
.
.
9.
. Al
. Al Si
. Al, Si
. Al, Si, O
10.
.
.
.
.
11. O
.
.
.
.
12.
.
.
.
.
13. O
.
.
.
.
192
14. O
.
.
.
.
:
1. ...........................
, .................., ................
.
2. ...................
.
3. ................
(.....................).
4. O ............................
.....................
5. .....................
.....................
6. , , ............................
..................... .
7.
....................... ..................... .
8. ..........................
.....................
9.
.................. (CaCO3), .................. (SiO2) .................. (Na2CO3).
10. .............................
..................... .....................
11. , .....................,

..................... .....................
12. , ..........................,
.....................
13. O .............,
.....................
14.
....................., .....................
15. , ...............
..................... .
16. O ..................... .
17. O ............. ............. ..................... ................
18. O
..............................
193
1. :

. SiO2
. K2CO3
. CaCO3
. MgO
. Na2CO3

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
2. :

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6. Na2CO3
.... 7.
.... 8.
194
() ();
1.
, 14 2 .

2. , , .

3.
(SiO).

4. .

5. .
6. O
.
7.
pyrex.
8.
, .
9. ,
.
10. .
11. .
12. O
.
13. O .
14. O
,
.

1. ,
:
, , , , ,
, , , , ,
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
2. .
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
(5 )
195
3. ; ;
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
4. :
. : ........................
. : .....................
. O : ....................................
. : ..........................
. : .....................................................
. : ......................
. : .................................
. O : .................
. : .................................
. ( ): ......................................
(5 )
5. :
pyrex, , , ,
, , , , , ,
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
6. ()
():
.
14 .

. .

. O .

. .

(2 )
196
15 min - !
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

:
.
.
.

.

.

.
1. ;
17 . (F),
(Cl), (Br), (I) (At).
2. ;
(At), , .
197
. ,
, .
3.
;
,
,
.
4. ;
, (NaCl), (KBr) () . (AgNO3).

,
,

(AgCl), (AgBr) (AgI)
. .
O :

NaCl(s)
AgNO3(s)
H2O
H2O
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

198
KBr(s)
H2O
K+(aq) + Br -(aq)
AgNO3(s)
H2O
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ag+(aq) + Br -(aq) AgBr(s)

(s)
AgNO3(s)
H2O
H2O
+(aq) + -(aq)
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ag+(aq) + -(aq) Ag(s)
.
1. ;
:
:

.
: , .
: DDT .
.
: , PVC, . , , ,
.
: NaF
, , ,
.
: O (CFCs), -
199
, . 1987 , .
:
.
:
, . 131
,
125 .
: , ,
.
: O .
.
1. ;
200

. , ,
, 7e .
. , e
, .
,
,
, ( Coulomb
)
.
, ,
.

A e

1. :

NaF
2. ,
:
. F
. Br
. I
(C)
... 1.
-7,2
... 2.
114
... 3.
-220
(C)
59
184
-188
201
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. (. )
, 9F 17Cl, .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4. ,

,

NaCl, NaBr KCl (
), .
,
.
.
,
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
202
5.
(NaI) (AgNO3)
.
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
.
; ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

:
1. , , ()
. 14
. 7
.
. 1
2.
.
.
.
.
3.
. At
. Br
. I
. F
4.
,
. F Cl Br I - At
. F Br Cl I - At
. F I Br Cl - At
. At I Br Cl - F
5. To
.
.
.
.
6. O
. Cl2
. Cl
. Cl. Cl27.
.
.
203
.
.
8.
.
.
.
.
9.
.
.
.
.
10. O
. Al(ClO)3
. AgCl
. AgClO
. AlCl3
11. O
.
.
.
.
12. (Ag+)
(-)
.
.
.
.
13.

.
.
.
.
204
14. O
.
.
.
.
15.
. 127I
. 131I
. 125I
. 127I
16.
. PVCl
.
. PVC
. CFCs

:
1. ..................... .....................
.
2. (......................), ..................... (Cl),
(......................), ...................... (.....................)
(.....................).
3. .....................
.
4. ..................................
..................... .
5. ....................,
.....................
6. .................. ,
..................... ..................... .....................
7. O .....................
8. ..................... .
9. O .....................
10. ........................
.
11. .....................
.
205
12. ..................... .
13. Teflon ................ .
14. .........................
.....................
15. O ...............................................
.....................
16. ....................... .
17. .............................
..................... .
18. ..............................
.
1. :

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
2. :

206
. NaCl
.... 1.
. AgI
.... 2.
. NaF
.... 3.
. AgCl
.... 4.
. AgNO3
.... 5.
. AgBr
.... 6.
3.
:

.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1. NaF
.... 2. AgCl
.... 3. NaCl
.... 4. AgBr
.... 5. AgNO3
.... 6. AgI
4. :

.
. Teflon
.
. 125
. aF
. CFCs
.
. At
. AgI
. 131
. PVC
. DDT

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
.... 9.
.... 10.
.... 11.
.... 12.

() ();
1. 17 .
2.
.

3. .
207
4.
.
5.
, .
6. , ,

.
7.
(g+) (O3-).
8. (Ag+)
(Cl-) (AgCl).
9. , , .
10.
.
11. (NaF)
.
12. ,
,
.
13. O
.
14.
.

1.
:
NaF, AgCl, KCl, AgBr, AgNO3, AgI, AgF,
. : ..................................................................................
. : ................................................................................
(4 )
208
2. .
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ....................................................................................................
(6 )
3. . ;
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
4. :
. ( ): ...............................
. ( ): ...............
. : ....................................
. : .........................................
. : ........................................
. ( ): ......................
(3 )
5.
:
, , DDT, , PVC, ,
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
6. ()
():
. .

. (NaCl) .

. O
.

. .

(2 )
15 min - !
209
2
1
:
1. ;
. Na
. H
. Cl
. Si
2. ;
. Cu
. Zn
. Ca
. Ag
3. O CuSO4

.
.
.
.
4. ;
. Ca
. Cu
. Ag
. Cr
5. O
.
.
.
.
(5 )
2
210
1. , .

.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
2. :

12
20
38
e
2, 8, 2
2, 8, 8, 2
2, 8, 18, 8, 2
. ,
; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 + 1 = 3 )
3
1. Mg HCl, Cu .
. 2, Mg Cu .
...............................................................................................................
.
:
Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) ..... + ......
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ..... + ......
(2 )
2. ()
();
. O 18 .
. O 2 .

. .
211
. .
. O
.
. .

(3 )
4
1. (HCl) . 10 sec (VH ) 2
:
(sec)
10
20
30
40
50
60
VH cm3
200
310
380
420
440
440
VH2 (cm3)
. .
...............................................................................................................
. .
t (sec)
. .
...............................................................................................................
(2 + 2 + 1 = 5 )
212
1 - !
1.
2.
3.
4.
O
- -

- -
213
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

:
.
.

.

.

.
.

.
.

.
1. ;
O ,
215
, . O 7 .
2. ;
;
O

.
3. :
. ;
. ;
216
. .
:
,
Y

.

(
) ( )
,

,
.
. , :

4. , ;
O . O

.
5. ;
;
,
.
.

CO2 .
. (CO) (C) .
6. .
:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 22O(g) +
:
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 42O(g) +
CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 22O(g) +
217
.
1.
1 3
.
1:
218
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
2:
C2H4
C3H6
3:
C2H2
C3H4
2. ; ;

(CO2) (2O).
219
CO2 (C)
.

, (CaCO3).

CO2
:
Ca(O)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + 2O(l)
O (2O) ()

.
, .
3. ;
.
, , . .
4. ;
220

. O
, ,
.
, , , ,
, .
.
,
:

. .
5.
;
, , , , . ( ) .
(H2O) (CO2). CO2 , .
:
. (O, O2) Ox,
,
(O3)
.
. (CO) , .
. (SO3, SO2), SOx.
.
6. ;
O :
. . , .

,

.
221
. .
, .
. .
, :

( ).
,
.
,
.

( ),
.
.
.

1. ;
CH4, CO, CH2O, Na2CO3, CH3OH,
C2H2, CO2, C2H6, CaCO3,
CH3NH2
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
222
2. ;
C4, C36O, C2O, C38,
C3O,
C22, C2O2, C26,
C24O2, C3CN
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4. O :
M
CH4
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5.
; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
223
6. , ,
; ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7.
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8. :
.
.
224
i. ; .........................
ii. ; ...........................
iii. (); ................................................

iv. (); ....................
v. (, ) () (); .......................................
9. :
O
C4H10
10.
3 C:
, , , , , ,
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
11. : C4, C36, C22, C38, C26,
C24, C34
. , : C4, C36, C22, C38, C26, C24,
C38, C34
: .........................................................................................
: ..........................................................................................
: ...........................................................................................
225
. , :
C4
C36
C22
C38
C26
C24
C34
12. C; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
13. :
O
14. ;
. C4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 2 2O(g)
. C36 (g) + O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 32O(g)
. C26(g) + O2(g) 2CO(g) + 32O(g)
. C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 42O(g)
: ....................................
: ....................................
15.
:
. ...... CH4(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... C(s) + ........ 2O(g)
226
. ...... C2H4(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO (g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C3H6(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C26(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)
16. :
. : .......................................................................................
. : ....................................................................................
. : .......................................................................................
. (C4H10): ......................................................................

:
1. :
. CH4
. CH2O
. CO
. CH2O2
2. , :
. CH4, CH2O2, C2H2
. C2H4, CH4, CH2O
. C2H2, CH4, CO2
. CH4, C2H2, C2H4
3. :
. CH CH
. H2C=O
. CH3-CH3
. CH3CN
4. , :
.
.
.
.
227
5. O
.
.
.
.
6. CHC-CH3
.
.
.
.
7.
;
.
.
.
.
8. O
C
.
.
.
.
9. O H C C H
.
.
.
.
10.
. CO2, CO, C
. H2O, CO
. CO2, H2
. H2O, CO2
228
11. CO2
:
.
.
.
.
12. O
.
.
.
.
13. :
. C(s)
. CO(g)
. CO(s)
. C(g)
14. :
. 2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 42O(g)
. CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 22O(g)
. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 22O(g)
. CH4(g) + 3O2(g) CO2(g) + 22O(g)
15. : C4H10(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 2O(g)

. = 1, = 13, = 4, = 5
. = 2, = 13, = 8, = 10
. = 2, = 13/2, = 4, = 5
. = 2, = 13, = 4, = 5
16.
.
.
.
.
17.

.
.
.
.
18.
.
.
.
.
229
19. :
. CO
. CO2
. O
. SO2
20.
. CO2 2O
.
.
.
230
:
1.
.................................
...................................
2. .................................................

.
3. O ...................
4. O .........................
.
5. O .............................................
6. H-CC-CH3 ....................................................
7.
............................................
8. .....................................,
...................................... ....................................
9. .................................
10.
............................................ .
11.
.................................... .................................
12.
............................................ ............................................
13. ...............
.
14. O .........................................,
............................................ .
15. ..................................
.
16. ................................................
............................................
17. ......................................
.
18. ..............................
.
19. ..................................... .
20.
............................................
1.
:

.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1. C2H6
.... 2. C3H8
.... 3. CH4
.... 4. C2H4
.... 5. C3H4
.... 6. C2H2
2. , ;

.
.

.... 1. CO
.... 2. NO
.... 3. CO2
.... 4. SO3
.... 5. H2O
.... 6. NO2
.... 7. SO2
.... 8. NOx
231
3.
:

. CO2
. NOx
. SOx
. CO

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
4. :

.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
232
() ();
1.
.

2. .
3. O
.

4.
.

5. O .

6. .
7. CH2=O .

8. .

9. .

10. CO2
.
11. CO2 .
12. CO
.
13. .
14. .
15. .
16. .
17.
.
18.
.
19. .
20. .

1.
:
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
. ......................................................................................................
(5 )
2. .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
233
3. . ; ..................................................
.
; .............................................................
.
; .............................................................
(3 )
4.
:
O
(4 )
5.
:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
6. :
. : .................................
. O
: .........................................................
. : .........................................................
. : ................................................
(2 )
234
15 min - !
1
.
= O
O
.
, O ,
, (CO,
CO2) (CaCO3, Na2CO3, H2CO3 ..).
, &
4 ,
, .. () :
C
,
,
, (-).
O .

