Chemiluminescence

e forensic use of chemiluminescence and luminol

How to deceive Gilbert Grissom

H. Nieweg
1
Table of contents
1 Introduction
1.1 On forensic science . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 On chemiluminescence . . . . . . . . 6

2 On luminol
2.1 Reaction mechanism . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Reaction with catalyst substance. . . . . . . 8
2.3 Other reactions with luminol . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Forensic use of chemiluminescence and luminol . . . . . 9
2.5 Boundaries of luminol . . . . . . . . 9

3 Research questions and hypotheses

3.1 Research questions . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.1 Hypotheses to experiment 1 . . . . . . 11
3.2.1 Hypotheses to experiment 2 . . . . . . 11
3.2.1 Hypotheses to experiment 3 . . . . . . 11

4 Materials and methods

4.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.1 Spray A, the ‘luminol spray” . . . . . . 12
4.2.2 Spray B or C, the soda spray . . . . . . 12
4.2.3 Copper sulfate solution . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Results
5.1 Results of individual tests . . . . . . . 15
5.1.1 Experiment one. . . . . . . . 16
5.1.2 Experiment two . . . . . . . 17
5.1.3 Experiment one. . . . . . . . 18

6 Analysis and conclusions

6.1 Conclusions of each individual test . . . . . . 19
6.1.1 Conclusions of experiment one . . . . . . 19
6.1.2 Conclusions of experiment two . . . . . . 19
6.1.3 Conclusions of experiment three . . . . . 20
6.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . 21

7 Discussion
7.1 Documentation headaches . . . . . . . 22
7.1.1 Vernier setup one . . . . . . . 22
7.1.2 High-speed camera . . . . . . . 24
7.1.3  e Free University and Vernier setup two . . . . 26

8 Sources and acknowledgements

8.1 Sources of information . . . . . . . . 27
8.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . 28

Appendix
First article published on the use of luminol in a forensic manner:
Die chemiluminescenz des Hamins, en Hilfsmittel zur Auffindung und Erkennung forensisch
wichtiger Blutspuren. Dr. W. Specht
2
A bullet runs through it, part 2
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

[At a community meeting, in a church]

Grissom: Hello. My name is Doctor Gil Grissom. I'm the night shi supervisor of the Las Vegas
Police Department's crime lab. I'm not a police officer, I'm a scientist.
Shooter's brother (interrupting): You work for the cops, that makes you a cop. You're not on
our side.
Grissom: Actually I'm a forensics expert. My job is to collect physical evidence from a crime
scene to determine who did what to whom and how did they do it. I've been asked to come here
today by the Mayor and Sheriff Berdic to present our analysis of the evidence in this case to
your community.
Shooter's mom: Why here? Why should we believe your evidence?
Grissom: Physical evidence cannot be wrong, it doesn't lie. It's not influenced by emotion or
prejudice, it's not confused by the excitement of the moment. I'm here [(looks up)] in God's
house to explain to you the truth about exactly what happened the other day.

3
1.1 On forensic science
Forensic Science, or forensics, is the combination of a number of sciences in order to serve the legal
system. e term and idea behind forensics has existed since Roman times. Our word ‘forensics’ was
derived from the Latin ‘forensis’, which meant as much as before the forum. Back then the two parties
of a conflict, the accuser and the accused, had to present their case in front of the forum. e
individual with the best presentation usually, the best forensic skill, would win the case. is practice
is still visible in modern day courtrooms and the reason some individuals feel the need to hire high
priced advocates.
While in America almost every self-respecting police force has
a Crime Scene Investigation unit, the Netherlands has its own
national forensic unit in the Dutch Forensic Institute (DFI).
Here scientists work on, for example, DNA analysis of crime
scenes, but also travel the country to process scenes on
location.  e DFI does exactly what the fi ctional character of
Gilbert Grissom said in the quote on the previous page. It
collects physical evidence to support the police in investigating
crimes, and, to determine who did what to whom and how
they did it.  e DFI isn’t only investigating crimes, scientists are also busy investigating new
techniques and equipment to advance the field of forensic science.
Additionally, the DFI is part of the ENFSI, a large european network of forensic laboratories.  is
network was founded in 1995 and is now a group of over 50 forensic centers in 30 countries. One of
the main goals of the ENFSI is improving the quality of forensic research worldwide.  e most
prominent activity of the ENFSI is the exchange is standardization of forensic practices. In 16
workgroups, divided in areas of expertise, researchers exchange knowledge and experience and write
“Best practice” manuals. In addition to this these groups routinely organize conferences and
workshops.

