Compressors & Silent Root Causes For Failure

Compressors And Silent
Root Causes For Failure

The number one silent root cause killer of compressors (both reciprocating and
centrifugal) in chemical plants, refineries, and gas processing plants is
inadequate knockout drum design. Knockout drums are also called knockout
pots, surge drums, separator tanks, separator pots, demister separators, or gas
cleaning equipment all serve the same purpose of gas-liquid separation.
The following compressor comments apply to large reciprocating and large

centrifugal compressors above 125 horsepower and above 35 psig pressures. It
is difficult to prove the silent root cause issue by objective evidence of target
capture devices installed inside the flow lines to the compressor, thus the issue
must be inferred from other experiences.
We know from long experience that steam turbine blades/vanes operating in

saturated steam are eroded by the impact of saturated steam (water) particles.
Wear resistant alloys are needed on the leading edges of blades/vanes to slow
down erosion while running for long periods though a rain shower. This says
the size of particles is important.
We also know that small flying insects (lovebugs) in warm, moist climates during
the summer splatter automobile windshields and upon impact break into even
smaller debris that the coat automobile windshields and clog radiator intakes
both problems require immediate maintenance. The 1) particle sizes and 2) flow
of debris are both problems which require maintenance solutions. Who solves
the particle size and flow issues for a compressor to prevent compressor
failures?
In the medical field, a frequent finger pointing exercise exists among doctors.
The argument goes this way:
A cardiologist does not want his patient to die from a heart attack;
however the patient may die from kidney failure stemming from
medicines given by the cardiologist to prevent the heart failure.
So the finger pointing goes on in every fieldits just not peculiar to engineering!
In process plant designs chemical engineers are called upon to design the
process for flows. The chemical engineer doesnt want the process to fail, but
often the lack of expertise in some areas (such as knockout drum designs) often
transfers the failure to a down stream compressor because of inferior knockout
drum design. The knockout drum becomes a silent root cause of failure
because of lack of understanding or insufficient experience in the need for
compressor flows to be absent of particles (both solid and liquid). Mechanical
engineers are keen on gas streams free of particles both solid and liquid but the
system design has been set by the chemical engineers who lack experience in
mechanical details. So the finger pointing exercise begins about who is
responsible for compressor failures. So lets set a design standard which will
provide long compressor life:
The knockout drum system must be capable of handling:

a) 1.25 to 1.5 times the process flow with minimum of 5 minutes residence time
at highest flow rates (this allows big particles to settle from the gas stream),
b) slug flow for at least 5 seconds where the line is filled with fluid at 1.25 to 1.5
times the process flow (this allows for handling slug flow abuses and upsets),
c) 99% of all particle sizes (liquid or solids) greater than 3-5 microns must be
removed before reaching the compressor and the dust load must be less than 40
mg/m3 (this protects the compressor for achieving long life free of failurescalled
reliability).
Some particle size exceptions exist where, on purpose, flush materials such
as water or naptha are purposely injected into compressors to mechanically
dislodge deposits on the first-stage compressor.
The injected material never exceeds 2 to 3% (absolutely maximum) by weight
(not by volume). 60% (of the maximum 3%) goes into the first-stage intake
nozzle and the remaining 40% (of the maximum 3%) goes into return bends of
the diffuser.
The carefully and finely atomized fluids for dislodging deposits on the
compressor will, on purpose, exceed 5 microns to achieve mechanical
dislodgement of deposits. The coarse particle size fluid flush does not (as often
inferred) chemically dissolve deposits.
Items a) and b) are of direct interest for chemical engineers. Item c) must be
planned and sized by chemical engineers to protect the interest of mechanical
engineers responsible for long, failure free life of rotating equipment.
Cost of the properly specified and designed knockout drums incurs a one time
capital expenditure. However, failure of item c) is an ongoing expense which
disrupts production and incurs the high cost of lost profit opportunities which will
recur many times during the life of the compressor from the silent root cause for
failure.
The rough general relationship between particle sizes and equipment life is
shown in Figure 1 (of course individual compressor components make this
trendline very broad).
Figure 1: Compressor Life vs Particle Size Ingested
Liquid or Solid Particle Size (microns)
Large
10000
1000
100
10
3-5 micron is a practical range
Small 1
10
Short
100
1000
10000
Compressor Life (days)
100000
Long
A compressor can ingest an occasional large particle. It cannot sustain a torrent