:
235
,
, ,
.
O .
, , , , .
O
.

.

( )
, . O
:
: C2+2, 1
: C2, 2
: C2-2, 2

;
:
C. :
CH4: = 1, = 4
C3H4: = 3, = 4
C4H8: = 4, = 8
236
= 2 + 2 (C2+2)
= 2 (C2)
= 2 - 2 (C2-2)
= 2 + x
: x = 2
x = 0
x = -2

= 2 +
x ,
.
:
.
.
. x,
2 + x =
. .
CH4
. = 1
. = 4
. 2 + x = 2 . 1 + x = 4 x = 4 2 x = 2
.
C2H4
. = 2
. = 4
. 2 + x = 2 . 2 + x = 4 x = 4 4 x = 0
.
C4H6
. = 4
. = 6
. 2 + x = 2 . 4 + x = 6 x = 6 8 x = -2
.
237
C8H18
. = 8
. = 18
. 2 + x = 2 . 8 + x = 18 x = 18 16 x = 2
.
CH2 = CH CH3
3 6
. C3H6
. = 3
. = 6
. 2 + x = 2 . 3 + x = 6 x = 6 6 x = 0
.

1. , :
. C3H8 : ....................................................................................
. C6H10 : ...................................................................................
. CH3 CH3 : ...........................................................................
. C2H2 : ....................................................................................
. C4H8 : ....................................................................................
. CH2 = CH CH3 : ...............................................................
. CH CH: ...............................................................................
. C5H12: ....................................................................................
. C3H6 : ....................................................................................
. CH3 CH = CH CH3: ..........................................................
238

1 C 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 C 6 C -

-1 -1 --
:

. ,
-, -
. -,
-
( )
, .
, . .
:
... --.
... --.
... --
1. :
. CH3 CH2 - CH2 - CH3
4 C - , -
:
. CH2 = CH CH3
3 C - , -
:
239
. CH C CH3
3 C - , -
:
2. :
.
-: ( ,
)
--:
-: .

: CH3 CH2 CH3
CH3CH2CH3

C3H8.
.
-:
240
--:
1
-: .

: CH2 = CH2

C2H4.
. 1 -
-:
--: 1, 1 2 ( 2 2 3 ...).
-: .
241

1- : CHCCH2CH3
CHCCH2CH3

C4H6.

1. :
. CH3 CH3 : ..................................................................................
. CH2 = CH CH3 : ........................................................................
. CH CH : .....................................................................................
. CH4 : .............................................................................................
. CH3 CH = CH CH3 : ...............................................................
. CH C CH3 : ...........................................................................
. CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 - CH3 : ..........................................
. CH3 CH = CH CH2 CH3 : .....................................................
2. :
. : ...................................................
. 1 - : ...................................................
. 2 - : ...................................................
. : ...................................................
. 2- : ...................................................
. 1 - : ...................................................
242

-

(O2).

.
:
: CO2(g) ,
2O(g).
: CO(g) , C(s)
.
O .
(C), (H) (O). , ,
.
1. :
. (C4)
: ...... CH4(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)

C,
1 ( , ) CO2 :
CH4(g) + ...... O2(g) CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)

4 , 2 2O (2.2=4) :
CH4(g) + ...... O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 2O(g)

2 O.
2 O (1.2=2) CO2 2.1=2 O 2O.
4 O (2+2=4) .
243
4 O
2 (2.2=4) O2:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 22O(g)
. (C36)
: ...... C3H6(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)

3 C, 3 CO2 :
C3H6 (g) + ...... O2(g) 3CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)

6 , 3 2O (3.2=6) :
C3H6 (g) + ...... O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 32O(g)

2 O.
6 O (3 . 2=6) CO2 3 . 1=3 O
2O. 9 (6+3=9) O .
9 O
9 ( 9 2=9) O2:
2 2
C36 (g) + 9 O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 32O(g)
2

:
2C36(g) + 9O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 62O(g)
2. CO C (C2H6):
. CO
: ...... C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO(g) + ........ 2O(g)
244

C, 2 CO2 (2 . 1=2) :
C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) 2CO(g) + ........ 2O(g)

6 , 3 2O (3 . 2=6) :
C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) 2CO(g) + 32O(g)

2 O.
2 O (2 . 1=2) CO 3 . 1=3 O
2O. 5 O (2+3=5) .
4 O
5 ( 5 2=5) O2:
2 2
C2H6(g) + 5 O2(g) 2CO(g) + 32O(g)
2

CO
:
2C26(g) + 5O2(g) 4CO(g) + 62O(g)
. C
: ...... C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... C(s) + ........ 2O(g)

C, 2 C (2 . 1=2) :
C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) 2C(s) + ........ 2O(g)

6 , 3 2O (3 . 2=6) :
C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) 2C(s) + 32O(g)

2 O.
3 O (3 .1=3) 2O.
3 O
3 ( 3 2=3) O :
2
2 2
245
C26(g) + 3 O2(g) 2C(s) + 32O(g)

2

CO
:
2C26(g) + 3O2(g) 4C(s) + 62O(g)

1. :
. ...... CH4(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO(g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C3H8(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... C(s) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C2H4(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C3H6(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C2H2(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C3H4(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)
. ...... C26O(l) + ........ O2(g) ....... CO2(g) + ...... 2O(l)
246
2.
2.1 ;
2.2

2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8 ;
2.9
2.10

:
.

.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
247
3
.
1. ;

.
.
.
,

, . ,
. ,
1 s 34.000.000J,
1 s 55J!
, :
.
.
.
2. ;
248

.

. , . ,

.
3. ;
5-12
.
. .

.

, .

.
4. ;
(CH4) ,
(C2H6), (C3H8) (C410).
:

.
,

.
,
.
,
.
,
. , , , .
249
5. ;
. .
,
.
. .

.
. . , .
.
6. ;
,
, , .
7. ;
O 1
.
.
.

:
250
v
v CH2 = CH2
(-CH2 - CH2-)v
v
v

PVC.
v
v
v CH2 = CHCI
PVC
(-CH2 - CHCI-)v
v
v
8.
; .

.
O
, , , , ..
O , PVC, Teflon,
, ..
9. ;
,
.
:

251

:
.
.
, .
10. ;

1970

( )
.
.
1. ;
;
252

,
().
.
, , , , .

.

, .
2. ;
.
, .
, (SOx).
.
()
.
,

,
.
.
3. ;
.
, , , , ,
.., .
O
.

. -
253
. ,
.
4. .
()
(), (). , ,
. (, , ), . , , , ,
.

1. ;
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. ; ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
254
3.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4. , .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6. .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7.
:
Cl
CH2 = CH2
CH2 = CHCl
(- CH2 CH2 -)
(- CH2 CHCl -)

. , . . .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8. .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
255
9. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10.
:
, , , , ,
...............................................................................................................
11.
.
...............................................................................................................
12. . .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

:
1. :
.
.
.
. ,
2.

. C, H, O, S, N
. H, O, S, N
. C, O, S, N
. C, O, N
256
3.
, ,
.
.
.
.
4.
.
.
.
.
5.
.
.
.
.
6.
.
.
.
.
7.
.
.
.
.
8. O :
.
.
.
.
9.
.
.
.
.
10.
.
.
257
.
.
11.
.
.
.
.
12.
. 8
. 5
. 5 - 12
. 12
13.
.
.
.
.
14. O

.
.
.
.
15.
.
.
.
.
258
16.
. PCV
. PVCl
. PVC
. VPC
17.
. Teflon
.
.
.
18.

.
.
.
.

:
1. .........................
............................ ,
............................ .................................,
................................. .
2. ................................. ,
.................................
3. O ..........................................
................................. ................................. .
4. ......................................
...........................................
, , .................................................
.................................
5. .......................
6.
..............................
................................. ,
.................................
7. ......................................
.................................. ,
................................. ,
259
260
.................................
8. ................................. .............................
,
................................. .
9. ......................................
.....................................

................................. .
10. ......................................
.
11.
..............................................
.
12. ................,
.............................. ............................. .
13. ...................................
................................... ................................
.
14. ................................

..............................
15. , .......................................
........................... ............................
.
16.
........................ ..................... .
17. , PVC, Teflon,
..............................
18. , , ...............................,
, ................................. ...............................
.................................
19. ................................. , ................................. .
20.
................................. .

1. :

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
2. , ;

.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3. Teflon
.... 4.
.... 5. PVC
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.

() ();
1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

6.
.
261
7. , .
8.
.
9. ,
.
10.
.
11.
,
.
12. .
13. .
14. .
15. O .
16. O .
17. .
18.
.
19. .
20.
.

1.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(6 )
262
2. ;
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
3. ;
, , , , , , , Teflon, , ,
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
4.
:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
5. :
. : ..................................
. : .................................
. O
: ............................................
. :
.......................................
. : ...................................
. : .....................
(3 )
6. ()
():
. .

. O .
. .

. PVC.

(2 )
15 min - !
263
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

:

.
.
,
.

.
.

.

.
1. ;
264
, .
2. ;
, ,
.
:
. .
.
. .
, .
. . pH, .
3. , ;
, , C2H5OH. O :

.

:
: .
: .
:
O .
265

.
4. ;

. , ,
.

:
C6H12O6(aq)
2CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2CO2(q)
5. ;

CO2 2O
:
C25O(l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O(g) + Q
266

;
. %
v/v .
, 11% vol 11 mL 100 mL .
6. ;

, .
18
, .
.

.

.
().
- 0,2
, .
.
1. ;
,
,
. O ,
.
.

,
.
267
2. ;
.
:
(, )
(, , , .)
(, , .)
,
.
,
, , .

1. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. pH.
pH ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
268
3. ,
,
.
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
4. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7. .
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8. % v/v 40 mL 160 mL ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9. % v/v 40 mL , 160 mL;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10. .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
269
-
1. 6 mL ,

200 mL. % v/v
;
:
6 mL 200 mL
x; mL
100 mL
6 10
=
= 3 mL
200
3 % v/v.
2. 12 .
0,5 L. mL ;
0,5 L = 500 mL, :

12 mL 100 mL
x; mL
500 mL
12 500
=
= 60 mL
100
60 mL .
3.
48 % v/v. 10 L , 2 L . % v/v
;
270
10 L . (L). :
48 L 100 L
x; L
10 L
48 10
=
= 4,8 L
100
:
:
4,8 L 10 L 1
(): 4,8 L 12 L 2
:
x; L
100 L 2
=
4,8 100
= 40 L
12
2 40% v/v.
4. 500 mL 12% v/v (1).
50 mL
, % v/v
(2) ;
1 :
12 mL 100 mL 1
x; mL
500 mL 1
12 500
=
= 60 mL
100
:
:
60 mL 500 mL 1
: 60 + 50 mL 550 mL 2
:
x; mL 100 mL 2
=
110 100
= 20 mL
550
2 20% v/v.
5. 200 mL 12% v/v 400 mL
15% v/v. % v/v ;

3.
V = 200mL
+
1
; = % v/v
V = 400mL
271
3

V/
V..
1 :
12 mL 100 mL 1
x; mL
200 mL 1
=
12 200
= 24 mL
100
2 :
15 mL 100 mL 2
x; mL
400 mL 2
=
15 400
= 60 mL
100
3 :
V.. = 24 + 60 = 84 mL
V/ = 200 + 400 = 600 mL
3:
84 mL 600 mL
x; mL
100 mL
=
84 100
= 14 mL
600
3 14% v/v.

.
. %
v/v
.
272
6. (1)
12% v/v (2 ) 14% v/v (3 ) 12,5% v/v .