4
chemistry |ˈkeməstrē| (abbr.: chem.)
noun ( pl. -tries)
Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the identification of the
substances of which matter is composed; the investigation of their properties and
the ways in which they interact, combine, and change; and the use of these
processes to form new substances.

5
1.2 On chemiluminescence
Chemistry is the study of the interaction between substances, the processes and new substances
formed. Most of the interactions we study take place in test-tubes and laboratories, with people in
white coats looking at glasswork and computer screens. However, such interactions also happen all
around us. Even in our bodies chemistry is ever present. A large number of these reactions only
cause changes to the substances involved. If one adds enough of A to a sufficient amount of B, then C
is created right before your eyes.
It gets more interesting when energy becomes a factor in this process and A and B result in not only
the creation of C’s new atoms, but also the vibration of C’s atoms. e vibration is caused by energy
released in the reaction. Because these molecules vibrate, they release their energy in the form of
heat. When all the energy is burned, the molecules stop vibrating and the substance will eventually
cool down.
It is even more interesting when the molecules do not release their chemical energy in the form of
heat, but in the form of light instead.  is is where chemiluminescence occurs. In the reaction, a
molecule is excited and slowly returns to a ground state while releasing light or, in its turn, exciting a
second particle that can produce light.
e best example of chemiluminescence in every day life can be found in glow sticks. ese plastic
sticks contain a chemical, which is usually hydrogen peroxide, and a small vial containing a second
chemical, which is in most cases an ester.  e stick will glow when the vial is broken and the
components are released. We have all seen this effect during school parties where the DJ will throw
glowing sticks into the audience.  e various colors seen in fi gure 1 can be attributed to the
fluorescent dye used.
Chemiluminescence is not only used in test tubes and during dance events, it is also used by fireflies.
e male fi refly uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in reaction with a luciferin substrate and the
enzyme luciferase to create an illumination utilized for attracting a mate. is
is referred to as bioluminescence.
One of the most interesting phenomena in chemiluminsence and
bioluminescence is a luminol hydrogen reaction. Here, 5-amino-2,3-
dihydro-1,4-phthalazinedione reacts with hydrogen and produces, amongst
other products, energy in the form of light. However, the reaction of the
compounds is so limited that the amount of light produced is almost
negligible and the total reaction can take up to 24 hours.  is makes the of
luminol with hydrogen unusable for most purposes, including glow sticks.
e reaction is speeded up considerably when a catalyst is added to the Figure 1.1
compound.  is catalyst can, for example, be iron ions (Fe2+ / Fe3+) or the
copper ion Cu2+.  e reaction will speed up dramatically if you add any of these catalysts. e 24
hour reaction time will be shortened to a few minutes or even a few seconds. During this short and
reasonably aggressive reaction, a relatively large quantity of light will be produced, enough to be
easily visible by human eyes.  is helps in making luminol more useable for other purposes, but still
makes it difficult to use a reaction of luminol with hydrogen in glow sticks.  ese luminol and
hydrogen sticks would only light up for a few minutes, at best!

6
Chapter 2
On luminol
2.1 Reaction mechanism
A reaction of luminol with hydrogen peroxide happens as seen in figure 2.1, or more detailed in
figure 2.2.

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Luminol reacts with the hydrogen peroxide producing energy and 3-aminophthalate. A commonly
assumed mechanism of this reaction is described below and clearly visible in figure 2.2.
- Strong base removes nitrogen protons leaving a negative charge
- Oxygen creates a cyclic addition to the carbonyl carbons
- Nitrogen gas and energy are released by the reaction
7
A specific feature of luminol is its chemiluminescency, resulting in the energy being generated in the
form of light instead of heat. is reaction occurs at such a slow pace that it is barely detectable
under normal circumstances, and this light is invisible to the human eye in most environments.
When luminol and hydrogen react in a setting as above, the reaction can last from 24 hours up to a
number of days.