of large particles. Some relationships between ingested particle sizes and life
have existed for many years. For example, the life of an automobile internal
combustion engine is ended after ingesting only one tablespoon of dust/dirt!
Blochs book on Reciprocating Compressors on page 150-152 list four categories
for foreign materials that kill compressors and give clues of what to look for:
1. Liquid carryover
(slug flow, carryover from interstage coolers, flow changes)
2. Dirty gas
(solid particles act as grinding compounds and interference debris)
3. Carbon formation
(high temperatures, oils, and gases make carbonaceous debris)
4. Corrosive elements
(corrosion, erosion, and complex failure modes occur)
The hierarchy of simple to complicated devices for cleaning gas streams is:
1. Parallel corrugated plates are knockdown devices to eliminate large
particles such as sand.
2. Filters and bag houses remove solid particles.
3. Cyclones are ~90% efficient for 40 micron particles or larger.
4. Knockout drums, without demisters, are ~90% efficient for 600 micron
particles or larger (these are OK for flare knockout drums but not for
compressors).
5. Knockout drums with cyclone(s) build inside the drum will help eliminate
fluids and solid particles ~90% efficient for 40 micron particles or larger.
6. Knockout drums with thick and clean demister packs are ~98% efficient for
droplets/particles larger than 20 microns.
7. Helical coil gas flow separators remove 99.9% of all solids and liquid
particles 6 microns or greater which includes black powders occurring in
natural gas pipelines from the reaction of H2S, water, and iron in the pipe.
8. Coalescing filters handle liquids and solids with ~95% efficiency for
droplets larger than 0.5 microns.
9. Electrostatic filters are good, but never as good as advertised, in
eliminating small particles because of maintenance difficulties of
washing/cleaning.
10. Polymer membranes are coming on strong for selective removal of all size
particles and for selective removal of different fluids including separation
of gases.
My experience says the silent root cause killer reasons for compressor failures
are one or more of the following reasons:
Insufficient knockout capability in the original design without allowance for a 1.25
to 1.5 safety factor. This safety factor is consumed when flow stream creep
occurs to overload the knockout drum.
1. Design failures when knockout capability is based on average flow rather
than peak flow and without calculations for slug flow capability. Think of
the newspaper headlines used in a well known statistics class to
emphasize the huge differences between the average and the extremes:
Man Drowns In River Of 6-Inches [15 cm] Average Depth.
You dont drown on the averages; you drown in the deep spots of a river!
You dont usually kill a compressor on the averages but extremes are
dangerous as they transfer the particle size problem down stream to
become a compressor failure from fluid particles/slug flow/solid particles in
the flow stream.
2. Design failure to eliminating dirt/moisture particle sizes greater than 0.5 to
0.3 microns at 95 to 99% efficiency. This is a stringent design criterion
that would stop many compressor failures.
3. Design capability for flow surge must be provided for handling occasional
slug flow based on full line flow of liquids for at least 5 seconds or longer
periods of slug flow based on knowledge of the peak problems.
4. A common urban myth fallacy is that knockout drums are believed to be
such simple designs a draftsman can size them. This myth will guarantee
downstream problems for the compressor.
5. Another urban myth is to purposely heat the process gas so you dont
have moisture particles in the gas in lieu of other solutions. True, liquid
particles can be vaporized. However, high temperatures add severe
service onto the compressors, and with limited long term success on
highly loaded and sophisticated compressors. This heating technique is
also reported downstream of knockout drums and coalescing filters. The
best solution is to eliminate the liquid/solid particle problem at the source
rather than generating a secondary problem of higher heat in the
compressor.
6. A design flaw of ONLY using the Souders-Brown equation considers
vapor velocity but NOT particle size (see #3 and 4 above). Remember,
the design requirement for knockout drums is an AND solution for both
flow and escaping particle size, i.e., dont exceed the design flow and
dont exceed the maximum particle size. Chemical engineers, in most