V1 L 1 V2 L
2 3. 3

.
V1 L
V2 L
V3 L
12% v/v
14% v/v
12,5% v/v
K2
K1
K3
O : V3 = V1 + V2
1 :
12 L 100 L
x; L
V1 L
12 V1
=
= 0,12V L
1
100
2 :
14 L 100 L
x; L
V2 L
=
14 V2
= 0,14V2 L
100
3 :
V = 0,12V1 + 0,14V2
:
0,12V1 + 0,14V2 L V1 + V2 L 3
12,5 L
100 L 3
(0,12V1 + 0,14V2) . 100 = 12,5 . (V1 + V2)
12V1 + 14V2 = 12,5V1 + 12,5V2
1,5V2 = 0,5V1 V1 = 3
V2 1
1 2
3 1.
273

:
1. :
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
.
.
3.
.
.
.
.
4. O
. C2H6O
. C2H6OH
. C6H12O6
. C2H5O
5.
.
.
. 1:1
.
6.
.
.
.
.
7.
274
C2H5OH(l) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O(g)
. = 1, = 2, = 3, = 3
. = 1, = 3, = 3, = 3
. = 1, = 2, = 3, = 2
. = 1, = 3, = 2, = 3
8. :
.
.
.
.
9.
. % w/w
. % v/w
. % v/v
. % w/v
10.
.
.
.
.
11.
.
.
.
.
12.
.
.
.
.
13.

. 0,2
. 0,4
. 0,4
. 0,2
275
14. 200 mL 6 mL
. :
. 3% w/v
. 6% w/v
. 3% v/v
. 6% v/v
15. 120 mL 5% v/v :
. 2 g
. 5 mL
. 115 mL
. 6 mL
16. 12 % v/v 14% v/v :
. 12% v/v
. 12% v/v, 14% v/v
.
. 12% v/v, 14% v/v
276
:
1. ........................ , ...........................
.................................
2. .................................
.
3. ......................
, , .................................
4. ................................., ................................
.................................
5. , ...............................,
.................................
6. .....................
, ............................................
................................. .
7. .................................
.................................
8. .................................................
.......................................
..........................
9.
.................................
10. .................................
.................................
11. .............................
.................................
12. .................................
, .............
..........................
13. ..............................
, .......
.............................
14.
............................ ............................
.................................
1. :

.... 1.
.... 2. C2H5O
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6. % v/v
.... 7. C6H12O6
.... 8.
2.
;
277

.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
278
() ();
1.
.

2. .

3. .

4.
pH, .

5. C2H5OH.
6. .
7.
.

8. .

9. % v/v .

10. : 12% v/v 12 g
100 mL .

11. 10% v/v
600 mL 5 120 mL. 2% v/v.

12.
,
.
13.
, .
14. .
15. 18

, .
16. .

A
1. % v/v :
. 8 mL 100 mL .
. 100 mL 1 L (1000 mL) .
2. :
. 50 mL 4,5% v/v.
. 2 L (2000 mL) 11% v/v.
3. :
. 6 mL 12% v/v.
. 4 mL 2% v/v.
4. :
1: 10 mL 400 mL .
2: 5 mL 100 mL .
% v/v
;
5. mL 32 mL
8% v/v;
6. mL ,
(330 mL) 4% v/v;
7. -
279
O 0,8 g / L . 5 L , 5% v/v
; 0,8 g / mL
50% .
8. 200 mL 1 24 mL .
1 40 mL 2. % v/v 1 2.
9. 140 mL 20% v/v 280 mL. :
. O .
. % v/v .
10. 200 mL
2% v/v 1,5% v/v;
11. mL 320 mL 4%
v/v 3,2% v/v;
12. 120 mL 2,4
50%.
% v/v .
13. 320 mL 25 % v/v, 360
mL. O . % v/v .
280
14. 200 mL 4 % v/v

220 mL. O . %
v/v ;
15. 1 150 mL 2% v/v . mL

2
4% v/v; O
.
16. 200 mL 1 6 mL ,
160 mL 2 12 mL .
3.
% v/v 1,
2 3.
17. mL 1
2% v/v 160 mL
2 4% v/v
3 3,5% v/v;
18. mL 1 6% v/v
240 mL 2 12% v/v 3
9% v/v;

1. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(6 )
2.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
281
3. :
, , , , .
: ................................................................................
: ..........................................................................
(3 )
4. 12 ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
5. :
. O : ..............................................
. : ............................................
. O : .............................................
. : ...................................
. : .......................
. : .......................
(3 )
6. (500
mL) 5% v/v, (240 mL) 11% v/v.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
15 min - !
282
4. -
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

:

.
.
.

.
,
.

.
,
.

.
1. ,
;
283
:
,

,
.
.
2. ;
O , (C12H22O11), , .
2/1, (H2O).

+ ,
O 2/1 . O .
3. ;
O : . O
.
284
4. ,
;
, , .
, .
.

:
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
,
, .
, , .
75-110 mg / 100 mL,
( ).
5.
;
:

,
, , ,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
285
- .
6. ;
, :
. .
, 1 g 9 kcal, 1 g 4 kcal.
. ,
.
. A, D, E, K.
.
.
.
1.
;
(
). ,
, .
,
.
2. ;
,
C6H12O6.
3.
;
286
,
. ,
, ,
C12H22O11.
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + 2O

+ +

,
.
, .

. , .
.
4. ;
O , ,
.
O ,
(C6H10O5). O

.
+ .... + ( ) +
287
5. ;
. .
, , . , , , , ,
. O 50-80%
.
6. ;

.
, . .
7. ;
288

. ,
, (), , , .
,
, .
.
8. ;
O ,

. O

.
9. ;
O (C), (O), (), () (S), (), (Fe), (Cu), (Mg),

(Zn) ().
.

, .

. 20
, 10 .
O ,
, , , ,
, .
10. ; ;

.
. ,
()
. O
.
.
, :
289

11. ;

.
O . O
, , .
:
,
,

.
,
.

.
31%
21%
7%
5%
290
36%

CO2
200 .
110
93
.

. O ,
.
O
,
.
12. ;
CO2 3 , ,
, .

1.
.
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
291
2.
;
.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
292
10.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
11. , ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
12.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
13.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
14.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

:
1. :
.
.
.
.
2. , ,
.
.
.
.
3.
.
.
.
.
293
4. O :
.
.
.
.
5. ,
.
.
.
.
6.
.
.
.
.
7.
.
.
.
.
8. O , :
.
.
.
.
9.
.
.
.
.
294
10.
.
.
.
.
11.
.
.
.
.
12.

.
.
.
.
13.
.
.
.
.
14.
.
.
.
.
15.
.
.
.
.
16.
. A, D, E, K
. A, B, E, K
. B, E, K
. A, B, D, K
17.
.
.
.
.
295
18.
.
.
.
.
296
:
1.
............................. ...........................
.
2. ...............................
.............................
.
3. O .................................,
................................
.
4. .............................
........................ .......................
5. , .........................
........................................
................................. , .
6. ......................,
.......................... , .. ........................... .
7. O .................................
................................., ..................................
8. .................................
,
.
9. ................................. ,

.................................
10. O ........................ , .........................
11. O , ...............
.................................
12. ......................................,
................................., .
13.
.................................
14. ............................................
.
15. ............................... .
16.
........................., ......................... .
17. .................................
18. ....................................,
................................. .
19. .............................. ,
.
20. O

...................................., ....................................
................................. .
1. :

.
.
.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
.... 9.
.... 10.
297
2. ,
;

.
.

.... 1.
.... 2.
.... 3.
.... 4.
.... 5.
.... 6.
.... 7.
.... 8.
298
() ();
1. .

2. O , ,
.

3. .

4. .

5.
.

6. O ,
.

7.

.

8. .
9. O .
10. .

11.
.

12. , ,
.
13. 20
.
14. .
15. .
16.

.
17. .
18.
.
19.

, .
20.
.

A
1. 10 mL ;
2. 5 mL 8 mg . ;
3. g ,
4500 mL;
4. Kcal 25 g ;
5. g 80 Kcal;
6. 100 g 0,2 g ; ;
299
7. 1 g 9 Kcal 1 g
4 Kcal, g
22,5 g ;
8. 100 mL
(light) 3,3 g , 4,7 g 1,5
g . 0,5 L, 1L 2L. ;

1. ;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
2.
;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
3. , :
, , , , , ,
, ,
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4,5 )
300
4. :
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
5. :
. : ................................
. : .......................................
. : ........................................
.
: ..................................................
. : ..................................................
(2,5 )
6. ()
();
. O .
. 20.
. .

.
.
. .
. .

(3 )
7. g 30 g ; 1 g 4 Kcal 1 g
9 Kcal.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(4 )
15 min - !
301
3
1
:
1. :
.
.
.
.
2. :
.
.
.
.
3. :
. 80 C 1 atm
.
.
. 178,6 C 1 atm
4. ;
.
.
.
.
5.
. CO2
. H2O
. N2
. O2
302
(5 )
1. ; .
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
2. :
C3H8
C3H4
C2H4
(2 )
3
1.
:
C2H6 + ....... O2 ................ + ................
C3H4 + ....... O2 ................ + ................
(2 )
2. ()
();
.
.

. .

. .

.
.
303
. .
. CO2 O2.

(3 )
4
1. 4,5 % vol. mL
0,5 L;
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(3 )
2. 100 mL 3,3 g , 4,7 g 3,5 g . 1 L; 1
g 1 g 4 Kcal 1 g
9 Kcal.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(2 )
1 - !
304
305
1
O
-
1.
15
1. ;
.

.
:
. .
. .
. ,
.
+ .... +
. .
+ .... +
2.
;
O Arrhenius
(+)
( ).
3. Arrhenius;
O , ,
(+).
307
4. ;
O . ,

. O , , , ..
, ,
, , ,
..
5. , .
;
,
(CaCO3),
.
,
.
6.
(). ;
, (), .
,
.
308
7.
:
. ,
. .
.

. () (),
. 14
,
.
. ,
, ,
. 14 ,
()
.
8. :
, , .
.

HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
CH3COOH


H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

HO3 (aq) +(aq) + O3-(aq)
O
309
18
1. pH ;
pH .
2. pH 25 C;
pH 7, 25 0C.
3. pH ;
: pH < 7
4. pH ;
pH :
.
.
5. pH 3,2. . pH , ;
. pH
3,2 .
,
pH , 7.
310
6.
.
,
.

. :
(
).
, .. .
, .
, .. , .

pH
. pH = 7
pH < 7.
2. O
23
1. ;
.
. :
. .
. .
. .
2. ;
O
(O-) .
311
3. Arrhenius;
Arrhenius , , (O-).
4. . pH
25C;
. : pH = 9 pH = 11;
. pH 25 C 7 14.
7 < pH < 14
. . pH. pH
.
pH = 11.
5. , , :
,
.
pH.
:
pH = 7.
pH 0 < pH < 7.
pH 7
< pH < 14.
: pH < pHA < pH
312
6. :
. pH 7 .................................
.
. pH 7 .....................
.
. pH 7 ........................
.
.
pH 13 12,
pH ..............................
.
.
.
. 13
3.
29
1. .
:
2. , ;
. , . , .
.

, .
().
3.
.
(HCl). ;
. ,
( ).
313
. ,
, Al(OH)3
, Mg(OH)2.
, , . , ().
4. (HCl)
pH= 2 (3) pH = 11.
To pH :
. 8 . 7 . 1,5 . 4
pH
2 < pH < 11,
(
),
( ).
pH pH
= 1,5 ().
4.
34
1. ;

.
2. (); , ;
314
O NaCl.
3. :
(KCl), (BaCl2) (CaSO4).
(. - )

+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Cl (aq)

a2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) aCl2 (aq)

Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) CaSO4 (s)
4.
, ;

. (O) (a+) (H2SO4)
(SO42-). ,
:
2a+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Na2SO4 (aq)
5. ,

39
1.
; .
. , .
315
. , ,
pH .
. , pH
7-8,5.
. (NaCl)
.
. . O
. , , , . ,
.
. .
, ,
, pH .
. . ()
(pH >7) .
. . a+, .
,
.
, . ,
, , ..
2.
.
.................. (:.................),
.............
. ,
.................., ..................
316
(: HCl),

. , ,
.
41
1.
; .
. NaOH .
.
.
. .
. (CaCO3) , NaOH.
. .
. NaOH.
. . aO . . ,
aO ,
.
. . , (aO).
. . , ,
,
() .
. .
(CaCO3),
, aO.
. . ,

, .. . , ,
(.. , ),
(), -
317
,
, .
. . aO
, .
(.. ,
).
2. :
. ....................
.
....................
1. NH3
2. HCl
3. NaOH
4. Na3PO4
. HCl.
. NaOH.
43
1. O pH 7 8.
;
. pH 7.
2. 5

.
318
1.
2.
3.
4.
pH
5,0
4,8
6,5
5,5

. 1. 5,0
2. () 6,5
3. 5,5
4. 4,8
3.
.
. pH=5,
:
1.
2.
3.
.
:
1. 2. 3.
. 5 , ; .
. pH = 5 (1).
. pH
6,0 7,0. ,
(2).
. 5, pH = 5 .
4.
12-5-10.
. .
. ;
. ;
.
;
. ;
. O
(w/w) , -
319
( P2O5) ( 2O). , 12 5 10, 12 %

w/w 2, 5 % w/w P2O5 10% w/w K2O.
.
, .

