Peps Lectures

EE 660 Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems
B. G. Fernandes Department of Electrical Engineering I. I. T Bombay bgf@ee.iitb.ac.in

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes
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Course Outline
Introduction Load Compensation Shunt Compensation Series Compensation HVDC Transmission
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Theory Equipment Theory Equipment
Books for Reference

T. J. E. Miller Reactive power control in Electrical system, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982. K. R. Padiyar FACTS CONTROLLERS in Power Transmission & Distribution, New Age International (P) Ltd., 2007. K. R. Padiyar HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS Technology and System Interactions, New
Age International (P) Ltd., 1990.
Hingorani N. G Understanding FACTS Concepts & Technology of FACTS Systems, IEEE PRESS, 2000.
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Introduction
Power Electronics has grown as a major & extremely important discipline in Electrical Engg. What are major applications of Power Electronics ? Major role in Power Transmission & Distribution
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Consumption of Electricity are Demanding Customers Loss of Power for single cycle can make computer screen go blank Can interrupt sensitive Electronic equipment
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Consumption of Electricity is also Transmission lines are being operated close to their limits Power is being transmitted through long overhead transmission lines & they are interconnected
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Thermal limit (depends on ambient conditions) Voltage limit Stability limit

SIL
P
THERMAL LIMIT
Voltage and Stability Constraints
Distance
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Thermal limit
Type of conductors No. of Conductors Ambient conditions
Voltage limitations For typical 400 kV line Zc = 300 SIL = 540 MW For cable SIL is large
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Voltage profile along the line is flat if P = SIL If VS = VR = 1, V as we move towards the midpoint, if Ps > SIL
P < SIL P = SIL
VS
P > SIL
VR
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Line absorbs reactive power V if PS < SIL Voltage swell, line generates Q
P, Q P, Q
is
iR Transmission Line
Vs
VR
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To control VR & power transfer capacity of the line, Q generation is required at the receiving end
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V2 Q= XC
As VR
Q requirement as VR Other limitations L required during over voltage Separate L & C are required
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High V & high KVar source 3-ph inverter can supply
Requires only P
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O/P V => PWM 2- level inverter Harmonic spectrum depends on switching frequency (FS) PWM Constant FS Variable FS => Not suitable
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What sort of PWM technique to use ? With low switching frequency how to improve the harmonic spectrum Do we need to change the power circuit configuration ?
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VSVR = Sin X
To have sufficient stability margin max. length of line = 450 km Provide shunt reactive power compensation, there by P & maintain V profile. Use a mid point compensator
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Vm = VS = VR = V
It can be shown, for loss- less line
2V 2 P= Sin = 2 PUncompensated X 2
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If shunt compensation is applied at sufficient close interval, it may be possible to transmit power up to thermal limit of line P transmitted over long lines is limited by series reactance X
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Provide Series capacitive compensation to cancel a portion of series X
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VS = VR = 1 pu
V P= Sin (1 K )X
K = Degree of compensation =
XC X
2
C is not permanently connected in series During fault condition, Xeff should be increased May require L also
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Is it possible to change the phase angle difference between two ends of the line and there by control the power flow Phase angle regulator ? Inject a voltage in series with the line & proportional to the current flow (voltage should lag the I )
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Injecting V in series with line and with any phase angle with respect to VS
Both magnitude & phase angle of I has changed Both P & Q flow has changed
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Consider an AC network
Power flow in Line-1 & 2 depends on circuit conditions Lower X line may be over loaded Not possible to set the amount of power that should flow through a particular line!
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Definite amount of power that should flow through HVDC line can be set If power transfer over long distances Two near by areas having different frequencies ( Back to Back connection)
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Review
Power flow control through AC lines is not FLEXIBLE Depending upon the loading, there could be voltage swell or sag as we go towards the mid point
R+jX
V1
V2
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To control the power flow & to maintain voltage profile, provide Passive elements with Shunt compensation P.E switches or Series compensation
Inverter
At Tr. voltage levels PWM with high

switching frequency may not be possible Modify the existing power circuit Can we regulate the power flow by converting AC-DC-AC => HVDC Transmission ?
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Introduction ( contd)
Load compensation Loads are unbalanced P.F is lagging
No compensation of harmonics
Source should supply only active power & see a balanced load
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Most of the loads are Non-linear Harmonics are generated Voltage at P.C.C is non sinusoidal P.F is lagging Circuit to filter the harmonics (on-line) + compensate the loads
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P.C.C
Point of common coupling
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Current drawn by the load fed from P.E. equipment flows through system impedance. Voltage at P.C.C is non-sinusoidal (We had assumed that 'V' is sinusoidal).
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1 1 ia = I0 sin t- sin 5 t + sin 7 t-............. 5 7 = 6N 1 , Harmonics Line Commutated converter causes notches in the source voltage waveform. Source current has harmonics.
2 3
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Effe c t o f ha rm o nic s: A . In the Ro ta ting m a c hine Inc re a se s he a ting . The y p ro d uc e no ise . To rq ue p ulsa tio ns. C u lo sse s . A ud ib le no ise & he a ting . A d d itio na l he a ting . The rm a l vo lta g e stre ss. A ffe c ts c o ntro l syste m . M a lo p e ra tio n o f re la ys.
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B. In Tra nsfo rm e rs
C . In C a b le s D . P.F c o rre c tio n c a p a c ito rs. E. Ele c tro nic Eq uip m e nts
Load compensation + Active filter Depending upon the voltage & power level, circuit configuration & control should change
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Conclusions
Load compensator + Active filter to compensate non-linear loads Power flow in AC network is determined by circuit conditions Power transfer capability can be increased through shunt & series compensation HVDC can be used for bulk power transmission & to inter connect the systems of different frequencies
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Load compensation
In ideal power system V & F should be constant V should be sinusoidal P.F = 1 The above should be independent of size & characteristics of load No interference between different loads
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Notation of quality of supply

How nearly constant are V & F at the supply point ? How near to unity is the P.F ? In 3-ph system, degree to which V & I are balanced
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What are the characteristics of power system & loads which can deteriorate the quality of supply ? How to compensate ?
Objectives of load compensation

Power factor correction Improvement in voltage regulation Load balancing
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Ideal compensator
Correct the power factor to unity Reduce the voltage regulation to an acceptable value Balance the load current => not expected to compensate harmonics in V & I, also will not generate harmonics Should consume zero avg. power Response time = 0
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Load requires P.F correction

Large no. of uncompensated industrial loads, P.F is less than 0.8 ( they are non linear also) Arc furnace, induction furnace, steel rolling mills, large motor loads S rating of the compensator (P=0)
PL
= QL = S L sin L = S L 1 cos2 L
SL
QL
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Voltage regulation
Which is the most important parameter of the load & supply system affects regulation ?
IS RS+jXS
IL Sl = PL +jQL YL = GL +jBL
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Vreg =
E V V
E V V
E V
IS R
No compensator IL= IS
V = Z S I L
IS X
V
S
VX
VI = PL + jQL
* L
IL= IS
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VR
PL jQ L IL = V
PL jQL V = (RS + jX S ) V
RS PL + QL X S X S PL RS QL = +j V V
= VR + jVX
Change depends on both active & reactive power of the load
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Adding a compensator in parallel with load So that E = V Replace QL by
IS RS+jXS
QS = QL + QC
Such that
2 2
V IL
2
2
IC
E = (V + VR ) + (VX )
2
RS PL + QS X S X S PL RS QS = V + + ( A) V V
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Vary QS => V rotates till E = V Solve (A) with E = V

E
jI
There is always a solution for QC for any value of P
IS
IC
RS IS
IL
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If the compensation is used to make P.F unity then
RS PL + jX S PL V = V
Independent of QL Not under the control of compensator Passive reactive compensator can not maintain constant V & unity P.F at the same time
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PL = (RS + jX S ) V
Approximate relationship for voltage regulation Short circuit at the load bus
* S SC = PSC + jQ SC = EI SC
Z SC = RS + jX S , * Z SC = Z SC ISC S.C Current