2.2 Reaction with catalyst substance

Since a reaction this slow is not particularly useful in most cases, scientists have looked into the
matter further, and discovered that luminol reacts a lot faster when a catalyst is added (figure 2.3).
e catalysts we are focusing on are the iron ions (Fe2+ and Fe3+), since these can be found in blood.
When we add one of these catalysts to the reaction, it may take less than a minute instead of multiple
days. An example of a luminol reaction with the Cu2+ catalyst can be seen in figure 2.4. e half-life
is estimated to be eight or nine seconds, and with the shortened time-span, the reaction also
becomes more intense. Light is now clearly visible and can easily be measured with the appropriate
equipment. e amount of catalyst needed is minimal compared to the amount of luminol used.
One p.p.m. is enough. Another important aspect of this reaction is the fact that it is extremely easy
to determine when the compounds are actually reacting. It is safe to conclude that there is no
reaction present when there is no visible light and vice versa.

Figure 2.4

2.3 Other reactions with luminol

Luminol was first synthesized (created) in 1853 in the form of 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-
phthalazine-dione. Later, in 1928, H.O. Albrecht first described a luminol reaction with an oxidant,
hydrogen peroxide. Since then reactions with luminol have been used in many different areas, from
biology to medicine.
Walter Specht (1907 - 1977) proposed to use luminol for blood detection at crime scenes in 1937,1 at
the University Institute for Legal Medicine in Jena, Germany. Before that it had only been used by
copper miners to aid them in finding copper in mine walls.

1 Article is provided in appendix.

8
2.4 Forensic use of chemiluminescence and luminol
e mechanism described above applies when luminol is used to detect blood. Iron ions used are
taken from hemoglobin and react similarly to an in-vitro setting. Forensic scientists apply luminol
using spray bottles in a solution with soda, distilled water and hydrogen peroxide. e soda is added
to the spray to destroy the cell membranes of cells, thereby releasing the iron ions more easily.
At a crime scene, most CSI units process a scene with luminol in the following order:

1) Spray walls to illuminate (high velocity) spray patterns and determine what kind of patterns were
created, which can be used to determine the modus operandi.
2) Spray ceiling to highlight cast-off patterns.
3) Spray floors to highlight drag marks, shoe prints, blood drops or other blood patterns.

2.5 Boundaries of luminol

While luminol is in most situations an asset to a crime scene investigator, there are some drawbacks
that can render it relatively useless. If not used correctly, it can detect traces of blood, but it can also
destroy DNA. If that happens, one has found blood that is not in any way usable as evidence.
Another problem is that luminol doesn’t use blood and only blood as a catalyst. It can also utilize
anything that has iron ions, such as copper or a number of other metals. is feature may make it
difficult to use luminol to detect blood on metal surfaces. Due to this cross contamination, scientists
have to resort to other ways to detect blood evidence at some crime scenes.
is article is subtitled ’How to deceive Gilbert Grissom’. erefore, the purpose of this investigation
is to put these drawbacks into practice and try to establish a way to render luminol useless in
gathering blood evidence at a crime scene. Having seen the known disadvantages to luminol, one
can say that it must be possible to make luminol unusable, but the question remains, what is the
easiest and most plausible way of accomplishing this?

9
Chapter 3
Research questions and
hypotheses
3.1 Main research question
Is it possible to hide blood evidence from luminol and if so, what is the best and most efficient way to
accomplish this?
ree experiments will be carried out in order to provide an adequate answer.

Experiment 1
• e soda in the spray used by criminologists releases the Fe2+ and Fe3+. e possibilities to bind
this catalyst to another substance will be examined. In this experiment soda will not only be
used to dismantle the membranes of red blood cells, but also as a substance involved in the
reaction.

Experiment 2
• CSI: Crime Scene Investigation claims in episode five of the third season that using ordinary
household bleach can destroy blood evidence and make luminol useless. A test will be carried
out to determine whether this claim is correct or purely fictional.