.
. . (.. ) .
. ,
, , , .
.
.
. ,

,
, .
,
,
,
, .
5. ;

.
,
.
320

...
1. ,
, , .. ;
. .
2. O . ,
. ;

.
, .
3. pH ,
; .
pH .
, , pH .
4. (
).
. ...................
.................................. ..................... ....................... (...............)
. ................
..................... 7.
. .................................
, ..................... pH .
321
.
(+).
. pH 7.
.
, pH
.
5. (
).
pH = 3 , pH
......................
....................
pH = 3 , pH 3 7.
6. 1, 2, 3 .
:
i. ii. iii. .
(ii).
7. cola, : , .
.
322
i. cola
ii.
iii.
.
.
.
i , ii , iii -
8.
pH :
. , . , . , .
.
<<<
9. ,
, . ,
, . ,

, ,
HCl.
.
;
. ;
. (..
, . 19).
. .
10.
4 .., .
. ;
. ;
. , .
. ,
, (CO2).
11. .
: HCl, H2SO4,
CH3COOH
323
.
;
. ................
. 2

.
.
;
. Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)

H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
. (+) .
. Arrhenius,
, (+),
.
. , , , , ..
.
.

.
,
, , .
324
O
, ( , . 2 )
19 ,
,
.
.
, , .
12.
1. tuboflo
2.
3.
pH
14
8
9
4.
5.
6.
pH
12
11
10

pH.
.
pH
.
tuboflo.
: 2 < 3 < 6 < 5 < 4 < 1.
13.
/
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. HCl, 36,5 g/L
pH
11,0
1,0-2,0
5,0
4,1
3,5
5,6
6,0
0,0
/
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15. NaOH, 40 g/L
16.
pH
11,9
6,6
9,9
8,4
7,4
10,5
14,0
4,5
pH. .
pH . pH

HCl (8) aO (15). : 8 < 2 < 5 < 4 < 16
< 3 < 6 < 7 < 10 < 13 < 12 < 11 < 14 < 1 < 9 < 15.
325
14. :
. pH = 7,5
pH = 8 : i. , ii.
. pH = 12 Azax pH = 10 : i. , ii.
pH
.
: - ii, i.
15. pH
.
pH.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
pH
. 1
. 4
. 7
. 10
. 14
, pH = 7. , pH
pH = 1. ,
, pH pH = 14.
: i , ii , iii , iv , v - .
16. I
II.
326

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

. Ca(OH)2
. NaOH
. NH3
. KOH
: i , ii , iii , iv
17. pH .

i. HCl
ii. O
iii. O
iv. HCl

. 12
. 3
. 1
. 14
: i , ii , iii , iv
18. , :
aOH (s)
2O
2O
Ca(OH)2 (s)
3(aq) + 2O(l)
2O
.................
Na+(aq) + ..................
.................. + 2OH-(aq)
4+(aq) + .....................
+(aq) + OH-(aq)
aOH (s)
H2O
H2O
Ca(OH)2 (s)
3(aq) + 2O(l)
KOH(s)
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
327
19. pH = 12
(aO).
;
. pH > 12
. pH < 12
. pH = 12

pH . ().
20. pH = 12
.
;
. pH > 12
. pH < 12
. pH = 12
pH . ,
pH, 7.
().
21. ;
O
HCl
H2SO4
Ca(OH)2
O: HCl, H2SO4
: KOH, Ca(OH)2
22.
. ,
,
.

: . , . ;
328

i.
ii.
iii.
pH
5
9
7
.
,
pH > 7. ,
(pH = 9) (ii).
.
,
pH < 7. ,
(pH = 5) (i).
23.
pH = 2
pH = 10;
. HCl pH = 4
.
. aO pH = 13 . aO pH = 10
(). O
aO , pH , pH < 13.
(), HCl pH = 4
pH (pH < 7).
(), pH = 7, .
(), aO pH
= 10,
(O-), aO
, pH .
pH < 10.
24. :
329

i.
ii.
iii.
pH
6
11
7

,
;
, pH > 7. , (pH = 11) (ii).

25. p
:

i. 1
ii. 2
iii. 3
pH
2,1
11,0
6,4
. pH
;
.
;
. pH 2,
1;
.

pH ; .
330
. , , .
. pH, 1
pH, 2.
. 1 2 .
, 1 2.
1, 2, pH
2,1 11,0. :
i. , , pH = 7 (
25 C).
ii. , ,
2,1 < pH < 7
iii. , ,
7 < pH < 11,0
26. . , ............................
. :
1. CaCO3
5. Ca(OH)2
2. H3PO4
6. Na2CO3
3. MgCl2
7. NH4Cl
4. KOH
8. Na2SO4
. ,
.
. : CaCO3, MgCl2, Na2CO3, NH4Cl, Na2SO4
O ,
(.. 3PO4), ,
[.. O, Ca(OH)2].
27. ,
:
.....................................................................
, : .............................................

331
, :
......................................................................... ()
.....................................................................................................
......................................
, ........................................
......................................................................
, :
H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
,
:
Ba(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

,
:
+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) ()
a2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4 (s)
,
.
28. .
.
1.
2.
3.
332
.
.
.
HCl
NaOH
NaCl
HCl
Ca(OH)2
CaCl2
HCl
Ba(OH)2
aCl2
HO3
NaOH
NaO3
HO3
Ca(OH)2
Ca(O3) 2
HO3
Ba(OH)2
a(O3) 2
H2SO4
NaOH
Na2SO4
H2SO4
Ca(OH)2
CaSO4
H2SO4
Ba(OH)2
aSO4
29. .
1. (aCl):
2. (CaCO3):
3. (Na2CO3):
4. (CaSO4):
30. .

.

.
.
.
.
.

1. NaOH
2. NaCl
3. CaSO4
4. BaSO4
5. HNO3
. .
.....................
333
, ..................
..................... ...............
................................ .
...............................
................................. CaSO4
.............................. ,
..........................
. : NaCl, CaSO4, BaSO4.

: 2, 4, 5, 3, 1.
. ,
. .
CaSO4 ,
.
334
31. .
...........................
............. .............. (...............)
.................... (Cl-). ,
..........................
................... ................... ................
, .
O
: ......................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
, ...................
...................... . ......................
......................
....................... . ,

............... ................, .
.....................................................................................................
...................... ,
, -
..........................

....................... , , ....................
, , .

(+) (Cl-).
, ,
.
O
:
+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) ()
a+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NaCl (s)
,
.
.
, ,
.
NaCl (s)
H2O
a+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
,
, .

, ,
, , .
32. .

.
.
:
335

cola

................................
................................
................................
................................
.
:

O
................................
................................
. .
............................. ,
, ...........................
............... 7% w/v.
20 mL ......................... g .
.

cola
336
. . , ,
.
7% w/v. 20 mL 1,4 g .
33. . 50 19 , . O
.
,
.

H2SO4
NH3
Na2CO3
NaOH
HNO3

.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................

.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
. ,

:
: ................................................................
: ...................................................................

: ......................................................
.

H2SO4
NH3
Na2CO3
NaOH
HNO3
. : (3), (O3)
: (aO)
: (3)
337
34. ......................
....................,
. ,
...................
....................... .
pH
.
M pH

:
. pH ;
. ;
. ,
;
. pH
, ;
338
.
,
.
. pH .
. (10 min).
. 10 15 min.
. ,
.
35. . pH ;
. ;
.
;
.
;
. ;
i. ;
ii. ;
iii. , ;
iv. ;
v. ;
. , 25 C, pH = 7,
, ,
5 < pH < 6.
. pH < 4,5 .
. O (SOx)
(Ox).
. ,
,
().
,
.
339
340
, ,
.
(H2SO4)
(O3) , ,
.
. O :
i. : , ,
.
, .
ii. ,
(.. ), ,
.
iii.
, .
pH.
.
iv. pH . pH
5 4 .
v. , , ,
, .
36. . ;
.
;
.
;
. ;
. ;
. ; .
. 10 16 15. ;
.
(CO2).
. , , ..
.
. , , , ,
,
.
.
. ,
. ,
.
. , , ,
.
.
. , .
,
,
,
, .
. O 10 16 15 100 Kg 10 Kg , 16
Kg ( P2O5) 15 Kg ( 2O).
37.
; .
341
. ,
.
. , Ox
,
.
.
.
. .
. . O , , .
. . .
. . (
), , .
, , .
. .
(+) . . . , , .
342
38.
, .
. ;
. ;
. .
. , .
!!! .
. , ,
, .
.
(O)

.

.
. , :
i. ,
, .
ii. ,
, , ..
iii. , .. , , ..
iv. .
v. , , .
. , , , , .
39. . ;
. pH , ;
. : O
pH = 5,5;
. , , .
343
344
,
..
. pH pH
, 5 5,6.

. pH 5 .
. pH, 7.
. pH = 5,5
pH , .
40. .
. ,
.
1. +
O- .
2. O

.
3. .
4.
.
5. pH < 7
25C.
6. 3 .
7. pH > 7 25 C.
8. .
9. pH < 4,5.
10. .
11. O , .
12. .
13. .
14. pH 25 C.
12.
8.
10.
1.
2.
3.
13.
11.
4.
9.
14.
5.
6.
7.
1. O
2.
3. O
4.
5. O
6.
7.
8.
9. O
10. OOO
11.
12. O
13.
14.
: O
O3 :
HO3 (aq) +(aq) + O3-(aq)
345
-
1. O
51
1. .
O
.
2. ;

. , .

. , ,
.
3. :
. , . , . . ;
346
1
2
17
18
4. Mendeleev
;
O .
5.
;
7 18.
6. ;
, , .
7.
;

, 1
,
.
, .
2.
54
1. ;
347
1
.
(Li), (Na), (K), (Rb),
(Cs) (Fr),
.
2. .
:
.
. ,
.
,
.
O , .
, ,
. ,
(OH-) . , O-, .
3. .
.
.
. , ;
. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)

. (O-),
.
348
4. . ;

.
. .
3.
54
1. ;
:
.
.
.
.
.
, .
, .
2. ;

(+)
. :
Li > K > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > H2
3. ;
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s)
.
349

, .
,
.
:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
4. ;
.
, CuSO4, , :
CuSO4(s)
H2O
Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

. , :
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq)
H2O
Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)

, , Fe2+(aq), .

.
5.
;
350
O -
, .

.
,
( ) . ,
.

.
6. , , ZnSO4 ;
, . ,
ZnSO4, , :
ZnSO4(s)
H2O
Zn2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

() .
, ,

.
7. ;
.
.

, ,
, .
:
O (), -,
. ,
351
.
, , , ..
, ,
, , .
4. O
67
1. ;
O 14 .
2. ;
O ( ):
. , ..
. , .. ,
, .
3. ;
O
( )
.
352
4.
.

, , ..
(.
) .
5. ;

,
,
.
.
6. ;
, (CaO, ):
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
7. ;

;
(, .).
, .
75%
25%. .
353
8. ;
() (bton). , ,
(bton arm).
5.
71
1. ;
14 ,
, .
2.
;
.
3.
.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

. C
. SiO2
. Na2CO3
. CaO
i , ii , iii , iv -
4. ;
354
O -
, .
(SiO2),
(Na2CO3), (CaCO3)
, .
5. ;
,
.
Al, Si, H, O. ,
, . ,
.
6. ;
O
,
. , , .
.
7.
;
O ,
, , :
. , , ,
355
. ,
, ,
. ,
. ,
. .
8. ,
;
O
, . , ,
. O (Si).
6.
77
1. . ;
. .
17 . (F),
(Cl), (Br), (I) (At).
2. .
356
,
,
.
3. Na+ (aq)
Cl-(aq) .
,
.
(Ag+)
(O3-),
:
AgNO3(s)
H2O
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
(Ag+) , :
Ag+(aq) + CI-(aq) AgCI(s)
4. .
;
O (CFCs),
, . 1987 ,
.