RS = Z SC cos SC
X S = Z S sin SC
E2 = * Z SC
E2 = cos SC S SC
E2 = sin SC S SC
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Change in V influenced by VR Neglect VX

RS PL + QL X S VR = V PL Z Sc cos SC + QL Z SC sin SC = V
E VX V VR
Assume
E 1 V
VR Z SC = 2 {PL cos SC + QL sin SC } V V 1 {PL cos SC + QL sin SC } = S SC

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If short circuit resistance of source=0 => CosSC = 0
V QL = V S SC
E V QL = V S SC
V
Slope = -E/SSC V
QL E = V 1 + S SC
QL V = E 1 + S SC
1
QL E 1 S SC
QL
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Load balancing
Assume all loads are fully compensated for reactive VA
V ab = V L 0 , V bc = V L 120 , V ca = V L 120
I a = I ab I ca I b = I bc I ab I c = I ca I bc
Vca Vab Vbc
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Vab Vca Ia = R jX
VL 0 V120 VL 0 V30 = = R jX R X
1 1 = VL (cos 30 + j sin 30 ) R X 1 3 j = VL R 2X 2X
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Vbc Vab VL 120 VL 0 = Ib = jX jX R R

VL 30 V = X R
3 1 j = VL ( 2) 2X R 2X
Vca Vbc VL 120 VL 120 Ic = = jX jX jX jX

VL 30 V 30 = X R VL = j (3) X
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I b = I c 120
3 1 3 j j 1 = + j 2X R 2X X 2 2
3 1 3 = 2X R 2X
X = 3R
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Review
Using passive reactive element, it is possible to achieve V = 0 VX has negligible effect on V Determined by VR ( iSRS)
E
VX
V
R
E V
IS
IS X
VX
VR
IL= IS
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VR
Contd..
Using passive reactive element it is not possible to have V=0 & P.F =1 Load balancing All three line currents are balanced if
X = 3R
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Load balancing (Contd..)

1 VL 1 j 30 I a = VL = 2 3R 3R 2R 1 VL 1 j 210 I b = VL = 2 3R 3R 2R 1 VL I c = VL 0 + j 90 = 3R 3R Rule: For the load connected between line a-b, capacitor should be connected between b-c, and Inductor should be connected between c-a
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Comments
Branch currents of are unbalanced Reactive power is balanced within Reactive power generated by C connected between line b & c = Q is absorbed by L connected between c & a If the load is
ab L
= G + jB
ab L
ab C
ab L
ab L
Compensating susceptance
B = B
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Each branch of will have 3-parallel compensating susceptances

ca bc GL GL ab ab BC = BL + 3 ab ca GL GL bc bc BC = BL + 3 bc ab GL GL ca ca BC = BL + 3
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Observations
Any linear unbalanced 3- load can be transformed into a equal 3- balanced load Net real power is the same Corresponding elements are purely reactive
R X= 3
Corresponding to power consumed by the load
As the power varies, X also should change

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May not be possible Most of the loads are non-linear => Harmonics + lagging P.F
P.F cos I V
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VC1VS P= sin X
If = 0 If
IC1
jLIC1 VS VC1
VC1 > VS
IC1 is leading VS
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Can be shown that if
VC 1 < V S
Ic1 is lagging
VS VC1 Q = VS I C1 VS L
VC1mVdc
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Non ideal case Var generated m Vdc
IC1
VS
j L IC
VC1 IC1R VC1 IC1
VS
jLIC
1
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M => Magnitude of sine wave (not very popular) Magnitude of space vector T1 & T2 are to be determined
sin(60 ) .Tc T1 = m sin 60 sin T2 = TC m sin 60
Intelligent controller is required
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Vary Vdc Var supplied Vdc Var generated is controlled by varying VC1 & iC1 O/P voltage of inverter Indirect current controller Synchronous link converter Var compensator (SLCVC) or STATCOM
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Review
Linear lagging load can be balanced using passive elements Difficult to realize in real life Use V.S.I to supply Q
YLbc
bc BC ca BC
YLca
ab BC
YLab
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Contd..
Similar to over-excited Syn. motor on No-load Draws only small P is very small In V.S.I =
VC1 VS E V
VC1 is synthesized using PWM

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Contd..
If space vector PWM is used at the Z.C instant of supply voltage, VS* should lag by angle In sinusoidal PWM technique, fundamental component of VC1 is in phase with modulating wave
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Harmonic elimination Techniques

Undesirable harmonics can be eliminated and fundamental can be controlled by creating notches at pre-determined angles
At the Z.C of supply voltage, modulating wave should lag by

If 'n' switchings / 1 cycle
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(n-1) harmonics are eliminated & magnitude of fundamental can be controlled 4 switchings /(1/4) cycle
(1, 2, 3, 4) 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < /2

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3 significant harmonics = 0 Fundamental can be controlled Square wave has quarter wave odd symmetry Coefficient of the fundamental & harmonic components are given by
4 bn = n
m k 1 + 2 ( 1) cos(n k ) k =1
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Assume that there are 5 switchings / (1/4) cycle 4 harmonics can be made zero In 3 phase, 3 wire system, triple harmonics can be ignored So harmonics to be eliminated are 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th
b1 =
{1 2 cos 1 + 2 cos 2 2 cos 3

+ 2 cos 4 2 cos 5 }
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4 b5 = {1-2cos51+2cos5 2 -2cos5 3 +2cos5 4 5 -2cos5 5 } = 0 4 b7 = {1-2cos71+2cos7 2 -2cos7 3 7 +2cos7 4 -2cos7 5 } = 0 4 b11 = {1-2cos111+2cos11 2 ........................ 11 -2cos11 5 } = 0 4 b13 = {1-2cos131+2cos13 2 ........................ 13 -2cos13 5 } = 0
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Non-linear transcendental equations Solve numerically Choose required value for b1 Fundamental component
1 = 10.514, 2 = 23.228, 3 = 29.289, 4 = 46.421, 5 = 50.157 b1 = 0.986 p.u.
Immediate dominant harmonic V gets amplified

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Var supplied Vdc Var generated is controlled by varying VC1 or iC1 O/P voltage of inverter Indirect current controller Synchronous link converter Var compensator (SLCVC) or STATCOM
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How to calculate Ref. Var ?

i = I m cos(t ) & V = Vm cos t
= I P cos t + I q sin t
Multiply by cost
i = I P cos t + I q sin t. cos t

2
Iq IP = (1 cos 2t ) + sin 2t 2 2
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Use a low pass filter IP/2 average Remaining Reactive power Limitations: Response time is poor min. one cycle
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Controlled current SLCVC

Compensator current is actually sensed & controlled to follow the reference Source should supply active component of load current + compensate inverter loss
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Reactive component of load current (iqL) should come from inverter
iC = iPC + iqL
iqL obtained from Var calculator iPC Accounts for loss
If there is a mismatch in power supply and consumed VdC will change

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Control strategy -I
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To iC close S4 & S3 , To iC open S4 & S3 Response is fast Switching frequency varies Var calculator is required
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Review
In harmonic elimination technique, if there are n switchings / () cycle, (n-1) harmonics can be eliminated & fundamental can be controlled
If F of pre-dominant harmonic is > 2kHz at 50Hz, up to 40th harmonic should be absent 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 31, 35, 37 12 harmonics should be eliminated
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Contd..
13 switchings / ( ) cycle 13 non linear transdential equations to be solved H. S. Patel & R. G. Hoft Generalized technique of harmonic elimination and voltage control in thyristor inverters, Part-1 harmonic elimination., IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. IA-9, pp 310-317, May 1973.
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Contd..
Controlled current SLCVC
Compensator current iC = iPC + iqL sinusoidal if load is linear If iqL has the information about the non-linear, iC is non - sinusoidal
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Control strategy -II

Sense source current iS Compare with sinusoidal reference current iS*
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iS* is in phase with vS iS is also in phase with vS VdC is held constant All the active power is supplied by the source Rest (Q + Harmonic I) supplied by inverter
iS = iL + iC
To iS, iC To iS, iC
} Using inverter switchings

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How often iS* is changed ?