Experiment 3
• ere is another catalyst for luminol, Cu2+ ions. A test will be conducted to see whether
covering the area with this catalyst creates an even glow, masking the presence and the location
of blood traces.

10
3.2 Hypotheses

3.2.1 Hypotheses to experiment 1

It is possible to hide the blood from luminol by removing Fe2+ and Fe3+. If one removes the catalyst,
there will be no catalyzed reaction between the luminol spray and blood. Luminol does not react
noticeably without a catalyst, and with removal of the catalyst, the blood has been effectively hidden
from the forensic scientist.
eoretically, it is possible to remove the catalyzing iron ions using soda. e soda will break down
cell membranes and release the ions, while at the same time binding itself to them. With effective
cleaning utilizing soda, one should be able to clean up blood evidence to the point where it has little
to no effective catalytic potential.

3.2.2 Hypotheses to experiment 2

In the example given by CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, household bleach is used to clean a surface,
which in their case was a carpeted golf club case. One may suspect that the strong oxidative qualities
of bleach can react with luminol and thereby hide any present blood evidence. It has been shown by
numerous respected investigators that bleach reacts with the standard luminol spray; however, very
little research into different levels of brightness has been conducted. It can be assumed that the
difference between a luminol reaction with iron ions from hemoglobin will produce the same
amount of light as a luminol reaction utilizing bleach as a catalyst. is would be due to the highly
reactive nature of bleach.

3.2.3 Hypotheses to experiment 3

ere is another catalyst for luminol, Cu2+ ions. When a solution with this substance is applied
evenly over the once blood-covered area, it will generate an even glow when sprayed with luminol.
Because of this it will effectively hide the location and presence of any existing blood traces.
A reaction could be potentially brighter than a reaction with Fe2+ and Fe3+, because there is more Cu
available and it is easily accessible since no cell membranes need to be destroyed. If this occurs, a
reaction only utilizing the Cu2+ will not cause a problem, because the blood-covered region will glow
just as bright as the surroundings, still hiding the blood evidence.

11
Chapter 4
Materials and methods
4.1 Materials
Soda (Na2CO3) 15.0 g
A 3% solution of H2O2 180 ml
Luminol (C8H7N3O2 , 3-aminophthalhydrazide, 97%) 0.2 g

Bleach (NaOCl)
Copper sulfate (CuSO4)

Blood
Distilled water

Wallpaper
Darkened room

Standard chemistry glasswork:

A medium sized Erlenmeyer to mix the components for each spray
Stirrer
Spray bottle

4.2 Preparation
ree sprays were prepared: A, B and C. Spray A, amongst others, contained luminol, while B and C
were randomized. One contained distilled water and the other contained ten grams of soda and an
equal amount of distilled water. e investigator was blinded as to which was which by a colleague,
who was not involved in the remainder of the study.

4.2.1 Spray A, the ‘luminol spray’

e ‘luminol spray’ used by forensic scientists contains luminol, soda, hydrogen peroxide and
distilled water.

Preparation:
A quantity of 0.2 grams of luminol was mixed with 10.0 grams of soda, 180 ml of distilled
water and 180 ml of 3% hydrogen peroxide. When the process was completed, the solution
was poured into a spray bottle.

4.2.2 Spray B or C, the soda spray

Preparation:
A volume of 100 ml of distilled water was mixed with 5.0 grams of soda and poured into a
spray bottle.

4.2.3 Spray B or C, the distilled water spray

Preparation:
A quantity of 100 ml of distilled water was poured into a spray bottle.
12
4.2.3 Copper sulfate solution

Preparation:
A standard educational solution of copper sulfate was used in the volume of 25 ml.

4.3 Methods
ree experiments were carried out on a total of thirteen separate but identical pieces of wallpaper.
Two of these ten tests were done to exclude false positive findings, one on a surface with visible
blood and the other on a surface that had not been in contact with blood. ese latter two tests were
not repeated before every subsequent test. e other surfaces had been in contact with blood and
had been cleaned to the point that there was no longer any blood visible to the naked eye, but
leaving plenty of trace amounts for luminol. Experiment two was to be a double blind investigation
in which the researcher did not know which bottle contained which substance. Later the identities of
both sprays were made known to the researcher.