cases, are only concerned with the average separation of liquids from the
inlet stream, but mechanical engineers are concerned with the particle
sizes and content of the particles in the gas stream which kills the
compressors. We need teamwork for achieving the investors lowest long
term cost of ownership. (Yes, the issue is similar to the comment that
the heart doctor doesnt want you to die from a heart attack but you may
die from kidney failure from the medicine he gives you for your heart.)
7. Another urban myth is emergency relief flare systems and compressors
have the same requirements for knockout drums. This is not true. Flare
systems have are far less stringent requirements (meaning they can
handle larger particle sizes, 300 micron). Compressors have more severe
requirements than flare systems!!
Compressor genocide is practiced regularly in industry. To prevent compressor

genocide you must attack both the particle size and the flow rate issues
including provisions for slug flow. This infers different stages of separation using
some or all of steps 1-10 noted above. Remember there are some cases where
knockout drums, demisters, and coalescing filters still have problems as
described at the Naval Air Station Lemoore. However, compressor manufactures
also stress the need for different stages of separation even for reciprocating
compressors to provide gas inlet filtering, liquid removal and liquid coalescing
systems upstream of the compressors.
Dont be fooled. Your compressor failure problems may simply be due to an upstream problem with knockout drums (and associated equipment to remove
particles from the flow stream).
Heavily loaded compressors and sophisticated compressors have less tolerance

for handle insults from surges and particle sizes.
Treat your compressors like race horses. DO NOT treat compressors like plug
horses if you want to achieve high reliability with long life between failures.
Remember, many compressor failures are self-induced failures. The silent root
cause for many compressor failure stem from knockout drums and other
associated equipment for liquid and solid removal.
Knockout drum design has to be done correctly from the beginning. Its too
expensive to make corrections after the error(s) has been proven. Furthermore
in most facilities, no additional space is available at a later date for installation of
the correctly sized and designed knockout equipment.
Further readingAmistco has a good paper on knockout drums including use of a cyclone to
knock down liquids (and solid particles) before reaching demister pads and their
double pocket vane units. They also provide some design details including why
you should anticipate sudden flow changes in both directions. Amistco includes
retrofit solutions for existing designs.
Helical coil separators from Mueller Environmental remove fluids, solids, and slug
flow from gas streams including pyrophoric black powder sulfides in pipelines
with 99.9% efficiencies down to 6 microns which depends upon high velocity gas
flows to achieve the efficiency.
Coalescing filters allow small droplets in the gas stream to collide to continuously
enlarge as additional droplets collide and finally collect as they move downward
by gravity into the liquid collection system. They can be glass/plastic, fine mesh
knitted screens for large particles, or sintered metal for small particles.
King Tool produces a self-cleaning, mist coalescing filter while the filter remains
on line. The system periodically has a reverse flow to each coalescing filter
element to self-clean selected elements without a shutdown. The reverse flow
cleaning extends filter life by a factor of 20-50 while trapping solid particles
smaller than one micron. Trapping and removal of very small particles is helpful
for removal of iron sulfide particles from sour gas pipelines whereby the particles
are flushed out in the liquid with minimal re-entrainment.
Separation of amine from fuel gas is reported as a critical element in elimination