Once in every cycle If active power demand of the load has changed in between +ve Zero crossings Power is supplied by inverter
VdC will
VdC > Vm peak of VS

Large size C is required
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If Inverter iS* is changed in between the cycle Source I will have a DC component Smaller size C may be sufficient
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Current control is suitable for low power For high power loads switching F Inverter Voltage control Harmonic spectrum is inferior Load current has harmonics In addition inverter with voltage control also generates harmonics
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Use two compensators & connect them in parallel Var generator High power inverter High V & high I Harmonic filter Low power inverter Switching frequency is high Since low power, use current controlled PWM technique
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Active filter +Var compensator for high power
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Main compensator Voltage control mode Aux. compensator controlled current mode Generate iref ref. I of suitable magnitude & in phase with source V Force iS = iCm + iCx + iL to follow the reference within a hysterisis band Error decides the switching instant of aux. compensator devices
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To iS, iCx close S4 & S3 To iS, iCx open S4 & S3 Now iref = iL(p) + iCm(p)
Where iL(p) = Real component of load I iCm(p) = Real component of the main compensator current
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VS VCm1 iCm1 = Z
(VS mVdC cos ) + jKVdC sin =

Z
I Cm 1
2 2 I Cm 1 p ( real ) I Cm 1 p ( q ) = + 2 2

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Control block diagram
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Var calculator determines Vdc* (m is constant)
Vdc* - Vdc determines

C determines iref using Ip, , VdC & VS Compare iS & iref to generate switching signals for aux. inverter
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Review
For low power
Var generator + Active filter
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Contd..
For high power application
Use high power inverter for Var generation To compensate harmonics use active filter
Used Var calculator to determine Q required by the load Linear load is assumed
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3-Phase to 2-phase conversion
[v] = [z] [i] [v'] = [z'] [i'] [v] = [A] [v'] [i] = [A] [i'] [v] = [z] [i]
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[A] [v'] = [z] [A] [i'] [v'] = [A]-1 [z] [A] [i] Z' Inverse should exist p = i1v1 + i2v2 + i3v3 = [i]t [v] p' = i1'v1' + i2'v2' + i3'v3' = [i']t [v']
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p = p' [it][v] = { [A] [i'] }t [A] [v'] = [i']t [A]t [A] [v']
[U] Unit matrix
[A]t = [A-1] or [A] = [A]t -1
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Vector representation of instantaneous 3-phase quantities

3-current vectors one vector space vector
iS = K[ia+ ibej2/3 + ice-j2/3]

Has 2-components (, )
i = Kd [ia- (1/2) ib (1/2) ic] i = Kq [0 + 3/2 ib - 3/2 ic] i0 = K0 [ia + ib + ic]
ib
i
ia iC
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i K d i = 0 i0 K 0
( 1 2) K d ( 3 2) K q K0
(1 2) K d ia i ( 3 2) K q b ic K0
[C]
2 3 Kd 1 [C ] = 1 3K d 1 3K d 0 1 1 3K q 3K q 1 3 K0 1 3 K0 1 3 K0
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Kd [C ]t = (1 2) K d (1 2) K d
0 ( 3 2) K q ( 3 2) K q
K0 K0 K0
If Kd = Kq = 2/3 & K0 =2/3 [C]-1 = 3/2 [C]t

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1 2 1 2 ia 1 i i i = 2 0 3 2 3 2 b 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 ic i0
Similarly 3-ph AC voltages two phase voltages
1 2 1 2 va e 1 e = 2 0 v 3 2 3 2 b 3 e0 1 2 1 2 1 2 vc
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0 1 va 1 v = 1 2 3 2 1 b vc 1 2 3 2 1
p = vaia+ vbib + vcic
2 e 2 e 2 0
p = ei+{ (-1/2 e+3/2 e) (-1/2 i+ 3/2 i) } + { (-1/2 e-3/2e) (-1/2i-3/2i) } p = 3/2 (ei+ei) = 3 2 e .i + e .i
)
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Instantaneous reactive power compensation

Instantaneous real power
p = vaia+ vbib + vcic

Definition of instantaneous reactive current:
That part of the three phase current can be eliminated at any instant without affecting P
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e = VS cos e = VS sin
i e
iS i
VS e
i = iS cos ( + ) i = iS sin ( + )
3 p = VS iS {cos .cos ( + ) + sin .sin ( + )} 2 3 3 = VS iS {cos ( )} = VS iS cos 2 2

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Can be concluded that 3/2 iS sin component of current iS can be eliminated without effecting P
Reactive power
q = 3 2 VS iS sin
= 3 2 VS iS sin ( + ) = 3 2 VS iS {sin ( + ) cos cos ( + ) sin } = 3 2 {VS cos .iS sin ( + ) VS sin .iS cos ( + )} = 3 2 {e i e i } = 3 2 e i + e i
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In matrix form
p 3 e e i q = 2 e e i 2 e e 1 p i i = e e q 3
2 1 e = * 2 2 3 e + e e
e p e q
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i C 2 1 e i = . 2 2 3 e + e e C
e 0 e q
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i C =
*
3 2 e + e
2
e .q
2
i C
e .q = 2 2 3 2 e + e
3 Where q = [e i e i ] 2
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Frequency of e, i, e & i is same as supply frequency p & q are calculated based on instantaneous values Assume supply voltages & currents are nonsinusoidal and have few common harmonic components
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Avg. power due to these common harmonic components is finite We can not eliminate these frequency components from source i ! Source i is non-sinusoidal
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Review
Instantaneous real power
i e iS VS
P = vaia+ vbib + vcic

3 P = VS I S cos = 3 2 e .i + e .i 2
Instantaneous reactive current:

That part of the three phase current can be eliminated at any instant without affecting P
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Contd..
q = 3 2 VS iS sin
= 3 2 e i + e i
If v is sinusoidal, iL is non-sinusoidal
If q=0, then iS will be sinusoidal and in phase with Vs ( since average of the product of fundamental & higher term = 0)
pn = v sin t in sin nt
n=2
Avg. of pn = 0
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Contd..
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Contd..
If v is non-sinusoidal & iL is also non-sinusoidal iS will have component corresponding to common frequency term of voltage & current
H. Akagi, Y. Kanzawa, and A. Nabae Instantaneous Reactive Power Compensators Comprising Switching Devices without Energy Storage Components, Part-1 harmonic elimination., IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. IA-20, No. 3,pp 625630, May 1984.
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Change of reference frame

d S = S dt
qr qS S dr S dS
d s cos S sin S d r q = sin q cos S r S s d r cos S sin S d s q = sin cos q S S s r
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3 - phase (St. Frame) 50 Hz
2 - phase (St. Frame) 50 Hz
2 - phase (rotating. Frame at S) D. C
d r cos S q = 2 sin S r 3 0 1 2
cos( s 2 3) cos( s + 2 3) a b sin ( s 2 3) sin ( s + 2 3) c 1 2 1 2
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Let us assume that vS is along dr- axis in the syn. Rotating frame & iS is making an angle
3 P = VS I S cos 2 qr
qS iS
S
= 3 2 VS r I d r
3 and q = VS r I qr 2
vS
S dr dS
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Transform all the variables to Syn. rotating frame (rotating at S) Fundamental component of v & i will become dc Other components will pulsates Use a filter to eliminate these pulsating component (Could have used a filter to eliminate harmonics from input signal)
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AC filtering phase shift VS is filtered component iq is made zero

qr qs iS dr iq id VS ds
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Information about system frequency is required Frequency varies over a narrow range Should be insensitive to harmonics or multiple zero crossings
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Harmonic Oscillator
. x 0 x Has Eigen values at S = j = . - 0 y If x(0) = 0 and y(0) =1 y
x(t ) = sint
& x = y
y (t ) = cos t
& y = x
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x(t )
x n +1 x n = y t
y n +1 y n = x t
xn +1 = xn + yt
y (t )
y n +1 = y n x t
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How to generate 3-phase sinusoids?
x = sin t
va = Cost = y
y = cos t
3 x 2 3 x 2
1 vb = Cos (t 120) = y + 2 1 vc = Cos (t 240) = y 2
Let ea, eb and ec are the 3 instantaneous system voltages