Experiment 1
Surface Surface preparation Action

1 none sprayed with luminol spray

2 visible blood stains sprayed with luminol spray

3 cleaned blood stains sprayed with B and cleaned with distilled water
afterwards; procedure repeated multiple times
luminol sprayed

4 cleaned blood stains sprayed with C and cleaned with distilled water
afterwards; procedure repeated multiple times
luminol sprayed

Experiment 2

Surface Surface preparation Action

1 none sprayed with luminol spray

2 visible blood stains sprayed with luminol spray

3 cleaned blood stains on after cleaning, divided in three clearly marked

two thirds of the surface parts
two wiped multiple times with ordinary household
bleach, only one of the two contained cleaned
blood
luminol spray applied

4 cleaned blood stains sprayed with luminol spray

5 bleach applied and sprayed with luminol spray

cleaned with distilled
water
13
Experiment 3
Surface Surface preparation Action

1 none spray with luminol spray

2 with visible blood stains spray with luminol spray

3 cleaned blood stains cleaned with a solution of copper sulfate, then

sprayed with luminol spray

4 wiped with copper sprayed with luminol spray

sulfate solution

14
Chapter 5
Results
5.1 Results of individual tests
A description of each test and results.
Note: Light production values were classified by visual confirmation.
Light intensity Description

not present no light visible

-- barely any visible light

- little visible light

-/+ reasonable amount of

visible light

+ clearly visible light

++ bright light noticeable

15
5.1.1 Experiment one:
Surface Surface preparation Action

1 none sprayed with luminol spray

2 visible blood stains sprayed with luminol spray

3 cleaned blood stains sprayed with B and cleaned with distilled water
afterwards; procedure repeated multiple times
luminol sprayed

4 cleaned blood stains sprayed with C and cleaned with distilled water
afterwards; procedure repeated multiple times
luminol sprayed

Surface Results

1 no reaction
light production: not present

2 clearly visible reaction, following blood pattern

light production: +

3 reaction barely visible

when reacting color of produced light was white and light was very equally
spread on surface, no blood patterns visible anymore
light production: --

4 reaction clearly visible

when reacting color of reaction was blue
no blood patterns visible, surface appeared “smeared”
light production: +
All these reactions had a similar duration. ere were no differences noticeable between bleach and
blood covered areas. Photos of each surface are provided in appendix A.

16
5.1.2 Experiment two
Surface Surface preparation Action

1 none sprayed with luminol spray

2 visible blood stains sprayed with luminol spray

3 cleaned blood stains on after cleaning, divided in three clearly marked

two thirds of the surface parts
two wiped multiple times with ordinary household
bleach, only one of the two contained cleaned
blood
luminol spray applied

4 bleach applied and sprayed with luminol spray

cleaned with distilled
water

Surface Results

1 no reaction
light production: not present

2 clearly visible reaction, following blood pattern

light production: +

3 clearly visible, equally spread reaction

no differences between blood covered, bleach covered and blood cleaned
with bleach areas
light production: +

4 clearly visible reaction, equally glowing over surface, not following blood
pattern
light production: -/+

5 clearly visible, bright reaction

equal glow over entire area where bleach was applied
light production: ++
Tests on surfaces one and two were not repeated aer experiment one. ese were included in the
results of experiment two because they are relevant here as well as in experiment one.

17
5.1.3 Experiment three
Surface Surface preparation Action

1 none spray with luminol spray

2 with visible blood stains spray with luminol spray

3 cleaned blood stains cleaned with a solution of copper sulfate, then

sprayed with luminol spray

4 wiped with copper sprayed with luminol spray

sulfate solution

Surface Results

1 no reaction
light production: not present

2 clearly visible reaction, following blood pattern

light production: +

3 very fast, very bright reaction

no evidence of blood visible, no blood patterns visible
patterns of applied copper sulfate clearly visible
light production: ++

4 very fast, very bright reaction

patterns in which copper sulfate was applied clearly visible
light production: ++
Tests on surfaces one and two were not repeated, but are listed because of their continued relevancy.