. O
.
, :

357

...
1. . Newlands
;
.
Newlands ;
. Mendeleev Newlands;
.
, . O Newlands , .
. Newlands ,
, .
,
.
. O Mendeleev
, .
2.
. :
1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. .... 5. ....
6. .... 7. .... 8. .... 9. .... 10. ....
358
1. : Ar
5. : Al
9. : Fe
2. : CI
6. : S
10. : N
3. : Na
7. : Ca
4. : C
8. : O
. ; (Ar)
. ; Na,
Al, Ca, Fe
. ; (a)
. ; O,
. ;
Ar, Cl, O,
. ; (Cl)
.
: : 18 : 17 : 1
3. , , :

,
, 18 .

:
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2K+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)

( 2) ,
. pH
7 ( O-).
( )
( +)
4.
.
A
.
.
.
, , , . .
359
. , , .
, ,
.
. , , .
, .
. .
, 1
2 ,
.
.
.
, , , .
. .
, 18 , , ,
.
5. Na K,
.
. O
.
. ,
.
6. . :
...a(s) + ...H2O(l) ... + ... + ... [ 1: 1]
... + ...H2O(l) 2K+(aq) + ... + ... [ 2: 2]
360
. 1,
;

.
. 2,
;
. .
. 2;
i. + = Oii. + > Oiii. + < O-
. 2a(s) + 2H2O(l) 2a+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) [ 1: 1]

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2K+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) [ 2: 2]
. 1 (O)
.
.
. .
. 2 (O)
.
.
. 2 + < O (iii).
7. .

;
.
;
. , 1
(Fe) 2 (Zn),
,
;
, .
. , .
. O . , , -
361
, .
:
Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
.
. , , ,
,
. O :
Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
n(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
8. :
.
n(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
.
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
9.
2 .
. .
. .
. .
. .
O
. O () (). O :

362
Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)

10.
A
. ;
. ;
. ;
.
; , ,
11.
:
H
He
Li
Na Mg
K Ca
Sr
AI
Ne
CI Ar
F
Br Kr
I Xe

.
, , ...
(18 ) .
: F2,
Cl2, Br2, I2 2, O2, 2.
363
. .
i. : Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, Al, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
ii. : 2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
. .
.
i. : Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, Al
ii. : 2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
. , ,
.
i. : Li, Na, K
ii. : Mg, Ca, Sr
iii. : F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
iv. : He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
.
.
:
i. : Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, Al, I2
ii. : Br2
iii. : 2, F2, Cl2, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
.

. , ;
364
O (Hg) (. ).
12.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
: .
.
.
;
. i. : 1 ( ..
), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11
ii. - : 8, 9 (
)
. i. : 2, 3, 4
ii. : 5, 7, 10
. ,
.
13. :
H
He
N
Li
Na Mg
K Ca
Sr
AI
Ne
CI Ar
F
Br Kr
I Xe
. .
.
1.
2.
3.
.
.
.
. i. : Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, Al
365
ii. : H, N, P, F, Cl, Br, I, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe

.
. :
i. (Cl) (F),
(Br) ().
ii. (a) 2 , (Mg), (Ca) (Sr).
iii. () (P).
. . , , ,
.
,
(Xe).
14.
.
, . :
70% Ag, 26% Sn, 3% Cu 1% Zn
. o
, ;
.
.
. .
. .
366
15. 17 .
. ;
. 17 .
F
CI
Br
I
9
17
35
53
(C)
-188
-35
59
184
(C)
-220
-101
-7,2
114
i. ;
ii. 17 ;
iii. ,
;
iv. ;
. O , .. (F2)
.
. i. F (
188 C) Cl ( 35 C).
ii. Br ( 59 C) ( 114 C).
iii.
.
iv. ,
, .
, ,
(. 1 . 54 ).
16. .
.
.
367
12.
8.
10.
1.
2.
3.
13.
11.
4.
9.
14.
5.
6.
7.
368
1. + :
2.
: O
3. : O
4. , , :
5. : O
6. +

: O
7. :
OO
8. : O
9. O : O
10. : OO
11. : O
12. 17
Ag+:
OO
13.
: OO
14. :
:
17.

.
/
1 4 4
2 3 2
3 1 1
4 2 3
18. O
HCl (aq).
.
HCl.
. HCl .
. O HCl ,
() ().
. .

369
, HCl.
() ().

HCl :
i. () .
ii. (), .

(CO2), .
19. ,
, .

C
...

,

:
1.
2.
3.
4.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
370
20.
; .

(), (),
() ().
() ().
21. :
O2
Si
AI
Fe
Ca
. (O2) (Si).
.
(Si).
. (Ca) (O).
. (SiO2).
22.
.

.
.
,
.
371
372
Cl
17 ,
3
Cr
6 ,
4
17 ,
5
15 ,
3
Ar
18 ,
3
As
15 ,
4
At
17 ,
6
Ba
2 ,
6
Br
17 ,
4
+ :

1 ,
1
Kr
18 ,
4
La
3 ,
6
Li
1 ,
2
Ne
18 ,
2
Os
8 ,
6
+ :

16 ,
2
.
1, 2, 17 18 .
.
sodium

(O)
potasium
pot-ashes =
Rb
rubidium
Cs
cesium
Fr
francium
France =
Be
beryllium
Mg
magnesium
Ca
calcium
calx
Sr
strontium
Strontian =
Ra
radium
fluorine
fluere = ,
He
helium
Xe
xenon
Rn
radon
radium =
373
-
1. O
87
1. . O ;
. ;
. ,
; .
i. CH3CH2OH
ii. CH2=CHCH3
iii. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
iv. CH3CH2NH2
v. CO2
. H O , ,
(CO, CO2)
(CaCO3, Na2CO3, H2CO3 ..).
. O ,
, .
. (), (CO2) .
: (i), (ii), (iii) (iv).
: (ii) (iii).
2.
:
. ;
. ;
374
. .
:
, Y
.
( )
(
)
,

, .
.
,
:

.

.
3. .
CH3-CH3
CH2=CH2
CHCH
CH3-CH2-CH3
CH3CH=CH2
CH3CCH
CH4
.
.
. O 1 : C2+2, C.
.
2 .
.

.
375
. 1, 2, 3
(. 82),
.
CH3-CH3
CH2=CH2
CHCH
CH3-CH2-CH3
CH3CH=CH2
CH3CCH
CH4
. C2+2 :
: CH3-CH3 = 2 C2H2.2+2 C2H6
(, 2 6
)
: C3-C2-C3 = 3 C32.3+2
C38 ()
: C4 = 1 C12.1+2 C4 ()
O :
CH2=CH2: 2 4
CH3CH=CH2: 3 6
. C2.
. O :
376
CH3-CH3
CH2=CH2
CHCH
O: O :
i. (-)
, 2.
ii.
, .
: ,
.
,
, - .
O , , - .
O ,
, - .
O :
CH3-CH2-CH3
CH3CH=CH2
CH3CCH
,
-
.
. ,
. ,
,
.
4. . ;
.
i. ,
ii. CO,
iii. .
.
, .
. -
377
, .
. i. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 22O(g) +
ii. 2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 42O(g) +
iii. CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 22O(g) +
. C2H6(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 32O(g) +
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 42O(g) +
C2H2(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2O(g) +
5. . ;
. , ,
.
, .
. ;
. .
. ,
. O -CC-H, C2H2 :
C2H2(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2O(g) +
. O
, , , ,
, .
6. .
;
. ;
378
. , , -
,
, . :
i. CO2
.
ii. (O, O2)
Ox, ,
(O3) .
iii. (SO3, SO2), SOx
.
.

:
i. ,
.. .
ii. ..
.
iii. . .
iv. .. .
v. .
vi. , .
vii.

..
2. -
95
1. . , ;
. ;
.
379
. , ;
.
; .
380
.
.

.
, . ,
.

,
().

.
. .
100 ,
. , .
.
.
,
. , (SOx ).
.
()
. ,
,

. .
. :
i. (, ) , ,
,
(
).
ii. , , , , ,
.. ,
.
2. . ;
. ; .
.
.
. (CH4)
,
(C2H6), (C3H8) (C410). , , ,
, (),
.
. , , .

.
. i. .
ii. .
, .
381
iii. , , .
3. ;
;
O
.
,
,
, ,
..
4. . ;
. , ,
.
. ; .
.

.
.
. .
. , . :
382
C2 = CH2
(- CH2 - CH2 -)v
,
, , ..
. .
(-
) (),
(). ,
, .
(, ,
), . ,
, , ,
.
.
. :

.
.

, .
3.
99
1. ;
.

,
.
. ,
.
2. :
383
......... ..........
.
.
3. ;
:
. .
.
. .
, .
. . pH, .
4. .
+ .. > +
C25O(l) + .. O2 (g) + .
+ +
C25O(l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O(g)
5. ,
300 mL 12 1L
5 ; .
384
:
12 mL 100 mL
x; mL
300 mL
12 300
=
= 36 mL
100
36 mL .
1 L = 1000 mL :
5 mL 100 mL
x; mL
1000 mL
=
5 1000
= 50 mL
100
50 mL . .
4. -
107
1. .
.
, . , .
2. . ;
.
.
. O :
. O
.
385
. : , ,
O :
: , ,
3. ;
.

, .

. 20
, 10 .
4.
;
:

,
, , ,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
- .
386
5. . ;
.
;
. .
. O ,
, ,
, , , , ..
.
.
. , :
(, ) (, , )
( )
(, , , ).

..
..
..
6. ;
, :
. .
. ,
.
. A, D, E, K.
.
.
387
7. 100 mL () 3,2 g
, 4,6 g 3,5 g . , ; 200 mL.

200 mL Kcal.
100 mL 3,2 g - 4,6 g - 3,5 g
200 mL x; g - y; g - z; g
=
y=
3,2 200
100
4,6 200
100
= 6,4 g
y = 9,2 g
3,5 200
z = 7 g
100

200 mL : 6,4 + 9,2 = 15,6 g :
1 g 4 Kcal
15,6 g x; Kcal
z=
4 15,6
= 62,4 Kcal
1
:
1 g 9 Kcal
7 g y; Kcal
97
y=
y = 63 Kcal
1
, : 62,4 + 63 = 125,4 Kcal
8. :

388
9. ;
O
,
.
O . O
.
, .
, ( ), , .
10. . ;
. ;
.
:
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
,

, .
389
. , ,
, . ,
, (, , ), .
11. .

.
(, ..) ,
.
390

...
1. .
...............................
..........................
................... O .....................
A
.................. .

........................
.....................

,
...........................

.......................
- O -
.....................

. O . .
,
, , .
.
2. .
.
391
1. CH3CH=CH2
2. CH3CH3
3. CH2=CH2
4. CH3CCH
5. CH3CH2CH3
6. CCH
. 1, 4,
5 ;
. 1, 3
;
. 4, 6
;
. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
392
. 1 (), 4 (), 5 () (-) (-). (-)

, (3).
.
, .
. 1 (), 3 () (--) (-).
- (-)
.
. 4 (), 6 () (--) (-).
-
(-)
.
3. . ;
,
.
. ;

(CO2) (2O) .
.
;
. (CO), (C)
(2O).
. ;
(C) ,
().
. :
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

CO C :
CH4 + 3 O2 CO + 2H2O
2
393
CH4 + O2 C + 2H2O
. .
2
+ 13
+ 10
2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O

4. .
.
7
O 2CO2 + 3H2O
2 2
C3H4 + 4O2 3CO2 + 2H2O
C2H6 +
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O

.
.
394
,

(CO2) (CO).
.

:

.
, .
..
.
.
C7H16, C2H6, C5H12, C4H10, C8H18
. , ,
. :
C2H6 < C4H10 < C5H12 < C7H16 < C8H18
5. . : . .

. , .
.
; ;
.
.
. ;
. ,
, .