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1 1 3 e = ea eb ec = ea 2 2 2
3 3 e = eb ec 2 2
es = e + je
Space vector representation of va, vb and vc
2 j 3 2 j 3
vs = va + vb e
+ vc e
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= cost + cos(t 120)(cos
2 2 2 2 + j sin ) + cos(t 240)(cos j sin ) 3 3 3 3
1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 = cost + ( cost + sint)( + j ) + ( cost sint)( j ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 = cost + j sint = v + jv 2 2
Projection of es on dr and qr ( vs is aligned along dr)
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ed = es cos( t )
= es {cos cost + sinsint}
ed = e cos t + e sin t
eq = es sin( t )
= es {sin cost cos sint}
eq = e cos t e sin t
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Objective
To make the phase and frequency of va, vb ,vc and ea, eb ,ec same vs and es are in phase eq=0
va = y
1 3 vb = y + x 2 2
1 3 vc = y x 2 2
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Review
In synchronous rotating frame (speed of the frame = s ), supply frequency terms will become DC If input v are unbalanced
+ve sequence terms DC
-ve sequence terms oscillate at 2s

135/454
Contd..
Other higher frequency terms in the synchronous reference frame can be filtered out They can also be filtered out in the input side Phase shift is introduced not an issue Active filter control
136/454
To change MI using harmonic elimination PWM technique

10.9091, 23.2907, 29.8505, 46.3408, 50.6781 10.7120, 23.2678, 29.5761, 46.3867, 50.4260 10.5138, 23.2278, 29.2896, 46.4210, 50.1567
5, 7, 11, 13 are eliminated and Magnitude of fundamental is different
Frequency information is required. C. Schauder and H. Mehta, Vector analysis and control advanced static Var compensators IEE proc, vol.140, pp. 299-306, 1993
137/454
Through Hardware
Digitize the sine wave and store in EPROM (1024 part) Address the EPROM using 10 bit counter 210 = 1024 ) ( Use a PLL as a multiplier
138/454
139/454
Software approach
Harmonic oscillator
x(t ) = sint y (t ) = cos t

x n +1 x n = y t y n +1 y n = x t
. x = 0 x . - 0 y y
Instantaneous frequency
Input to harmonic oscillator is
140/454
3 sinusoids which are in phase with supply fundamental component of the supply voltage are required Input voltage may have harmonics ea, eb ,ec input system voltages may have harmonics + may be unbalanced
es = e + je
141/454
Let va, vb ,vc are the

3 pure sinusoids es should be in phase with vs
eS
St
vS
va = y
1 3 vb = y + x 2 2
1 3 vc = y x 2 2
142/454
This voltage waveform can be used as reference current waveform in hystersis current control PWM technique Source current follows this reference i Source current is in phase with fundamental component of input voltage
143/454
One cycle control of 3 Var compensator and Active filter

No zero crossing detection No PLL
No reference wave generation
Basic Analysis : Switching frequency is much higher than supply frequency Let x(t) be an input to a switch operating at variable ON and OFF times
144/454
TON
1 1 = = Switching frequency + TOFF Ts
Produces switched output with average
1 y (t ) = Ts
T ON
x ( t ) dt
= x(t) D(t)
D= duty cycle
145/454
Duty ratio has to be generated as control input based on some reference signal Vref(t) If the duty ratio is controlled so that
TON
x (t )dt = V
0 0
TS
ref
( t ) dt
Average output
1 y (t ) = Vref (t )dt Ts 0
146/454
Ts
Assume that over one cycle Vref(t) is roughly constant y(t)=Vref(t) Works for constant switching frequency Vref could be a variable feedback signal Can be implemented using a simple integrator with reset
147/454
Generate reset pulse at required frequency At the start of every cycle switch is turned ON by the reset pulse Integrate the input When the output of the integrator just exceeds Vref turn OFF the switch Start the cycle again after Ts when integrator resets
148/454
Rule to be followed
A term in the control equation which is being multiplied with duty cycle of the switch has to be passed through a reset integrator and compared with the appropriate reference
149/454
1 AC-DC Active filter + Var generator

Assumption:
In one switching cycle input is constant Vdc is constant and ripple free
150/454
S4, S3 ON for DTS:
di L = V s + V DC dt
S1, S2 ON for (1-D)TS:
di L = V s V DC dt
151/454
Assume i(t) is continuous and i(0) = i(Ts) Average V across L = 0
(Vs + VDC ) DTS = (VDC VS )(1 D)Ts
Vs VDC = 1 2D
152/454
Aim
is and Vs should be in phase Vs= isRe (Re = Emulated resistance) ..(a) (1-2D)Vdc = isRe
is = (1-2D)Vdc/Re (b)
In each switching cycle if the duty ratio D is controlled in such a way that equation (b) is satisfied , equation (a) also gets satisfied
Control requirement is (1-2D)Vm = is

Where Vm= Vdc/Re
153/454
Review
One cycle control
No PLL No ZCD
Rule to be followed:
A term in the control equation which is being multiplied with duty cycle of the switch has to be passed through a reset integrator and compared with the appropriate reference
154/454
Contd..
Generate reset pulse at required frequency At the start of every cycle switch is turned ON by the reset pulse Integrate the input When the output of the integrator just exceeds Vref turn OFF the switch
155/454
Start the cycle again after Ts when integrator resets K. M. Smedley & C. Qiao, Unified constantfrequency integration control of active power filters steady state and dynamics IEEE Transaction on power electronics, vol. 16, No. 3, May 2001
156/454
1 AC-DC
Control technique
(1 2 D)Vm = is
Vm Vc = Re
Emulated resistance
157/454
1 Vm Vmdt = is Ti 0 Vm DTs = is Vm Ti
Ti = Integrator time constant Fs = 1/TS = Switching frequency
DTs
Vm remains constant in one cycle

1 If Ti = Ts 2
(1 2 D )Vm = is
158/454
Alternate Approach DC-DC Converter
Vc DT + Vc (1 D)T (Vi )avg = T
= Vc (1 2 D)
159/454
Buck Converter
L is small
V c + i L = V s
Vi =Vs =Vc (1 2D)

Vo to be maintained constant Compare with reference and vary D or depending upon Vs change D
160/454
Information regarding Vs should be known Assume that Vs and is are in phase (required) Instead of varying D as function of Vs Vary D as a function of is If Vs and is are not in phase chosen values of D may not give the desired Vo If Vo is regulated, our assumption that Vs and is are in phase is valid
161/454
162/454
163/454
DC link voltage has to be regulated Generate fixed frequency clock At the rising edge reset the integrator and turn ON the switches S4 and S3 is As t X When is = X ; R = 1 Turn OFF the S4, S3 and Turn ON S1, S2
164/454
Inverter topology for high power application

For high power applications Conventional 3 Inverter with V control Switching F is low
F of predominant harmonic is low

165/454
2 converters
Var Compensator active filtering
Low power inverter for

Instead
There are only two levels
166/454
Number of pulse should be high for superior harmonic spectrum Instead modify the Inverter structure More than two levels Multi-level inverter
167/454
Diode clamp multilevel inverters
3 Level Inverter:
Consider only one leg
Any time two switches are ON = (n-1)

168/454
Switches ON S1, S2 S2, S3 S3, S4
VAX Vdc
Vdc 2
Number of capacitors required = 2 =(n-1) Number of switches required = 4/phase = 2(n-1)

169/454
170/454
171/454
Voltage across each capacitor = Vdc/2 = Vdc/(n-1) Number of diodes = 2 ?
4 level Inverter