18
Chapter 6
Analysis and conclusions
6.1 Conclusions of each individual test

6.1.1 Conclusions of experiment one

Surface one:
Because the test was negative, it is concluded that the used luminol solution does not result in false
positive reactions with our surfaces.

Surface two:
Because the test was positive, the conclusion can be drawn that the luminol solution works correctly
and reacts to blood.

Surface three:
Because the test was barely positive, one can conclude that randomized spray B, later revealed to be
the one containing sodium, bound well with the blood traces. Although the iron ions were not
completely removed, the visibility of the blood traces was very limited and easily confused with any
other contamination, irrelevant to a crime scene. It is concluded that one can effectively hide blood
evidence with a simple soda spray.

Surface four:
It was later revealed to the researcher that surface four was tested with a spray containing only
distilled water. is corresponds with the positive results. Although smeared and diluted, blood was
clearly visible in the reaction.

6.1.2 Conclusions of experiment two

Surface one:
Because the test was negative, it is concluded that the luminol solution that was used does not result
in false positive reactions with our surfaces.

Surface two:
Because the test was positive, the conclusion can be drawn that the luminol solution works correctly
and reacts to blood.

Surface three:
e surface was divided into three areas: one with cleaned blood stains, one with cleaned blood
stains then further cleaned with bleach and one blood-free area cleaned with bleach. All surfaces
reacted positive and the duration of the reaction was about the same.
It is hereby concluded that CSI: Crime Scene Investigation’s theory applies and works. Blood
evidence can be effectively hidden using ordinary household bleach.

Surface four:
Because bleach reacts to luminol in a similar way to blood, we can conclude the results seen on
surface three are conclusive and caused by a reaction with bleach and blood.

19
6.1.3 Conclusions of experiment three

Surface one:
Because the test was negative, it is concluded that the used luminol solution does not result in false
positive reactions with our surfaces.

Surface two:
Because the test was positive, the conclusion can be drawn that the luminol solution works correctly
and reacts to blood.

Surface three:
Because of the extremely short and intense reaction with the copper sulfate smeared surface, the
researcher concluded that the luminol did not react with blood. Instead, it reacted with copper
sulfate. Hereby copper sulfate has been proven to effectively hide blood traces, but a forensics expert
would probably scratch his or her head a few times wondering why luminol reacted in such an odd
way.

Surface four:
A reaction very similar to the reaction in experiment three occurred. erefore, one can safely
assume that luminol did not react with blood in on surface three.

20
6.2 Conclusion
Is it possible to hide blood evidence from luminol and if so, what is the best and most efficient way to
accomplish this?
e question above was the main research question, and we now have an answer. Yes. It is easily
achieved to hide blood evidence from luminol. All three theories tested have shown to be effective,
but the soda solution has clear advantages above the others. is was the best and most efficient way
to cover up blood evidence. It is easily acquired at any supermarket, prepared and is usable on
almost every surface, unlike bleach.

So, next time one finds oneself in the sudden need to deceive a forensic scientist, soda is definitely
the way to go.

21
Chapter 7
Discussion
7.1 Documentation headaches

7.1.1 Vernier setup one

e original idea was to utilize the school’s 0..10 Lux light sensitivity meter from CMA connected to
a Vernier interface to quantify the result of each test. is meter can detect light from one to ten Lux
and consists of a small electronic part, a fiberoptic cable and a connection cable that was plugged
into the Vernier interface. e interface was connected to an Apple MacBook Pro, which ran

CMA

Vernier

lux 2.44

Figure 7.1

soware to analyze the signal registered by the meter. is allows the researcher to log light
production against time. A diagram of this setup is visible in figure 7.1.

Unfortunately this setup did not function due to the lack of sensitivity of the meter. It could not be
determined whether or not the fiberoptic cable of the device was damaged or whether the device was
just not usable in the setting that this investigation required. An image of the setting is provided in
figure 7.2

22
Figure 7.2

23
7.1.2 High-speed camera
e next best option to measuring with a Vernier interface was measuring with a high speed High-
Definition (HD) 720P camera. e camera was placed on a tri-pod and aimed at the surface and a
HD recording was made of every experiment accompanied by verbal commentary. e test image
was later analyzed in Adobe Photoshop CS4 to determine the luminosity of reacting areas.