of burner tip fouling which requires the use of coalescing filter devices as
reported in NPRA Q&As from 1997 and 2000. Coalescing filters are very
sensitive to flooding from too much fluid, and efficiency drops rapidly when
challenged with too much liquid whereby liquid re-entrainment occurs as shown
in the Pall report of Figure 4. This means you need to oversize the capability
for coalescing filters and do not undersize the coalescing filters to achieve
long term success.
Other good design criteria are provided by the Iranian Ministry of Petroleum for in
Gas(Vapor)-Liquid_Separation and API Spec 12J ( search for the 25 page spec
and the price is US$94) for oil and gas separators as devices located on the
producing flow line between the wellhead and pipeline. Routinely, slug flow
beyond the knockout drums are equipment killers.
The G(V)-L Separation document calls for 2 to 5 seconds of normal feed
velocity at 100% liquid filling of the feed pipe. Most folks go blind at the slug flow
requirements. They ignore surges. The designers may have forgotten the surge
requirement, but slug flow kills the compressors, and damage due to the slug
flow is cumulative on the compressors (its not just a one time event).
Many knockout drums have the demisters pads blown-out due to surges.
The result of blown-out demister pads allows 150 to 2000 micron size particles
moving downstream to the compressor as equipment killers. With demisters
pads in place, the particle sizes moving downstream may be 10 microns which
are still too large for highly loaded and sophisticated compressors to handle
without damage.
The use of nanomaterials in coalescing filtration is described in the WIPOA.
OK, so this is more than you wanted to know about knockout drums, coalescing
filters, etc. Ive gathered these details to avoid the compressor Achilles heel
problem with chemical engineers designing knockout drums which are incapable
of handling slug flow as they satisfying their need for filling a space on a PDF.
BUT lack of teamwork and lack of understanding sets-up the mechanical

engineers for failure on their compressors because too many large particles
(solid/liquid) are passed along to kill the expensive rotating equipment for which
chemical engineers have ~zero appreciation for how susceptible compressors
are to abuses of slug flow and too many large particles entrained in the gas
flows.
Where would you look for reference materials

Look in Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th edition for knockout drums
and youll find nothing in the index. However, if you look in Section 6, Fluid and
Particle Dynamics youll find some details about falling liquid drops in gases.
Section 10 pertains to Transport and Storage of Fluids, Section 17 pertains to
Gas-Solid Operations and Equipment, and Section 18 pertains to Liquid-Solid
Operations and Equipmentnone of them address knockout drums. The single
reference the chemical engineer would touch first is of no help for knockout
drums.
Ludwigs Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, 4th
edition is more helpful with 72 pages of illustrations and calculations for
mechanical separations involving:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
liquid particles from vapor or gas,

liquid particles from immiscible liquid,
dust or solid particles from vapor or gas,
solid particles from liquid, and
solid particles from other solids.
In none of the chemical engineering separator cases does a design limit exist for
size of particle going into compressors [thus the criterion specified above to
satisfy both chemical engineers and mechanical engineers to solve expensive
failure problems together]. Of course the particle size concept is implied by the
class or grade of the separation techniques but it is never clearly spoken for
understanding by both chemical and mechanical engineers. Take heed: Figure
1 above defines a valuable criterionin short, limit the size of particles
going into a compressor!
Some Final WordsAll separation systems are made for selling. Some separation systems are made
for use with your compressors to achieve long life with few failures.
Dont get caught in the leap of faith with sweet sounding words by good
salesmen. Use your head about what you want and need.
Be skeptical with show me, dont tell me the results to achieve long compressor
life with few failures.
You can download a PDF file copy of this page
Return to Barringer & Associates, Inc. homepage

December 2008
Hyperlinks revised December 14, 2010
Barringer & Associates, Inc., 2008
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Piping and Pipeline

Engineering
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Sections
1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF PIPING TECHNOLOGY
1.2 NATIONAL CODES, STANDARDS AND GUIDES
1.3 PIPING AND PIPELINE CODES
1.4 SCOPE OF ASME B31 CODES
1.5 BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE
1.6 FEDERAL AND STATE LAWS
1.7 ASME COUNCIL ON CODES AND STANDARDS
1.8 ASME B16 STANDARDS
1.9 API STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED

PRACTICES
1.10 MANUFACTURERS STANDARDIZATION SOCIETY
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1.11 PIPE FABRICATION INSTITUTE STANDARDS
1.12 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL

CONSTRUCTION
1.13 AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
1.14 NACE
1.15 MATERIALS INSTITUTES
1.16 NATIONAL BOARD
1.17 FLOW CONTROL INSTITUTE STANDARDS
1.18 HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE PUMP STANDARDS
1.19 REFERENCES
2.1 COMPETENCE
2.2.1 Materials
2.2.2 Design
2.2.3 Construction
2.2.4 Quality Control Inspections
2.2.5 Preoperational Testing
2.2.6 Maintenance
2.2.7 Operation
2.3 AT THE CORPORATE LEVEL
3.1.1 Wrought Iron
3.1.2 Cast Iron
3.1.3.1 Essential Characteristics
3.1.3.2 Carbon Steels
3.1.3.3 Alloy Steels
3.1.3.4 High Alloy Steels
3.1.4 Steel Line Pipe
3.2.1 Aluminum Alloys
3.2.2 Nickel Alloys
3.2.3 Copper Alloys
3.3.1 Pipe Size
3.3.2 Seamless Pipe
3.3.3 Seam Welded Pipe
3.3.4 Documentation
3.3.5 Microstructure
3.4.1 Forging
3.4.2 Casting
3.4.3 Sheet Metal
3.4.4 Pipe Specifications
3.4.5 Machining and Finishing
3.4.6 Base Metal Imperfections
3.5.1 Strength
3.5.2 Hardness
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3.5.3.1 Charpy V-Notch Toughness
3.5.3.2 Drop Weight Test
3.5.3.3 Fracture Toughness
3.5.4 Fatigue Strength
3.5.5 Physical Properties
3.6.1 Procurement Specification
3.6.2 Supplier Assessment
3.7 REFERENCES
4.1.1 Thin Wall Approximation
4.1.2 Pipeline Design Equation
4.1.3 Yield and Wall Thickness
4.2.1 Lams Formula
4.2.2 Early Design Equations
4.2.3 Piping Design
4.2.4 Allowable Stress
4.2.5 Wall Thickness Allowance
4.3.1 The Von Mises Yield Pressure
4.3.2 Burst Pressure
4.4 PRESSURE DESIGN OF PLASTIC PIPE
4.5.1 Pressure Rating
4.5.2 Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings
4.5.3 Steel Butt Welded Fittings
4.5.4 Steel Flange Ratings
4.5.5 Socket Welding and Threaded Fittings
4.5.6 Valves
4.5.7 Unlisted Components
4.6.1 Pipe Elbows and Bends
4.6.2 Branch Connections and Nozzles
4.6.3 Reinforcement of Branch Connections
4.6.4 End Fillets
4.7 HIGH PRESSURE DESIGN
4.8.1 Design Scenarios
4.8.2 Pressure Excursions
4.9 OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION
4.10 BURST ENERGY
4.11 PIPE SPECIFICATION
4.12 VALVE SPECIFICATION
4.13 REFERENCES
5.1 BUCKLING PRESSURE
5.2 ASME CODE DESIGN
5.3 REFERENCES
6.1 SPACING OF PIPE SUPPORTS
#archive
6.2 SUSTAINED STRESS
6.3 STRESS INDICES
6.4 DESIGN STANDARDS
6.5.1 Variable Spring
6.5.2 Constant Load Hanger
6.5.3 Rigid Frames
6.5.4 Rod Hangers
6.5.5 Pipe Rolls
6.5.6 Rigid Struts
6.5.7 Vibration Dampers
6.5.8 Snubbers
6.5.9 Anchors
6.5.10 Saddles
6.6 DESIGN OF STANDARD SUPPORT
6.7.1 Design
6.7.2 Construction
6.8 ANCHORAGE TO CONCRETE
6.9.1 Equipment Elevations
6.9.2 Equipment Spacing
6.9.3 Piping
6.9.4 Valves
6.9.5 Pump Piping
6.9.6 Compressor Piping
6.10 REFERENCES
7.1 LAYOUT FOR FLEXIBILITY
7.2 SIMPLIFIED FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
7.3 FATIGUE
7.4 SMOOTH SPECIMEN FATIGUE
7.5 PIPE COMPONENT FATIGUE
7.6 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF SOCKET WELDS
7.7 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF BUTT WELDS
7.8 ASME B31 FATIGUE RULES
7.9 FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH
7.10 CORROSION FATIGUE
7.11 SHAKEDOWN
7.12 COLD SPRING
7.13 THROUGH-WALL TEMPERATURES