Number of switches ON = 3 = (n-1) Number of switches/leg = 6 = 2(n-1) Number of capacitors = 3 = (n-1) Voltage across each capacitor = Vdc/3 = Vdc/(n-1)
172/454
Review
In one cycle control iS is compared with (1-2D)Vm Vm is passed through reset integrator & compared with Vm - RSiS
RS is sensing resistor
No reference current waveform generation

173/454
Contd..
For high power Use multi-level inverter For 3-level VAX = VdC, VdC, 0
174/454
Contd..
At any time 2-devices (n-1) devices are ON No. of Switches = 2(n-1) V across each C = VdC / 2 = VdC /(n-1) V rating of switch = VdC /2 = VdC /(n-1) V rating of diode = VdC /2 No. of diodes = 2 = (m-1)*(m-2)
175/454
References
Bum-Seok Suh and Dong-Seok Hyun A New NLevel High Voltage Inversion System, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 44, No. 1,pp 107-115, Feb 1997. Nam S. Choi, Jung G. Cho and Gyu H. Cho A General Circuit Topology of Multilevel Inverter, in Proc. IEEE Power electron specialist conf. Rec., pp 96103, 1991.
176/454
4-level inverter
Number of switches ON = 3 = (n-1) Number of switches/leg = 6 = 2(n-1)

177/454
Number of capacitors = 3 = (n-1) Voltage across each capacitor = Vdc /3 =

Vdc /(n-1)
S1, S2, S3 ON: VAX = Vdc
V rating of each device = Vdc /3

178/454
S2, S3, S4 ON : VAX = 2Vdc /3
S3, S4, S5 ON : VAX = Vdc /3

179/454
S4, S5, S6 ON: VAX = 0
Observations:
Duty cycle of switch is not the same Lower switches are ON for longer time Switch utilization is poor
180/454
V rating of DB = 2Vdc/3 V rating of DA = Vdc/3
181/454
V rating of diodes is not the same Number of diodes = (n-1) (n-2) = 6
182/454
Voltage space vectors for 3 level inverter

Large voltage vectors
CBA NNP NPP NPN PPN PNN PNP NNP
Similar to conventional 2-level inverter 6 active vectors and 2 zero vectors

183/454
Van 2 1 1 Vao V = 1 1 2 1 V bn 3 bo Vcn 1 1 2 Vco
Vds 1 V = qs 0
Van 1 2 1 2 Vbn 3 2 3 2 Vcn
184/454
( NNP ) ( 001 ) ( PPN ) ( 110 )
VdC 0
VdC
( NPN ) ( 010 ) VdC 2 / 3 ( PNP ) ( 100 ) VdC / 3 ( NPP ) ( 011 )
VdC / 3
( PNN ) ( 100 ) VdC 2 / 3

185/454
Small voltage vectors
CBA
OPP POP PPO
CBA
OOP OPO POO
186/454
CBA
OON ONO NOO
CBA
ONN NON NNO
187/454
CBAOPP
VAO = VBO = VdC/2, VCO = 0 Van = VdC /6, Vbn = VdC /6, Vcn = - VdC /3
VdC 1 VdC 1 VdC VdC Vd = = 6 2 6 2 3 4

188/454
3 VdC VdC 3 Vq = 6 + 3 = 4 VdC 2

OPP
VdC VS = / 3 2
VdC POO VS = 4 / 3 2
POO
189/454
NOO : VAO = VBO = 0, VCO = -VdC/2 Vcn = -VdC/3
Van = VdC/6, Vbn = VdC/6,

3 VdC VdC , Vds = = 2 6 4
VdC VS = / 3 2
3 VdC VdC 3 Vqs = 6 + 3 = 4 VdC 2
VdC ONN VS = 4 / 3 2
190/454
OOP :
VAO = VdC /2, Van = VdC /3, VBO = VCO = 0 Vbn = Vcn = -VdC /6
VdC , Vds = 2
VdC VS = 0 2
Vqs = 0
PPO OON
OOP NNO
VdC PPO VS = 2
191/454
NNO :
VAO = 0, VBO = VCO = -VdC / 2
Van = 1/3[0 +Vdc /2 + Vdc /2] = VdC /3, Vbn = Vcn = 1/3[-2VdC / 2 + VdC / 2] = - VdC/6
VdC , Vqs = 0 Vds = 2

VdC VS = 0 2
VdC OON VS = 2
192/454
OPO :
VAO = VCO = 0, VBO = VdC /2
Van = Vcn = -VdC /6, Vbn = VdC/3
VdC 3 VdC VdC 3 , Vqs = Vds = 6. 3 + 6 = 4 VdC 2 4

VdC VS = 2 / 3 2
VdC POP VS = 5 / 3 2
193/454
NON :
VAO = VCO = -VdC /2, VBO = 0 Van = Vcn = -VdC /6, Vbn = VdC/3
OPO NON
VdC 3 , Vqs = Vds = VdC 4 4

VdC VS = 2 / 3 2
POP ONO
VdC ONO VS = 5 / 3 2
194/454
Medium voltage vectors

ONP : VAO = VdC /2, Van = VdC /2, VBO = -VdC /2 , VCO = 0 Vbn = -VdC /2 , Vcn = 0
3 3 Vds = VdC , Vqs = VdC 4 4

3 VS = VdC / 6 2
195/454
NOP : VAO = VdC /2, Van = VdC /2, VBO = 0 , VCO = -VdC /2 Vbn = 0 , Vcn = -1/2 VdC
3 3 Vds = VdC , Vqs = VdC 4 4

3 VS = VdC / 6 2
196/454
NPO : VAO = 0, Van = 0, VBO = VdC /2 , VCO = -VdC /2 Vbn = VdC /2 , Vcn = -VdC /2
3 Vds = 0, Vqs = VdC 2

3 VS = VdC / 2 2
197/454
PNO : VAO = 0, Van = 0, VBO = -VdC /2 , VCO = VdC /2 Vbn = -VdC /2 , Vcn = VdC /2
Vds = 0,
3 Vqs = VdC 2
3 VS = VdC 3 / 2 2
198/454
199/454
Review
3-Level Inverter
No. of large voltage vectors = 6 VS = VdC No. of small voltage vectors = 6 VS = 1/2VdC 12 possible combinations
+ ve or ve bus & mid point
200/454
Contd..
No. of medium voltage vectors = 6
+ ve, - ve & mid-point bus VS = 3 2 VdC
201/454
202/454
Voltage control
Space vector PWM Depending upon the position of space
vector, switch the corresponding switch
NPP
OPP NOO
NOP
PPP NNN OOO
OOP NNO
NNP
203/454
Voltage unbalance between DC-Line capacitance

Each leg 3 possibilities There are 27 switching instances are possible
204/454
Unbalances has no effect on load Load is connected across the DC bus
Somewhat effective in reducing voltage unbalance
205/454
C1 supplies the power C2 does not supply the power V across C2 For remaining 2 configuration, V across C1
206/454
Load compensation
Passive elements Inverter
Current control Voltage control Main compensator Aux. compensator
Instantaneous reactive power theory One cycle controlled inverter Multi level inverter
207/454
Transmission line voltage support

Provide mid-point compensation
Shunt Series Combination of shunt & series Combination of series & series
P < SIL P = SIL
VS
P > SIL
VR
208/454
Shunt Compensation :
Inject current in to the system If injected I is in phase quadrature with the V Only reactive power transfer Else, it has to handle real P as well
Series Compensation :
Inject voltage in series with the line
209/454
If V is in quadrature with line I, only reactive

power transfer
Combination of series & Shunt Compensation :

Inject I with the shunt part & Inject V with the series part When combined there can be real power exchange between the series & shunt controllers
210/454
Mid point voltage regulator

Two machine model
VSVR = Sin X
If Vs = Vr = V
Pmax V2 = X
211/454
Connect a compensator at the mid point &