.
395
. 80
,
C .
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.
C
1. 5-12
2. > 20
3. 10-15
4. 1-4
5. > 25
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1
2
3
4
5
4
3
1
5
2
3
5
1
2
4
6. ,
.
O
C
78,5
100
117

.
, ,
.
7. . ;
396
5-12
.
. ;
. .
. :
. 98
. 90
. 86
.
. ,
. ,
.
%
%
60
50
40
30
20
10
.

,

.

.
i.
;

,
.
397
ii.
, ;
,
.
.
;
, (CO2)
(Ox). CO2
.
8. :
:
.
.
.
. CO2
. ().
9. :
:
. . . . CO2
. ().
10. :
, :
. , . PVC, . , .
.
.
.
.
398
PVC.
. ().
11. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
:
. , .
O , , , , , .
. , .
, , , .
12. .
;
,
, , . .

;
, , ..
13. .
.
399
. :
. :
. ;

.
. ;

(CaCO3).
. , . ;
. (), .
14. . ;
, ,
.
. ;
400
, ,
, .
.
: ()
: + + ()
. ;

, .
.
C6H12O6(aq)
2CH3CH3OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
. ; , . .
O (CO2) . ,
.
15.
,

.
.
40 (40 %vol).
. 40% vol;
40 %vol 100 mL 40
mL ().
401
. ,
;
. 10 %vol.
V ,
:
1 : 100 mL 40 mL
V mL
x; mL
40 V
=
= 0,4V mL
100
2 : 100 mL 10 mL
2V mL
y; mL
2 10 V 0,2V mL
y=
=
100
1 2 . , .
16.
.
.
, .
. .
,
.
.
.
402
,
.
.
.
, , .
17. ;
.
;
, .

. 20 , 10
.

.

:

,
, , ,
, , ,
, ..
18. ;

- .
403

, ,

.
19. ;
, ()
. O .
; .
, , , :

.
.
:
, :
. .
. ,
.
. A, D, E, K ..
404
, ,
;

O
, .
,
.
, ,
.
20.
.
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 -
21. ,
(. 101),
: 4,2 %w/v, 4,5 %w/v
3,8 %w/v. 250 mL.

250 mL Kcal.
:
100 mL 4,2 g - 4,5 g - 3,8 g
250 mL x; g - y; g - z; g
4,2 250
100
= 10,5 g
405
y=
4,5 250
100
z=
3,8 250
100
y = 11,25 g
z = 9,5 g

200 mL : 10,5 + 11,25 = 21,75 g :
1 g
4 Kcal
21,75 g x; Kcal
=
4 21,75
1
= 87 Kcal
:
1 g
9 Kcal
9,5 g y; Kcal
9 9,5
y = 85,5 Kcal
1
, : 87 + 85,5 = 172,5 Kcal
y=
22. 9 kcal/g. 2.500 kcal

.
35%
,
;
35% , :
100 Kcal 35 Kcal
2500 Kcal x; Kcal
=
406
35 2500
100
= 875 Kcal
1 g 9 Kcal
y; g 875 Kcal
1 875
y = 97,2 g
9
, 97,2 g.
y=
23. , , ; .
,
.
O , :
.
.
. ,
.
. A, D, E, K.
.
.
24.
;
(CO2) . , CO2 . CO2

.
;
407
, ,
, CO2 (O2) .
25. .
. .
.
.
. :
.
.
.
CO2
.
408
. O , .. , .., (, , ), ,
, , ..
. ,
, .., .
. ,
,
.
. O -
.
, .. , .., ,
, CO2 . O CO2 ,
,
, , ..
409
411
O 1
1.

1. , , , cola, .
2. (.. ), , ( ), , ..
3. .
.
.
. , .. ,
.
` . , .. , .
4. , , , , .
5. Ca, Zn, Fe, g, Al
6. .
.
7. : : .
: :
8. : : .
9. . HCl:
H2SO4:
HNO3:
CH3COOH:
. i. Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
ii. H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
iii. HO3 (aq) +(aq) + O3-(aq)
iv. CH3COOH(aq) +(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
10. .
.
.
.
.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
413

1. ( )
2. ,
3. ( )
4. ,
5. ,
6.
7. , ,
8. , ,
9. ,
10. ,
11. ,
12.
13.
14. Arrhenius,
15. ,
16. H2SO4
17. NO3(aq)18. CH3COO19.
20.
1. -5, -4, -3, -1, -6, -2

2. : 1, 4, 5, 8
: 2, 3, 6, 7

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 ( ), 14,
15, 16 (.. H2SO4), 17, 18, 19, 20

1. , , , Arrhenius, , , +
2. H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
414
3. , , , ,
4. , , , CH3COOH
5. , , , .
6. -, - (, ), -
7. .
.
1. , , , , , , ,
2. Cl, 2SO3, 3PO4, F, 2SO4, ClO4
1.3 pH (-)

1. , , , ,
2. < < < <
3. 3, pH ,
7.
2, pH.
(i) 4, pH
pH pH
. 1 < pH < 3.
(ii) 1, pH pH pH . 3 < pH < 5.
5,
, . pH .
4. , , , pH .
5. pH.
pHB = 6. , pH pH = 1.
6. O , ,
. pH ,
7.
7.
; . pH
pH, pH. , 2 < pH < 5.
8. pH . 2.
9. . , . , . (, ), . ,
415
. , . , .
10. CH3COOH < HCl < HNO3 < H2SO4

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1.
2. ,
3. , ,
4. , , 25 C
5.
6. ,
7. (=)
8. , 25 C
9. > ()
10. ,
11.
12. ,

1 ( )
2 ( )
3
4 ( 25 C),
5
6
7
8 (2O(aq) 2O(l))
9 ()
10 (pH <7)
11 ( pH 7)
12
13
14 ( ,
, pH)

416
1. , , , , pH, pH, , , 25 C
2. 2O(l) +(aq) + OH-(aq)
3. < < < < <

4. .
.
.
. ( O-)
5. .

. .
( pH 2,5)
6. -, - ( 25 C), -, -
7. pH. pH () .
(pH=7) , pH 7.

( ),
pH ,
. pHB = 4 pH = 6.
2. O

1. ( ), , ( ), ,
( )
2. . , .
3.
4. < < < < < < < < <
5. . 3 (), aO ( ), Ca(OH)2 ( ), O ( ), AgOH (
)
. i. O(aq), ii. 2OH-(aq), iii. Na+(aq), iv. NH4+(aq)
6. - 3, , , pH
7.
- 1,
O- , pH.
417
(i) - 4,
pH pH .
(ii) - 5, pH ( OH-
).
(iii) - 2,
pH O-
.
7. . , . , . , . , . , .
( , -
.
()
3 . . ! . .
10 ).
8. 10 < pH <13, O- ( ) . , pH
pH
.
9. O-
pH. (1).
10. . , . - ( , ), .
, . , . .
11. (). () pH (pHB < 11).
12. ,
, .

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,
18

418
1.
2. ,
3. ,
4. ,
5. ,
6.
7. Arrhenius, ,
8. <
9. 25 C, >
10.
11. >
12. , ,
13. aO
14. 3
15. , 2O-(aq)
16. 3 (aq) + 2O(l) 4+(aq) + O-(aq)
1. : 4, 6, 7
: 1, 3
: 2, 5, 8
2. -4, -1, -5, -3, -2

1 ( ), 2 ( 7),
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ( 2O-), 10, 11 (
25 C), 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1. , , , Arrhenius, , , O2. Ca(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
3. .
.
.
.
.
4. .
.
. Ba(OH)2
.
5. - , - , - (Ca2+)
6. < < < < <
7. . , . pH 11.
419

1. , ,
, , ,

2. aO, Ba(O)2, AgOH, Zn(OH)2
3.

420
1.
pH.
pH = 7. pH
(pH > 7).
2. pH > 7.
pH, 7,

, . , ().
3.
, pH (pH > 3).
().
4. .
,
, . (),
Ca(OH)2 CH3COOH .
5.
pH, .
(2) pH 7 (). (1).
6. () pH 7. (2). - 2. (2)
(
. pH 7! (127=5 > 7-3=4).
, pH 7. - 1.
7. (1): ,
.
.
(2): O ,
. ,
.
(3): ,
. .
(4): (3) , .
, ,
.
8. . . ,
.
9. . , . , . , .
10. () pH > 7.
pH . pH = 3 ().
11. , ,
12. .
O-
. () (), . (), . , . (B), . H+(aq) < O-(aq)
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

1. , , O-,
2. +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(l)
3. ,
4.
5. ,
6.
7. =
8. ,
9. 3 < pH < 11
10. ,
421
1. - 2, - 6, - 4

1 ( ,

),
2,
3 ( 1),
4,
5 ( . ),
6 (
, )
7
8 (
, ,
.
)
9 ()
10 ( 25 0C)
11 (pH < 7 )
12
13 (
,
)
14 (. , , )

1.
2.
3.
4.
422
. , . , . (i) , . (ii) . (iii)

+(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(l)
.
.
.
5. - , - , -
6. . ,
. +, O. . .
4.

1. . Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
KOH (s)
2O
K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
2SO4(aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Ca(OH)2 (s)
2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
. 1: + - Cl2: + - O3: + - SO424: Ca2+ - OH. +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(l)

. K+ - ClK+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
KCl(s)
. +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(l)

. Ca2+ - SO42Ca2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) CaSO4(s)
. KCl:
CaSO4:
2. AgNO3 Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) AgNO3 (aq)
CaCO3 Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3 (s)
AgCl Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl (s)
3. :
:
4. . Arrhenius xA.
: + () Ax- (). Cl: +
() - Cl- ().
. Arrhenius (O)y.
: By+ () OH- ().
O: a+ () - O- ().
. +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(l)
. a+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Cl (aq)
. .
423
5. . 2: O3(aq) +(aq) + O3-(aq)

3: 2SO4(aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
5: AgOH (s)
2O
6: Ca(O)2 (s)
Ag+(aq) + OH-(aq)
2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2O-(aq)
. O3: 2 + 4
CaSO4: 3 + 6
AgCl: 1 + 5
. CaSO4 AgCl , .
6. : O3, Ba(NO3)2
: Cl, AlCl3, AgCl
: CaSO4, Na2SO4, K2SO4
7. MgCl2: HCl Mg(OH)2
BaSO3: H2SO3 Ba(OH)2
Ca(NO2)2: HNO2 Ca(OH)2
K2CO3: H2CO3 KOH
AlBr3: HBr Al(OH)3
Al2(SO4)3: H2SO4 Al(OH)3
Ag3PO4: H3PO4 AgOH
8. .Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Ca(O)2 (s)
2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2O-(aq)
. CaCl2
424
. (CaCl2)
.
. pH = 5, ,
(HCl).
. (iii), pH pH 7.
O pH 7.
9. . (i), , pH > 7.
. O3 ( )
. .
. (pH = 9)
(O).
. (3) (4) , pH , (3). (4)
pH 13
9.
10. .
. pH = 3,5.
. O3 ( )
.
.
. pH .
(1).