7.14 CREEP DAMAGE
7.15 PIPE INSULATION
7.16 EXPANSION JOINTS
7.17 REFERENCES
8.1 ROOT CAUSE
#archive
8.2 MECHANICALLY INDUCED VIBRATION
8.3 VIBRATION ANALYSIS
8.4.1 Vane and Piston Motion
8.4.2 Turbulence Induced Vibration
8.4.3 Cavitation and Air Pockets
8.4.4 Acoustic Resonance
8.4.5 Breathing Mode
8.4.6 Valve Noise
8.5.1 Measuring Displacement
8.5.2 Measuring Velocity
8.5.3 Measuring Acceleration
8.5.4 Strain Gages
8.5.5 Signal Conditioners and Analyzers
8.6.1 Severity Charts
8.6.2 Pipe Vibration Analysis
8.7.1 Eliminate the Source
8.7.2 Good Layout and Supports
8.7.3 Preoperational Testing
8.7.4 Reducing Turbulence and Cavitation
8.7.5 Pulsation Damper
8.7.6 Damping
8.7.7 Flexible Connections
8.8 REFERENCES
9.1.1 Bulk or Propagative Flow
9.1.2 Pressure Change in Bulk Flow
9.1.3 Waterhammer
9.1.4 Valve Characteristics
9.1.5 One-to-Two Phase Transient
9.1.6 Pump Fill Rate
9.1.7 Prevention of Liquid Waterhammer
9.2.1 Steam-Water Waterhammer
9.2.2 Case Histories
9.2.3 Predicting the Effects of Two-Phase Transients
9.2.4 Steam System Layout
9.3.1 Flow Regime
9.3.2 Analysis of Slug Flow
9.3.3 Trapped Air
9.4 STRESS ANALYSIS
9.5 REFERENCES
10.1 WIND DAMAGE
10.2 WIND PRESSURE
10.3 VORTEX SHEDDING
#archive
10.4 WIND-BORNE MISSILES
10.5 REFERENCES
11.1 THE SEISMIC CHALLENGE
11.2.1 Project Specification
11.2.2 Seismic Input
11.2.3.1 Operability
11.2.3.2 Leak Tightness
11.2.3.3 Position Retention
11.2.4 Material Condition
11.2.5 Interactions
11.2.6 Documentation
11.2.7 Maintenance
11.2.8 Definition of Common Terms
11.3 RULES OF GOOD PRACTICE
11.4 SEISMIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
11.5 SEISMIC INPUT BASED ON IBC
11.6.1 Seismic Input
11.6.2 Modal and Directional Combinations
11.7 SEISMIC QUALIFICATION
11.8 SHAKE TABLE TESTING
11.9.1 Description
11.9.2 Interaction Review
11.9.3 Falling Interactions
11.9.4 Rocking or Swing Impact
11.9.5 Significant Impact
11.10 REFERENCES
12.1 DEFLAGRATION AND DETONATION
12.2 DYNAMIC LOADS
12.3 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES
12.4 PRESSURE LIMITS
12.5.1 Quasi-Static Load
12.5.2 Impulsive Loads
12.5.3 Fracture
12.6 EXPLOSION PROTECTION
12.7 EXTERNAL EXPLOSIONS
12.8 REFERENCES
13.1 SUBSEA PIPELINE SAFETY
13.2 DESIGN PROCESS
13.3 INTERNAL PRESSURE
13.4 EXTERNAL PRESSURE
13.5 PIPE LOWERING
13.6.1 Objective
#archive
13.6.2 Static Analysis
13.7 PIPELINE FLOTATION
13.8 FATIGUE DESIGN
13.9 HOOK AND PULL
13.10 REFERENCES
14.1 TO BURY OR NOT TO BURY
14.2 INTERNAL PRESSURE
14.3 SOIL LOADS
14.4 SURFACE LOADS
14.5 THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
14.6 GROUND MOVEMENT
14.7 SEISMIC
14.8 REFERENCES
15.1 SHOP AND FIELD WELDING
15.2.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
15.2.2 Submerged Arc Welding
15.2.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding
15.2.4 Flux Core Arc Welding
15.2.5 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
15.2.6 Welding Parameters
15.2.7 Gas Purging
15.2.8 Mechanized Welding
15.3.1 Weld Metallurgy
15.3.2 Porosities
15.3.3.1 Hot Cracking
15.3.3.2 Delayed Cracking
15.3.4 Inclusions
15.3.5 Root Concavity and Undercut
15.3.6 Incomplete Penetration