V m = Vs = Vr = V
Whether active power transfer is require ?
System is loss-less
212/454
213/454
Let Vsm & Vmr are fictitious voltages in phase with Ism & Imr respectively
Vsm = Vmr = V .Cos ( / 4 )
I sm = I mr 2V .Sin ( / 4 ) 4V = = Sin ( / 4 ) X 2 X
Pr = P = Vsm .I sm
4V 2 = Sin ( / 4 ).Cos ( / 4 ) X
2V 2 = Sin( / 2 ) X
214/454
Reactive power supplied by the

compensator = Vm I c = VI c
= 2.V .I sm Sin( / 4 )
8V 2 = Sin 2 ( / 4 ) X
4V 2 (1 Cos( / 2)) = X
215/454
216/454
Shunt compensator can increase P

Q demand also
Can have multiple compensators located at the equal distances Theoretically P would double for each doubling of the segments
217/454
the no. of segments results in flat V profile
Expensive
218/454
Review
Mid-point shunt compensation
If Vs = Vr = V
2V 2 P= Sin( / 2 ) X
4V 2 (1 Cos( / 2)) Q= X
I is injected into the line (in quadrature with v)

219/454
Contd..
For each doubling of the segments, transmittable P also doubles V profile is almost flat Large no. of shunt compensators expensive
220/454
Summary
Compensator must remain in synchronism with the ac system under all operating conditions including major disturbances Must regulate the bus voltage For the inter connecting two systems, best location is in middle For radial feed to a load, best location is at the load end
221/454
Methods of controlling Var generation

Mechanically switched capacitor and/or inductor course control in-rush current Continuously variable Var generation or absorption originally over excited syn. motor Modern Var generators use power semiconductor devices/equipment + energy storing elements
222/454
Variable impedance type S.V.C

1. Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR):
T1 & T2 is triggered in the + ve & - ve half cycles respectively
Can be measured w. r. t zero crossing or peak of V
223/454
i flows from to
di L = Vm Sint dt i (t ) = Vm (Cos Cost ) L
i(t) =0 at t =
Cos = Cos
= 2
= extinction angle
224/454
i is continuous when = /2 i is sinusoidal No control L is fixed & it is minimum As , all odd harmonics are introduced
225/454
As , L
I LF ( ) =
BL ( ) =
V 2 1 1 sin 2 L
1 2 1 1 sin 2 L
VL(MAX) Voltage limit IL(MAX) current limit BL(MAX) Max. admittance of TCR
226/454
2. Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC):

Small L is required to limit the surge current Thyristors are switched when vc = v V rating of the switch ?
227/454
228/454
3. Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor controlled Reactor (FC-TCR): In TCR iL is varied by varying
iL = iL(max) when = /2
In FC-TCR, for any value of iL, net effect of C C also provides a low impedance path for harmonics generated by TCR
229/454
QC is constant Net Q = QC when QL = 0 ( = ) To net Q, Net Q = 0, when QC = QL If is further, net Q is inductive
230/454
At = /2, QL = QL(max) Operating V-I region of FC-TCR
231/454
STATCOM
VSI can supply Q Also known as static synchronous condenser Similar to syn. motor
V E I= X
V E Q= .V X
Q reactive power received by the source

232/454
Control
Q is controlled by M.I & accounts for losses Assumed that inverter is capable of injecting Q demand of the line
233/454
If Q demand >Var rating of inverter It may fail due to over load Have a inner I loop
234/454
Operating V-I region
235/454
Review
T.C.R
If = /2 i = imax As , Leff Harmonics
236/454
Contd..
T.S.C
Thyristors are triggered when vc = v
F.C.T.C.R
T.S.C T.C.R scheme is also possible
237/454
Contd..
Above schemes are variable impedance types
STATCOM
Variable source type
V E I= X
V E Q= .V X
238/454
Advantages
Since voltage profile is maintained (in radial system) Voltage instability is prevented Improves transient stability Damping of power oscillations Able to maintain V profile
239/454
Series compensation
Reciprocal of shunt compensation Shunt compensator : Controlled reactive I source connected in parallel with the Tr. Line to control V Series compensator : Controlled reactive V source connected in series with the Tr. Line to control I
240/454
Series compensation
Injects voltage in series with the line Could be variable Z (such as C or L) Voltage source Effective in controlling the power flow
241/454
Concept of series capacitive compensation

To decrease reactance of the line
VS .VR P= .Sin X
X = (X L X C )
242/454
X eff = ( X L X C )
= (1 K )X L
K = X C X L Degree of series
compensation 0<K<1
243/454
If VS = VR =V
V .Sin 2 2V .Sin 2 I= = (1 K )X L 2 (1 K )X L
2V .Sin 2 P = Vm I = (VCos 2 ). (1 K )X L
V 2 .Sin = (1 K )X L
2V 2 .(1 Cos ).K 4V 2 .Sin 2 2 QC = I 2 X C = .X C = 2 2 2 (1 K ) . X L (1 K ) X L

244/454
Qse 2 max = tan Qsh 2
max maximum angular difference between the two ends of the line
245/454
If max 30 - 40o Qse = 7- 13% of QSL Cost of series capacitor ? Location of series capacitor is not very critical
246/454
Approaches to controllable series compensation

Variable Z type :
1. GTO controlled series capacitor (GCSC)

Objective : Vary VC
GTO is closed when vc = 0 Open when i charges C Duality between TCR & GCSC
247/454
GTO is turned ON when vc = 0 for < t < +

1 vc (t ) = i(t ).d (t ) C
I (Sint Sin ) = C
t
i (t ) = I .Cost
vc is maximum when t = /2 & vc = 0 when t = -

248/454
Amplitude of the fundamental

Vc1 =
=
v (t ).Sint.d (t )
c 0
0
I .(Sint Sin )Sint.d (t ) C
2 Sin 2 = IX c 1
249/454
Controlling modes
(a). Voltage compensation mode:
GCSC Should maintain rated compensation voltage when Imin < I < Imax
Vcomp = Vrated = Imin Xc As I, So that Vcomp is maintained constant
250/454
(b). Impedance compensation mode:
Vc (max) I max
= Xc
Protection issues:
Required to have higher short time rating During S.C, I could be much higher than Irated Ifault > IGTO(rating)
251/454
If it flows through C, Vc V across GTO Use MOV
Limitations:
Harmonics are generated
252/454
Review
GTO controlled series capacitor (GCSC)
is measured w.r.t peak of i
1 2 1 X C ( ) = 1 Sin 2 C
extinction angle
VC has harmonics
253/454
Contd..
TCR GCSC
Switch is series with L Switch is parallel with C Supplied from a V source Supplied from a i source
(turn-ON delay) is (turn-OFF delay) is measured w.r.t peak of v measured w.r.t peak of i
254/454
Contd..
Control v across C Control i in L . developed by i source Parallel with the source representing variable representing variable admittance to the source reactance to the source
V 2 Sin 2 I LF ( ) = 1 L
BL ( ) = 1 2 1 1 sin 2 L
I 2 Sin 2 VCF ( ) = 1 C
1 2 Sin2 X C ( ) = 1 C
255/454
Thyristor switched series capacitor (TSSC)
Capacitors are disconnected by turning ON the thyristors They turn OFF naturally (at Z.C of I )
256/454
Voltage compensating mode :

Reactance of C bank is chosen so as to produce average rated Vcomp = n XC Imin (n is the no. of banks) As I above Imin , n
By-pass C
257/454
Impedance compensating mode :

TSSC should maintain maximum rated compensating reactance at any line current up to Rated current (Imax)
Maximum series compensation

nX C = VC (max) I max
at rated I
258/454
In FCTCR continuously varying capacitive compensation is achieved by varying of TCR
259/454
Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)
If V is the applied voltage across the TCR Fundamental component of I for (measured w.r.t peak of voltage) is
260/454
I1 ( ) =
V XL
1 2 1 Sin 2
X L ( ) = X L 2 Sin 2
X L < X L ( ) <
Combined Z of TCR & fixed C
X TCSC
X C . X L ( ) = X ( ) X C L
261/454
When = /2, XL() = When XL() = XC When XL() < XC
& XTCSC = -XC
XTCSC undefined XTCSC Inductive