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ( ),
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1. ,
2. ( +), ( O-), ( +), ( Cl)
3. ( Ba2+), ( SO42-)
4. SO42-(aq), BaSO4 (s)
5. ,
6. ,
7. ,
8. , ,
9. ,
10. ,
1. 1 - , 2 - , 3 - , 4 - , 5 - , 6 - , 7 - , 8 - , 9 - , 10 -
2. : 1, 3, 6, 7, 8 - : 2, 4, 5, 9

1, 2, 3 ( ), 4, 5, 6 (
), 7, 8, 9 (BaCl2), 10, 11, 12 (), 13, 14

1. . 2SO4(aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Ca(OH)2 (s)
2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
. (CaSO4)
425
Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) CaSO4 (s)

. .
2. + +
3. , , , ..
4. . i. NaNO3, ii. AgCl, iii. CaSO4
. O: - H2SO4, : - Ca(OH)2
g. Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq) NaNO3 (aq)

O
1.
Cl-
OH-
CO32-
PO43-
S2-
NO3-
a+
NaCl
NaOH
Na2CO3
Na3PO4
Na2S
NaNO3
Ca2+
CaCl2
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3
Ca3(PO4)2
CaS
Ca(NO3)2
Al3+
AlCl3
Al(OH)3
Al2(CO3)3
AlPO4
Al2S3
Al(NO3)3
NH4+
NH4Cl
NH4OH
(NH4)2CO3
(NH4)3PO4
(NH4)2S
NH4NO3
Mg2+
MgCl2
Mg(OH)2
MgCO3
Mg3(PO4)2
MgS
Mg(NO3)2
K+
KCl
KOH
K2CO3
K3PO4
K2S
KNO3
2. , , ,
, , , ,
3. CaBr2, BaS, Na3PO4, Mg(NO3)2, Al2S3, Zn(ClO4)2

-
1. , , ,
, , , ,

2. . Cl, ClO3, Ca(O)2, Al(O3)3, a2S, Ba(OH)2, HI, H3PO4, Zn(OH)2,
MgSO4
. Al(O3)3, a2S, MgSO4
3. 3, 5, 7, 1, 2, 8, 4, 6
1. 30 g O3 / 100 g
2. 74 g CaCl2 / 100 g
426
3. 108,75 g NaNO3
4. 0,63 g CaSO4
5. 20 g
6. 5 g
7. 35 g NaCl 100 g , 36 g
NaCl / 100 g . 1 g ,
.
8. 0,21 g CaSO4 / 100 g 4,2 g CaSO4 / 2000 g (= 2 Kg) . 4 g , 4,2 4 = 0,2 g .
9. 65 60 = 5 g O3 , .
.
,
.
10. 55 g O3
5.

1. pH 5 5,6, . ,
.
2. .
. ,
.
.
, .
3. . , , , .
.., . ,

(.. ). , .
. O (.. , ..).
.
.
4. , ,
, .
5. ,
.
6. pH ,
427
.
7. .
8. , , .
9. .
.
. ,
, .
10. .
. , ,
.
11. (), (9% w/w),
.
12. , Ox
SOx ,
.
13.
, , ,
(SOx),
pH .
14. ,

, .. , .. , , .. , , , (, ..).

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20

428
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(2),
, 7,4
, ,
,
,
7. ,
8. ,
9.
10.
11. ,
12.
13. , Ca2+, Mg2+
14. ,
15. N, P2O5, K2O
16.
17. 4
18. SOx
19. H2SO4, HNO3
20.
1. : 4, 7, 8
: 1, 5, 6
: 2, 3
2. - 8, - 5, - 1, - 6, - 2, - 7, - 3, - 4

1, 2, 3 ( ), 4, 5, 6 ( ), 7, 8 (), 9, 10, 11, 12 ( ), 13
(, , ), 14, 15, 16 ( !), 17 (H2SO4), 18
1. . 1,75 Kg 2,75 Kg P
. 7,5 Kg
2. 8 12 9
3. . 3 Kg, . 4 Kg, . 3,5 Kg
4. 6 5 9,4
5. 8% w/w N 7% w/w P
6. 7 6 7

1. , , , SOx, NOx
2. . aO
. Ca(OH)2
. Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3
. 3
429
. HCl
. NaOH
3. : 1, 4, : 2,3
4. . SOx
.
.
.
.
5. 10 4 - 6
1
1. . HCl
. , CaCO3,
.
. Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
. 0 < pH < 7
.
. ,
.
2. .
. 7
.
.
.
.
3. . Ca(OH)2
2SO4
. H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Ca(OH)2 (s)
2O
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
.
. +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(l)
Ca2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) CaSO4(s)
430
. ( )
4. . +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(l)
. a+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) NaCl (aq)
. i.
ii.
. (3)
.
.
5. 10 3 - 6
O 2
1. O

1. 1, ( + ). 6, 32 (18 + 14
).
2. 17 ().
3.
.
O Mendeleev
, , .
,
.
,
.
4. : Cs, K, Ca, Li, Be, Fr, Na, Sr, Mg
: I, He, Rn, H, Ne, F, Xe, Cl, Br
5. : Li, Cs, K, Fr, Na
: Ca, Mg, Be, Sr
: F, At, Cl, I
: He, Rn, Xe, Ne
6. ,
7. 2
. 2
( 1 ).
1 2 ,
Z = 4 (2 1 + 2 2 ).
8. 1 1 1, 18 18 3, 81 13 6, 12 2 3, 2 18 1, 86 18
6, 88 2 7, 20 2 4, 55 1 6, 11 1 3
. ( ).
1 : = 55, = 11
2 : = 12, = 88, = 20
18 : = 18, = 2, = 86
. (18 ): = 18, = 2, = 86
. : 1 : = 55, = 11 2 : = 12, = 88, = 20
= 81
: = 1 () - 18 : = 18, = 2, = 86
9. 2 : ( = 12), ( = 20), ( = 38)
16 : ( = 16), ( = 8)
10. . 17
.
431
.
1
9
10
13 14 15 16 17
18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
54
11 12
. = 17
. = 9. 17 8 = 9 .
.
. i. Z = 2, ii. Z = 11 ( ), iii. Z = 20 (
1 ), iv. Z = 35 ( 1 )
11. . 2 ,
.
. = 20
. = 38 (20 + 18 = 38)
12. . 1 ,
.
. ,
. = 11 (1 + 2 + 8 = 11)

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

432
1. Newlands
2.
3.
4. , , ,
5. ,
6. , ,
7. ,
8. 17
9. ,
10. ,
11. ,
12.
13.
14. ,
1. 1, 2, 3, - 4
2. : 2, 3, 7
: 1, 4, 5, 6, 8

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ( ), 7, 8, 9 ( ), 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1. .
. ,
. , , ,
2. O
.
3. : , Fe, Ca, Mg, Na
: F, H, N, O, Cl, C
4. 1 , 2 3
, 1
1 2, 2 3 10 3 11 18 (2 +
8 + 8 = 18).
1 :
2 : , ,
3 : ,
5. 1 : ( )
2 :
17 :
18 :
6. , ,
2.

1. , ,
433
(a+) (O-),
. . :
. .
. .
2. . .
.
3. 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2K+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
4. . ,
, ()
.
5. . i.
ii.
iii.
iv. 3/4
v.
. , ,
.
. (), .
. (2).
. 2a(s) + 2H2O(l) 2a+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
6.
7.
8.
9.
434
. . .
, ,
.
. Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs > Fr
. Fr > ZCs > ZRb > ZK > ZNa > ZLi
. (.. ,
,
.

).
.
.

. , e ,
e
.
. , , e
, , . , e
e.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1. 1,
2.
3. , ,
4. ,
5. ,
6.
7. ,
8. , ,
9. ,
10.
11.
12. ,
13. , , a0 a+ + 1e
14. 2a(s) + 2H2O(l) 2a+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
15. ,
16. ,
1. 3, - 4, - 6, - 5, - 1, - 2
2. 6, - 3, - 1, - 5, - 2, - 4

1 ( ), 2 ( ), 3 ( ), 4, 5 ( ), 6, 7, 8 (
), 9, 10, 11, 12 ( ),
13, 14 ( .. )

1. , , , , , 1
2. , .
435
3. K, Cs, Rb, Fr, Li, Na

4. 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Li+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
5. . , , , .
.
.
(.. Li, Na, K. Rb .
Rb !).
. .
6. ( ), , (
, = 1)
3.

1. +,
, :
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

pH ,
pH = 7.
2. . ,
.
. ,
.
. . ,
, ,
, . ,
.
.
, , .
3.
:
HCl(aq)
2O
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
. 2K(s) + 2H+(aq) 2K+ (aq) + H2(g)
436
. Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + H2(g)

. 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+ (aq) + 3H2(g)
4. :
H2SO4(aq)
2O
2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
. 2a(s) + 2H+(aq) 2a+ (aq) + H2(g)

. Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+ (aq) + H2(g)
. O .
5. . Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + H2(g)
. 2(s) + 2+(aq) 2+(aq) + 2(g)
. Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+ (aq) + H2(g)
. 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+ (aq) + 3H2(g)
. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
. Al(s) + 3Ag+(aq) Al3+(aq) + 3Ag(s)
. Ca(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
. 2Al(s) + 3Fe2+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3Fe(s)
6.

. : , ,
7.
:
CuSO4(s) Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
.
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3Cu(s)

.
8. O :
AgNO3(s) Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
:
Fe(s) + Ag+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
9. . O ,
.
.
437
. O . (.. O

,
. .
).
. O , , .

(.. O
).
2000 - 3000 .
10. .
,
, ..

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20
( 3, ,
)

438
1.
2. , ,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. , 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+ (aq) + 3H2(g)
11. Cu
12.
13.
14. Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au
15. , ,
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
1. - 3, - 7, - 9, - 4, - 1, - 10, - 2, - 5, - 6, - 9
2. - 4, - 3, - 1, - 5, - 2

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ( ), 9 ( ), 10, 11 ( ), 12 ( ,
), 13 ( ), 14 ( ..), 15 (), 16,
17 ( ), 18

1., , , , ,
2. HCl(aq)
2O
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+ (aq) + H2(g)

3. Li, K, Ca, Na, Mg, Fe, Cu, Ag
4. : Fe C
: Cu Zn
: Cu - Sn
5. O ,
. ().
6. , . :
3Fe2+ (aq) + 2Al(s) 3Fe(s) + 2Al3+(aq)
, 3 < pH < 7, , pH > 7
, (Cu2+)
4. O

1. : , , , , ,
: , , , ,
439
2.
3. O
. . 10
Mohs, 0,5 1,5.
4.
, ,
,
. :
Ca(O)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
5.
, .
6. , :
Ca(O)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
.
7. ,
.
8. , 10 Mohs.
9. O ,
(90% w/w).
10. .
11. (.. , ), (.. , , , ..), (
) ..
12. ,
, , .
13. ,
.
14. , .
,
(CaCO3), .
15. , .
, pH , 7. O :
440
Hx(aq)
2O
xH+(aq) + A-(aq)
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
16. , .. . O ,
,
.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1. , 14
2. ,
3. , ,
4. , ,
5.
6. ,
7.
8.
9.
10. CO2,
11. ,
12. , CO3213. ,
14. CO2
15. , ,
16. ,
17. ,
18.
1. . 3, 4, 6, 9, 10
. 1, 2, 5, 7, 8
2. - 3, - 5, - 1, - 2, - 4

1, 2, 3, 4 ( ), 5, 6 ( ), 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12 ( CO2),
13 (CO32-) , 14 (Na2CO3), 15 ( , CaCO3 , CaO), 16 (
), 17 (CaO), 18 ( ) 19 ( , ), 20
441

1. : , , , ,
. , , , ,
2. CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
3. .
( ), , ,
.
4. .
.
. CaO
.
.
. 3 - 4
. Na2CO3
.
.
. CO325. .
.
.
6. , ( ), ( , ), (.. )
5.

442
1. O 14
,
. ,

.
2. , , ,
.
.
3.
, . , .
4. (SiO2), (CaCO3), (2CO3)
.
5. (SiO2): , ,
O :
O : (pyrex)
O (MgO):
6. , , .. . :
. O .
. ,
.
. , , , , ,
.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14

1. 14, ,
2.
3. , SiO2
4. ,
5. ,
6. ,
7. ,
8. ,
9. , ,
10. , ,
11. , ,
12. ,
13. ,
14. ,
15. ,
16.
17. , , ,
18.
1. - 5, - 1, - 2, - 3, -4
2. - 8, - 1, - 4, - 2, - 6. - 3, - 7, - 5
443

1, 2, 3 (, SiO2), 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (), 9 (,
), 10, 11, 12, 13, 14

1. , , ,
2. , , , , .
3. ,
4. .
.
. K2CO3
.
.
.
.
.
.
. SiO2
5. , , , , ,
6. ( 14 ), , ( ),
6.

1.

F2
Cl2
Br2
I2
444
NaF
NaCl
NaBr
NaI
2. 25 C , . ( 7,2 C),
( 114 C)
( 188 C). : 3,
1, 2
3. 9F (=9) 17Cl,
,
. .
4.
.
(KCl).