Unfortunately there were too many disturbances, static and noise in the recording to obtain an
accurate impression of the true luminosity of a surface. Additionally, the copper sulfate reaction
occurred so quickly that the camera was unable to adjust fast enough to record the event accurately.

24
Figure 7.3
25
7.1.3 e Free University and Vernier setup two
e Free University’s Physics Department was gracious enough to provide two higher sensitivity
light sensors that would work with the Vernier interface described in 7.1.1. One of the devices
measured in W/m2 , the other in Lux.

Unfortunately, the Lux sensor was not recognized by our Vernier equipment and a legacy CMA
interface could not find the right calibration settings. e other sensor proved not to be sensitive
enough, and values measured from the same light source differed by factor 1000 depending on using
our own Vernier or CMA interfaces. ere was no other option but to determine both meters to be
unusable, since it was not possible to calibrate the Lux device using the W/m2.

Due to the reasons described in 7.1.1 through 7.1.3, there was not any other option than to gain our
results using visual confirmation.

26
Chapter 8
Sources
8.1 Sources of information

Chemistry Department Wiki, Imperial College London, 2006. Luminol [Online] (Updated 5 Dec
2006)
Available at: http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/wiki/index.php/It:Luminol

IanAlbert.com, 2005. Luminol for dummies [Online] (Updated 2005)

Available at: http://ian-albert.com/misc/luminol.php

L’Universita Di Torino, 2006. Luminol’s Chemiluminiescence [Online] (Updated 2006)

Available at: http://lem.ch.unito.it/didattica/infochimica/2006_Luminolo/frame.html

James S.H., Kish P.E., Sutton P, et al., 2005. Principles of bloodstain pattern analysis: theory and
practice.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Lyle D.P., 2004. Forensics for dummies.

Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing, inc.

Enotes, 2008. Specht, Walter (biography) [Online] (Updated 2008)

Available at: http://www.enotes.com/forensic-science/specht-walter

Gaffney, J.S. & Marley, N.A., 2002. Historical overview of the development of chemiluminescence
detection and its application to air pollutants.
Environmental Research Division Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois.
Availible at: http://www.ipd.anl.gov/anlpubs/2001/10/40927.pdf

Chayko, G.M. & Gulliver E.D., 1999. Forensic evidence in Canada.

Aurora, Ontario: Canada Law Book.

García-Campaña, A.M. & Baeyens, W.R.G., 2001. Chemiluminescence in analytical chemistry.

Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Quickenden, T.I. & Cooper, P.D., 2000. Increasing the specificity of the forensic luminol test for
blood.
Luminescence, 16, pp.251-153.

Specht, W., 1937 Die chemiluminescenz des Hamins, en Hilfsmittel zur Auffindung und Erkennung
forensisch wichtiger Blutspuren. Angewandte Chemie, 50 pp. 155-157)

NFI, 2008. Algemene beschrijving ENFSI [Online] (Updated 2008)

Available at: http://nederlandsforensischinstituut.nl/

27
8.2 Acknowledgements

Drs. T. de Boer, thanks for the advice and support

Drs. F. Hidden, Steven Weijhe and the Free University, thank you for your time and patience while
none of our measuring equipment actually worked and even for inviting me over to the Free
University for more sophisticated equipment

Drs. N Totinchi, thanks for preparing the chemicals and helping me along with the investigation

K. A. James, thank you for all your encouragement and your infallible English (charm)

Sara “Sullivan”, thanks for giving me the idea for this project and your endless knowledge of forensic
science

28
Appendix
Article
Die chemiluminescenz des Hamins, en Hilfsmittel zur Auffindung und
Erkennung forensisch wichtiger Blutspuren.
Dr. W. Specht

29
1 oct, 2008

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Artikel: DIE CHEMILUMINESENZ DES HAMINS....
Auteur: SPECHT W
Titel: ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE
Jaar: 1937 Vol. 50 Nr. Pag. 155-157
Plaatsnummer: 400 B