15.3.7 Lack of Fusion
15.3.8 Shrinkage
15.4.1 ASME B31 and API 1104
15.4.2 American Welding Society
15.4.3 Electrode Nomenclature
15.4.4 Welder and Weld Procedure Qualification
15.5 POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT
15.6 IN-SERVICE WELDING
15.7 SURFACING TECHNIQUES
15.8 REFERENCES
16.1 VISUAL EXAMINATION
16.2 MAGNETIC PARTICLES TESTING
16.3 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
#archive
16.4 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
16.5 ULTRASONIC TESTING
16.6 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
16.7 ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING
16.8 THERMOGRAPHY
16.9 MEASUREMENT ACCURACY
16.10 TYPE AND EXTENT OF EXAMINATIONS
16.11 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
16.12 PERSONNEL CERTIFICATION
16.13.1 Utility Pigs
16.13.2 Smart Pigs
16.14 REFERENCES
17.1 FLANGE STANDARDS
17.2 FLANGE TYPES
17.3.1 Selection Factors
17.3.2 Non-Metallic Gaskets
17.3.3 Semi-Metallic Gaskets
17.3.4 Metallic Gaskets
17.4 FLANGE FACES
17.5 FLANGE RATING
17.6 FLANGE BOLT TORQUE
17.7 EXTERNAL LOADS
17.8.1 Assembly Steps
17.8.2 Closing the Gap
17.9.1 Definitions
17.9.2 Bolt Fabrication
17.9.3 Bolt Specifications
17.9.4 Nut, Washer Specifications
17.9.5 Restrictions
17.9.6 Corrosion Prevention
17.10.1 Flange Assembly Sequence
17.10.2 Replacing a Gasket
17.10.3 Welding a Slip-On Flange
17.10.4 Leakage Diagnostics
17.10.5 Refinishing Flange Faces
17.11 REFERENCES
18.1 WHAT THEY ARE
18.2 SWAGE FITTINGS
18.3 GROOVED FITTINGS
18.4 IN CONCLUSION
19.1 LEAK TEST AND PRESSURE TEST
19.2 LEAK AND PRESSURE TEST METHODS
#archive
19.3 CHOICE OF TEST METHOD
19.4.1 Plan the Test
19.4.2 Conduct the Test
19.4.3 Plan for Leaks
19.4.4 Drain and Dry
19.5 ISOLATION
19.6 LOCATING LEAKS UNDERGOUND
19.7 REFERENCES
20.1 A CRITICAL DECISION
20.2.1 Progressive Corrosion
20.2.2 Passivating Coating
20.3 LOCAL CORROSION
20.4 GALVANIC CORROSION
20.5 EROSION CORROSION
20.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
20.7 MICROBIOLOGICALLY INFLUENCED CORROSION
20.8 HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
20.9 MECHANICAL DAMAGE
20.10.1 Properties
20.10.2 Liquid Organics
20.10.3 Multilayer Coating
20.10.4 Metallic Coatings
20.11 CORROSION INHIBITORS
20.12 MATERIAL SELECTION
20.13 REFERENCES
21.1 FITNESS-FOR-SERVICE
21.2.1 Measurement
21.2.2 Ductile Fracture Initiation
21.2.3 Longitudinal Thinning
21.2.4 Circumferential Thinning
21.2.5 Cautions
21.3.1 Brittle and Ductile Fracture
21.3.2 Fundamental Approach
21.3.3 Stress Intensity
21.3.4 Fitness-for-Service Evaluation
21.3.5 Crack Arrest
21.3.6 Fatigue
21.4.1 Ripple
21.4.2 Buckle and Wrinkle
21.4.3 Dent
21.4.4 Dent with Gouge
21.5 REFERENCES
#archive
22.1 CASE HISTORY
22.2 MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVE
22.3 MAINTENANCE PLAN
22.4 MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES
22.5 CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
22.6 FAILURE MODES
22.7.1 Preventive or Predictive Maintenance
22.7.2.1 Piping and Vessels
22.7.2.2 Supports
22.8 PDM TECHNIQUES
22.9 RELIABILITY
22.10 MAINTENANCE AND THE CONSTRUCTION