. O
:
NaCl(s)
NaBr(s)
2O
2O
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Na+(aq) + Br-(aq)
, ,
:
2O
AgNO3(s)
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
:
:
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
:
Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) AgBr(s) o
5. . Na(s)
AgNO3(s)
2O
Na+(aq) + -(aq)
2O
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
. Ag+(aq) + -(aq) Ag(s)

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
, 17
F, , Br, , , At
,
,
, ,
Br2
KBr
445
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
NaF,
,
1.
2.
3.
4.
- 2, - 4, - 1, - 3
- 3, - 5, - 2, - 6, - 1. - 4
- 4, - 6, - 1, - 3, - 5. - 2
- 11, - 10, - 12, - 1, - 9. - 2, - 3, - 5, - 7, - 8, - 6. - 4

1, 2 ( ), 3 ( ),
4, 5 ( ), 6, 7, 8 (), 9 ( ), 10 ( ), 11 (), 12 ( ), 13, 14

1. . NaF, KCl, AgNO3, ,
. AgCl, AgBr, AgI, AgF
2. , , , , ,
3. O ,
, ,
. O , , ..
4. . NaF
. AgI
.
.
.
.
5. DDT, PVC,
6. , , ( ),
446
1
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ( )
2
1. O
. ,
, . (..
.
: . ()
, ,
.

. ).
2. .
.
. , e ,
, e
.
. ,
e
,
, . ,
e
e.
3
1. . Cu, H2, Mg
. Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
2. , ( He), ,
, , -
4
1. . n(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
.
V
H2
440
. (n 2H+) ,

.
447
O 3
1. O

1. CH4, CH2O, CH3OH, C2H2, C2H6, CH3NH2
2. C4, C38, C22, C26
3. ,
.
4. : . .
.
: . .
.
.
.
5. , C .
6. O .
.
7. . O C ,
.
. O C ,
.
. C .
8. i. , , ii. , , iii. a iv. C2H4O v.
() () .
9.
O
448
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
10. 3 C: : -
:
11. . : C4, C38, C26
: C36, C24
: C22, C34
.
C4
C36
C22
C38
C26
C24
C34
12. , C
.
13.
O
C2H4
C3H4
C3H6
C2H2
14. ;
: ,
: ,
15. . CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 22O(g)
. C2H4(g) + 2O2(g) 2CO (g) + 22O(g)
. C3H6(g) + O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 32O(g)
. C26(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 32O(g)
16. . C22(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2O(g)
. C3H4(g) + 4O2(g) 3CO2 (g) + 22O(g)
. C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 22O(g)
. C410(g) + O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 52O(g)
449

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20

1. ,
2.
3.
4.
5. C2H6
6.
7.
8. , ,
9.
10.
11. ,
12. CO2, H2O
13.
14. ,
15.
16. ,
17. CO2
18.
19.
20.
1. 3, 4, 5, 2, 6, 1
2. : CO2, H2O
: CO, NO, SO3, NO2, SO2, NOx
3. 3, 1, 2, 4
4. 2, 6, 3, 4, 1, - 5

1 ( ), 2, 3
( ), 4, 5, 6 ( ), 7 (
), 8 (
), 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 ( ), 14 (.. ), 15 ( CO2 ), 16 ( Ox),
17, 18, 19, 20
450

1. .
.
.
.
. .
2.
, , .
3. . C2H2 ()
. C2H4 ()
. CH4 ()
4.
O
CH4
C3H6
C3H8
C2H2
5. C26(g) +
7
O
2CO2(g) + 32O(g)
2 2(g)
C34(g) + 4O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 22O(g)

6. .
. NOx
. ()
.

. 1. : , ,
: , , ,
: , ,
451
. 1. .
.
.
.
. 2-
.
.
. 2-
2. . CH3-CH2-CH3
. CH2=CH-CH2-CH3
. CH3-CC-CH2-CH3
. CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
. CH3-CC-CH3
. CH2=CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
. 1. . 2CH4(g) + 3 O2(g) 2CO(g) + 42O(g)
CH4(g) + 3/2 O2(g) CO(g) + 22O(g)
. 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 62O(g)
C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 32O(g)
. C3H8(g) + 2O2(g) 3C(s) + 42O(g)
. C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 22O(g)
. 2C3H6(g) + 9O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 62O(g)
C3H6(g) + 9/2 O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 32O(g)
. C2H2(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2O(g)
. C3H4(g) + 4O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 22O(g)
. C26O(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 32O(l)
2. -

452
1. ,
.
,
.
2. O .
. -
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
..
95 100. , , .
.

, . , (CO2), (Ox)
(SOx), 3.1, O .
CO2 , NOx
SOx
.

, . , , ,
,
. , ,
, 3 4 , 5 12 ...
.
,
, .
. () . .
, , , ,
.
. CH2 = CH2 (- CH2 CH2 -)
. CH2 = CHCl (- CH2 CHCl -)
. CH2 = CH (- CH2 CH -)
CH3
CH3
8. , , , , .
9. ,
.
10. > > > >
>
11. , .
453
12. . .
. .. ,
..
..

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,
18

1. , , , ,
2. ,
3. , ,
4. , , ,
5.
6. , ,
7. , , ,
8. , ,
9. , 5 12,
10.
11.
12. , ,
13. , ,
14. ,
15. , ,
16. ( ), ( )
17.
18. , , ,
19. ,
20.
1. 3, 5, 1, 8, 4, 2, 6, - 7
2. : 3, 4, 5, 7, 8
: 1, 2, 6, 7
(7) , , .

454
1, 2, 3 ( ), 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ( ), 9, 10, 11 ( ), 12, 13, 14, 15 ( ), 16 (
), 17, 18, 19,

20

1. : , , .
: ,
, , .
2. , , , , .
3. , , , Teflon, ,
.

.
4. . CH2 = CH2 (- CH2 CH2 -)
. CH2 = CHCl (- CH2 CHCl -)
5. .
.
.
.
.
.
6. , , ,
3.

1. ,
,
.
2. pH ,
(HCl) ,
2. , , pH 2.
3. .
78,4 C 100 C. . , .
4. (CO2). .
455
5. ,
,

, . ,
.
6. 250 mL 2/3
.
, ,
.
7. : ,
: ,
, .
8. 20% v/v
9. 25% v/v
10. .
().
.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

1. , ,
2.
3. ,
4. , ,
5. , C2H5OH ( C2H6O)
6. , ,
7. ,
8. , CO2, H2O
9.
10. % v/v,
11. ,
12. ,
13. ,
14. , ,
456
1. 3, 7, 1, 8, 2, 5, 4, 6
2. : 4, 6
: 2, 5, 8
. 1, 3, 7

1, 2 ( ), 3, 4, 5, 6 (), 7, 8, 9, 10 (mL
g), 11 ( ), 12, 13 (
), 14, 15, 16 ()

1. . 8% v/v
. 10% v/v
2. . 2,25 mL
. 220 mL
3. . 50 mL
. 200 mL
4. 1 (2,5% v/v)
5. 400 mL ,
6. 13,2 mL
7. 200 mL
8. 1: 12% v/v K2: 10% v/v
9. . 28 mL . 10% v/v
10. 267 mL
11. 80 mL
12. 1,6% v/v
13. 33% v/v
14. 12,7% v/v
15. 3,125 mL
16. 1: 3% v/v, 2: 7,5% v/v, 3: 5% v/v
17. 53,3 mL
18. 240 mL

1. ,
.
, , , .
2. C6H12O6 (aq)
2CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2CO2 (g)
457
C25O(l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O(g)

3. : , , ,
: ,
4. 100 mL 12 mL .
5. .
.
. C2H5OH C2H6O
.
. CO2
.
6. (26,4 mL)
5. -

1. ,
. ,
( ).
, - .
2.
2/1. C6H12O6 C6(H2O)6 C12H22O11 C12(H2O)11.
3. :
6CO2 + 6H2O
458
C6H12O6 + 6O2
:
.
.
. ,
.
. CO2 , , ,
. ,
, .
. .
4. ,
, -
. 75-110 mg / 100mL, ( ).
5.
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O

6.
, .
.
7.
.
8. , , ,
, ,

.
9. O , , .
10. O
. ,
, .
11. 1 g 9 Kcal, 1 g
4 Kcal
, 9:4:4.
12. :

13.
. O CO2 CO2 . :

.. ,
459
,
..
,

, , , ..
14. CO2 ,
.

.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,
18

1. ,
2. ,
3. ,
4. , ,
5. , ,
6. , ,
7. , ,
8.
9. ,
10. ,
11. ,
12. ,
13.
14.
15.
16. ,
17.
18. ,
19.
20. , ,
460
1. 3, 6, 8, 1, 5, 2, 9, 4, 7, 10
2. : 2, 5, 7, 8
: 1, 3, 4, 6

1, 2 ( ), 3, 4 (
), 5, 6 ( ), 7 (
), 8, 9 ( ..
), 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 (
), 16, 17 ( ), 18 ( ), 19, 20 ( )

1. 7,5 11 mg
2. 100 mL 160 mg, 75 110 mg 100 mL . .
3. 3375 4950 mg
4. 225 Kcal
5. 20 g
6. 0,8 Kcal
7. 10 g
8. 0,5 L 227,5 Kcal, 1 L 455
Kcal 2 L 910 Kcal.

1. , .
2. .
3. : , ,
O: , ,
: , ,
4.

6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
5. .
.
.
.
.
6. , (10), , , ,
7. 67,5 g .
461
3
1
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
2
1.
.
, .
2. C3H8: CH3 CH2 CH3, ,
C3H4: CH C CH3, ,
C2H4: CH2 = CH2, ,
3
1. C2H6 +
7
O 2CO2 + 3H2O
2 2
C3H4 + 4 O2 3CO2 + 2H2O

2. , , (.. ), , , ( O2)
4
1. 22,5 mL
2. 635 Kcal
462

Xhmeia Ggymnasiou

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Xhmeia Ggymnasiou

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AA

Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)

14. H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

O3(aq) +(aq) + ..................

B. O : HClO3, HO3, H3PO4, H2SO4

. +(aq) < O-(aq)

ii. Ca(OH)2 (s)

iv. 3(aq) + 2O(l)

+( aq) + O-( aq)

. +(l) + OH-(l) H2O(l)

Ca2+ + 2F- CaF2

a(O3)2 a2+ O3-.

Al2(SO4)3 Al3+ SO42-.

A. : NaCl, KBr, Ag2S

, 0,42 g 0,50 0,42 = 0,08 g .

(SO2, SO3) (O, O2) .

HCl H+(aq) Cl- (aq)

, CuSO4(aq), , Cu2+(aq) CuSO4(s)

Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

: 2Al(s) + 3Zn2+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3Zn(s)

......Al(s) + ......... ...... Al3+(aq) + ......................

O CO2 3-4 v/v . CO2 ,

CaCO3(s) CaCO(s) + CO2(g)

, (NaCl), (KBr) () . (AgNO3).

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

Ag+(aq) + Br -(aq) AgBr(s)

Ag+(aq) + -(aq) Ag(s)

iii. (); ................................................

. ...... C2H4(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO (g) + ........ 2O(g)

. ...... C3H6(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)

. ...... C26(g) + ...... O2(g) ...... CO2(g) + ........ 2O(g)

C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) 2CO(g) + ........ 2O(g)

C2H6(g) + ...... O2(g) 2CO(g) + 32O(g)

C26(g) + 3 O2(g) 2C(s) + 32O(g)

0,5 L = 500 mL, :

C2H5OH(l) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O(g)

14. 200 mL 4 % v/v

15. 1 150 mL 2% v/v . mL

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + 2O

O (C), (O), (), () (S), (), (Fe), (Cu), (Mg),

( P2O5) ( 2O). , 12 5 10, 12 %

. Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)

, pH > 7. , (pH = 11) (ii).

. : NaCl, CaSO4, BaSO4.

. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)

. 2a(s) + 2H2O(l) 2a+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) [ 1: 1]

Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)

Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)

. i. : Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, Al

ii. : H, N, P, F, Cl, Br, I, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

(- CH2 - CH2 -)v

. 1 (), 4 (), 5 () (-) (-). (-)

2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O

C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O

C7H16, C2H6, C5H12, C4H10, C8H18

22. 9 kcal/g. 2.500 kcal

(CO2) . , CO2 . CO2

1. -5, -4, -3, -1, -6, -2

3. < < < < <

16. 3 (aq) + 2O(l) 4+(aq) + O-(aq)

. () (), . (), . , . (B), . H+(aq) < O-(aq)

. , . , . (i) , . (ii) . (iii)