X C .X L = X X C L
At XL() = XL X TCSC
262/454
263/454
Continuously varying series capacitor by control
L < X L ( ) <
When X L ( ) < , X TCSC = X C = 1 C
At XL() = XC parallel resonance, X TCSC
= 1 LC
As L() > L o > ( )

264/454
If XL() < XC , There are two operating zones
C (lim) 2
Capacitive, i leads VC
0 L(lim) XTCSC is inductive

Not exactly similar to TCR connected in parallel With V source Input V is sinusoidal
265/454
In TCSC, the V is voltage across C Switch is open TCR is O.C, i flows through C Turn-on TCR at (w.r.t peak of v) i is +ve & vc is -ve
266/454
VC gets distorted In phasor form i leads VC in capacitor zone

267/454
In inductive zone, i lags VC
TCR current is high

X TCSC jX C . jX TCR = j( X X ) TCR C
jX C = (1 X C X TCR )
iTCR
jX C I = .I = (1 X TCR X C ) j ( X TCR X C )
268/454
If XTCR = 1.5XC Capacitive If XTCR = 0.75XC Inductive

X TCSC 1 1 = = (1 X X ) 1 1 1.5 = 3 XC C TCR
I TCR 1 = = 2 I 1 1.5
X TCR = 0.75 X C
269/454
X TCSC 1 = = 3 1 1 0.75 XC
I TCR 1 = =4 I 1 0.75
For same magnitude of XTCSC , ITCR in C zone = (1/2)ITCR in L zone

270/454
Modes of operation
By pass mode :
iL is continuous & sinusoidal Each thyristor conducts for 180o XTCSC inductive Most of the line I flow through L not C Used to protect C against over voltage
271/454
Thyristor blocked mode :

No i through L Fixed C Avoided
Vernier control
Thyristors are gated and they conducts for part of cycle XTCSC as conduction angle from zero to C(lim)
272/454
Static Synchronous Series Compensation

Function of series capacitor produces an appropriate voltage of fundamental F in quadrature with Tr. Line I
VSVR Sin P= (X L X C )
273/454
Instead: Use VSI to inject a voltage in quadrature with i
Vq = j.Vq ( )
274/454
Voltage across L VL = 2VSin( 2 ) + Vq

I= 2VSin ( 2 ) + V q X
P = VCos( 2).(2VSin( 2) + Vq )
V .Vq V2 = Sin + Cos ( 2 ) X X
If Vq > I.X, power flow will reverse

275/454
Review
T.C.S.C :
Used for vernier control of C. GCSC also provides this feature Cost of GTO > that of thyristor Effective capacitive compensation increases as from /2 to C(lim)
276/454
Contd..
For both region XL < XC (inductive & capacitive) In inductive zone, ITCR > ILine and are in phase In capacitive zone, ILine is out of phase with ITCR V across C gets distorted
277/454
Contd..
Static Synchronous Series Compensation:
Instead of passive elements use VSI

V .Vq V2 P= Sin + Cos ( 2 ) X X
Reverse power flow is possible

278/454
Control range:
Voltage compensation mode : SSSC can maintain the rated capacitive or inductive compensating V for I till Iq(max) Ideal condition (I line can not be zero) P is required for SSSC
279/454
impedance compensation mode :

Maintain rated XC or XL up to rated I
Exchange of Active power by SSSC:

Can exchange active as well as reactive power Some active source should be connected to DC side
280/454
Compensation for both reactive and resistive compensation of series line impedance to keep X/R ratio high (3-10 is desirable)
With series compensation effective ( X L X C ) R ratio
281/454
X/R ratio in case1 > X/R ratio in case2 Reactive component of I q = I .Sin( 2 + 1 ) Real component of I = I a = I .Cos( 2 + 1 ) transmitted to the receiving end decreases corresponding to R=0
282/454
If VS = VR =V
Per phase power received by the receiving end
P = V .I .Cos (90 + 2 )
= V .I .Sin( 2 )
2VSin / 2 =V. .Sin( 2 ) Z
2V 2 = .Sin / 2{Cos / 2.Sin Cos .Sin / 2} Z
283/454
2V 2 = Sin .Sin / 2.Cos / 2 Cos .Sin 2 / 2 Z
V2 {Sin.Sin Cos.(1 Cos )} = Z

R V2 X = .Sin .(1 Cos ) Z Z Z
V2 {X .Sin R.(1 Cos )} = 2 2 R +X

284/454
Reactive VA associated with the receiving end
Q = VI .Sin(90 + / 2 )
2V 2 Sin / 2 = Cos ( / 2 ) Z
V2 {R.Sin + X (1 Cos )} = 2 2 R +X
285/454
Maximum transmittable active power

286/454
Voltage & phase angle regulators

Voltage regulator:
Injection of appropriate in phase component in series with ac system
Similar to transformer tap changer

287/454
Phase angle controller :

Inject V at an angle 90o relative to the system V
Resultant angular change approx. proportional to injected V. Magnitude of V is constant

288/454
Power flow control :

Optimal loading of transmission line in practical system can not always be achieved at the prevailing angle
Occur when ?
Power between two buses is transmitted over parallel lines of different length, use phase angle regulator (PAR)
289/454
PAR : A sinusoidal synchronous ac voltage source with controllable amplitude and phase angle
VSeff = VS + Vr and VS = VSeff
290/454
Basic idea is to keep the transmittable power at the desirable level independent of prevailing
also
Vr > 90o VS
angle to be controlled is (- )
V2 P= Sin( ) X
291/454
Multi functional FACTS controller : based on back-back VSI with a common DC-link One converter in series (SSSC) and other is in shunt (SVC) unified power flow controller (UPFC) Both converters are connected in series but in two different lines (Inter line Power Flow Controller-IPFC)
292/454
UPFC :
Able to control simultaneously or selectively all the parameters affecting the power flow in Tr. line
293/454
Converter-1 supplies active power required by converter-2

294/454
Independently control the reactive power flow at the point of connection
UPFC can fulfill

Reactive power control Series compensation Phase angle regulator
295/454
296/454
Control capabilities
Case1 : Voltage regulator
= 0, V pq = V
Similar to tap changing transformer with large no. of steps
Reactance compensator : Series reactive

Vpq = Vq at 90o with I Similar to SSSC
297/454
compensator
Phase angle regulator :
V pq = V
at any angular relationship w.r.t VS so that desired phase shift is achieved
Multi functional feature :
V pq = V + Vq + V
298/454
Review
U.P.F.C :
Two VSI connected back to back with common DC-link One connected in series with line and other is connected across the line DC-link V is maintained constant by converter-1
299/454
Contd..
Active power required by the system is drawn by converter-1
Can function as
Voltage regulator V+V SSSC injects V in quadrature with I Phase angle regulator injects V in quadrature with V
300/454
Using UPFC
Active power flow and Reactive power flow can be set In SSSC : Quadrature injected V results in increase in power flow
Magnitude of injected V determines P Circuit conditions determines Q
301/454
Main function : Control the flow of P & Q by injecting a voltage in series with the Tr. line Both magnitude & phase angle are varied Control of P & Q allows power flow in prescribed routes
2 port representation
302/454
A common DC-link voltage is regulated
Re V I + Vu 2 I Ploss = 0
* u1 1
* 2
In addition to maintain real power balance, shunt branch can independently exchange reactive power with the system
303/454
Transmitted active power and reactive power supplied by receiving end

VS + V pq Vr Pr jQr = Vr . jX
*
VS = Ve
j 2
Vr = Ve
j ( 2 + )
j 2
V pq = V pq e
304/454
= Ve
j 2
V (Cos 2 jSin 2 Cos 2 jSin 2) V pq j ( e jX jX

2+ )
2+ )
= Ve
j 2
2VSin 2 V pq j ( e X jX
V .V pq j ( + ) 2V 2 = Sin 2 (Cos 2 jSin 2 ) e X jX