CODES
22.11.1 Data Collection
22.11.2 Visual Examination, Macrofractography and NDE
22.11.3 Metallography and Microfractography
22.11.4 Chemical Analysis
22.11.5 Mechanical Tests
22.11.6 Stress and Fracture Analysis
22.11.7 Improvements
22.12 REFERENCES
23.1 REPAIR STRATEGY
23.2 REPLACEMENT
23.3 GRINDING OUT DEFECTS
23.4 WELD OVERLAY
23.5 FULL ENCIRCLEMENT SLEEVE
23.6 FILLET WELDED PATCH
23.7 FLUSH WELDED PATCH
23.8 WELDED LEAK BOX
23.9 MECHANICAL CLAMP
23.10 COMPOSITE OVERWRAP
23.11 BURIED PIPE REHABILITATION
23.12 BRUSHED AND SPRAYED LINING AND COATING
23.13 PIPE STRAIGHTENING
23.14 REFERENCES
24.1 PLASTIC FORM
24.2 SIZE
24.3 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
24.4 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
24.5 PRESSURE DESIGN
24.6 PRESSURE CYCLING FATIGUE
24.7 PRESSURE DESIGN OF FITTINGS
#archive
24.8 SUPPORT SPACING
24.9.1 Solvent Cementing
24.9.2 Coated Adhesive
24.9.3 Butt Strap Adhesive
24.9.4 Hot Plate Butt Fused Joint
24.9.5 Hot Plate Socket Joint
24.9.6 Hot Air Welding
24.9.7 Electrofusion
24.9.8 Flange Joints
24.10 BONDING QUALIFICATION
24.11 REFERENCES
25.1 OVERVIEW
25.2 GATE VALVES
25.3 GLOBE VALVES
25.4 PLUG VALVE
25.5 BALL VALVE
25.6 BUTTERFLY VALVE
25.7 DIAPHRAGM VALVE
25.8 CHECK VALVE
25.9 SAFETY AND RELIEF VALVES
25.10 CONTROL VALVES
25.11 SIZING GAS CONTROL VALVES
25.12 VALVE ACTUATORS
25.13 CLOSURE TEST
25.14 REFERENCES
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Language: English

Compressors & Silent Root Causes For Failure

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Compressors & Silent Root Causes For Failure

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Compressors And Silent

Root Causes For Failure

The following compressor comments apply to large reciprocating and large

We know from long experience that steam turbine blades/vanes operating in

The knockout drum system must be capable of handling:

Figure 1: Compressor Life vs Particle Size Ingested

Liquid or Solid Particle Size (microns)

Compressor Life (days)

A compressor can ingest an occasional large particle. It cannot sustain a torrent

dont exceed the maximum particle size. Chemical engineers, in most

Compressor genocide is practiced regularly in industry. To prevent compressor

Heavily loaded compressors and sophisticated compressors have less tolerance

Separation of amine from fuel gas is reported as a critical element in elimination

The use of nanomaterials in coalescing filtration is described in the WIPOA.

BUT lack of teamwork and lack of understanding sets-up the mechanical

Where would you look for reference materials

liquid particles from vapor or gas,

Return to Barringer & Associates, Inc. homepage

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