V .V pq 2V 2 2 (Cos ( + ) jSin( + )) = Sin 2 .Cos 2 jSin 2 jX X
305/454
V .V pq V2 Sin Sin( + ) Pr jQr = X X

V .V pq 2V 2 2 Sin 2 Cos ( + ) j X X
V .V pq V2 Pr = Sin Sin( + ) X X
V .V pq 2V 2 2 Qr = Cos ( + ) Sin 2 X X
306/454
can vary from 0 to 2 P & Q are controllable from

P( ) V .V pq X
to
P ( ) +
V .V pq X
Transmitted real power
V .V pq (max ) V2 Sin = X X
307/454
Control strategy:
There are 3 degrees of freedom Magnitude and angle of series V Shunt reactive current
Both are VSI Series injected V can be instantaneously changed

308/454
Shunt current is controlled indirectly by varying output of shunt converter
Series injected V control :

Injected V can be split into two components
1. In phase with line I 2. In quadrature with line I
P can be controlled by varying series reactance of the line

309/454
Reactive V injection similar to series connection of reactance except that injected V is independent of Tr. Line I
Shunt current control :
Shunt current can be split into real & reactive components
Magnitude of real component DC link V Magnitude of reactive component Bus V magnitude regulator
310/454
FACTS installments in India

TSC+TCR (400 kV) at Kanpur 240 MVar TCR (400 kV) at Itarsi 50 MVar TCSC (400 kV ) at Raipur - Rourkela (Double ckt.)
Gorakhpur - Mazaffarpur Kanpur - Ballabhgarh

311/454
Kanpur Ballabhgarh 400 kV line: Fixed capacitor

Rated V L-L Nominal Var Rated continuous V across C TCR/ph 420 kV 151.60 MVar 42.2 kV -
TCSC
420 kV 79.87 MVar 16.6 kV 4.4 mH
312/454
HVDC
Long distance transmission ( Competing technology : AC with FACTS)

Cable transmission (> 40 Km) HVDC Asynchronous link HVDC
HVDC lines are cheaper than AC lines Terminal equipment costs are higher
313/454
In India :
Long distance HVDC Rihand Dadri : 1500 MW, 500 kV Chandrapur Padghe : 1500MW, 500 kV Talcher Kolar : 2000MW, 500 kV Barsur Lower Sileru : 200MW, 200 kV
314/454
Back to Back :
Chandrapur Ramagundam : 1000 MW (Asynchronous link) Jeypore Gajuwaka : 500 MW (Asynchronous link) Vindhyachal
: 500 MW
Sasaram : 500 MW
315/454
P through DC link can be regulated. Power control through firing angle control
316/454
P through link can not be regulated

317/454
P1 + P2 can be regulated
If alternator-1 generates 1000 MW & load 1100 MW

318/454
If alternator-2 generates 1000 MW & load 900 MW P1 +P2 has to be -100 MW (frequency of alternator-1 &2 are same)
P1 + P2 can be set
319/454
Types of HVDC system

Two terminal : with DC transmission line
One rectifier terminal + one inverter terminal
Back to Back :
Two terminals with no DC line used for asynchronous link
Multi terminal : with DC line and several rectifier

and/or inverter terminals connected to more than two nodes of AC network
320/454
321/454
Types of links :
Mono-polar Bi-polar
Mono-polar HVDC link :
322/454
One conductor (generally ve)

Return path ground Resistance should be low Instead metallic return
323/454
Bi-polar HVDC link :
Has two conductors
+ve -ve
324/454
Each terminal has two converters of equal rating V connected in series on the DC side Junction is grounded I in two phases are equal No ground I Two poles can operate independently If one is faulty, then other can operate with ground as the return
325/454
Review HVDC
Asynchronous link Back to back
326/454
Components of HVDC transmission
Bi-polar HVDC
327/454
Converter :
Perform
AC DC conversion DC AC conversion
12 pulse converter
Transformer with tap changer
328/454
Smoothing Reactor : Large value of L in

Series with each pole
Purpose :
harmonic voltage & current in DC line Prevents I from being discontinuous on light load Limit the I during S. C in the DC line
329/454
Harmonic filter :
Converter generates harmonic currents Because of source L, V gets distorted Affects the other loads & interference with communication network
330/454
Reactive power support :

Both converter & inverter absorb reactive power As , Q requirement Q source is a must If bus is strong, shunt capacitor can be used C associated AC filter also supply Q
331/454
Basic module of converter :

3-ph full bridge
Van = V0
Vbn = V 120
Vcn = V 240
Vab = 3V 6 , Vbc =
3V 2 , Vca = 3V 210
332/454
If 1 is trigger angle for bridge-1 If 2 is trigger angle for bridge-2

Neglect idc rdc & Assuming ideal devices
2 = 1
333/454
= 30o (w.r.t natural commutation) or

corresponding to Z.C of phase-A = 60o
334/454
T1 is turned off at t= 30+ (30+120) = 180o When T3 is triggered, V across T1 = Vab
335/454
Va = Sin180 = 0,
Vb = Sin60 = 3 2
Vab = 3 2
336/454
At t = 210o
Va = Sin 210 = 1 2
Vb = Sin90 = 1
At t = 240o
Vab = 1.5
Va = 3 2 , Vb = 3 2
Vab = 3
337/454
At t = 270o
Va = 1,Vb = 1 2
At t = 300o -
Vab = 1.5
Va = 3 2 , Vb = 0
Vab = 3 2
At t = 300o +, T5 is triggered, V across T1 is Vac
Va = 3 2 , Vc = 3 2
Vac = 3
338/454
At t = 330o
Va = 1 2 , Vc = 1
At t = 360o
Vac = 1.5
Va = 0, Vc = 3 2
At t = 30o
Vac = 3 2
Vac = 0
339/454
Va = 1 2 , Vc = 1 2
At t = 60o -
Va = 3 2 , Vc = 0
Vac = 3 2
T1 is reverse biased for 210o

What happen when = 150o T1 is turned off at t = 30+150+120 = 300o (w.r.t +ve Z.C of Ph- A)
340/454
At t = 300o
Va = 3 2 , Vb = 0 Vab = 3 2
At t = 330o
Va = 1 2 , Vb = 1 2
At t = 360o
Vab = 0
Va = 0, Vb = 3 2
Vab = 3 2 = + ve
341/454
T2 must attain forward voltage blocking capability within 30o

342/454
Vdc = 2.34V ph .Cos
= 1.35VLL .Cos
For = 30o
343/454
Review HVDC
Two six pulse converters connected in series
2 = 1
344/454
Contd..
As 1 (AC-DC converter), Q requirement also As 2 , duration for which the devices is reverse biased When = 150o, duration for which the devices
is reverse biased = 30o
345/454
Harmonic component in converter i/p :

No even harmonics, only odd harmonics
2
3
2 I Ln =
I Cosn .d
0 3
I Ln
2 n = .I 0 2 Sin 3 2n
I L1 =
I L5
.I 0 ,
I L3 = 0
I L7 I L1 = 7
346/454
I L1 , = 5
Phase relationship between phase V & I1

Neglect losses
Vm Vdc I 0 = 3 .I L1Cos 2
3 3 Vm 6 3. I 0Cos = VmCos .I 0 . 2
Cos = Cos =
347/454
6 V0 = 2
+ 60
ab
.dt
6 = 2
= 3 3
+ 60
3Vm Sin(t + 60o ).dt
VmCos = VdcoCos
3 3
2Vrms Cos
= 2.34Vrms Cos = 1.35VLL Cos

348/454
As :

Vdc Displacement angle & P.F
Effect of source L :
T1, T2 when conducting T3 is triggered

349/454
i1 + i3 = I 0
di3 di1 = dt dt
di3 Vba = 2 Lc dt
di3 3Vm Sint = 2 Lc dt

3Vm i3 = Cost + K 2Lc
350/454
Boundary conditions :
At t = , i1 = I 0 , i2 = I 0 , i3 = 0 = +, i1 = 0, i2 = I 0 , i3 = I 0
3Vm (Cos Cost ) i3 = 2Lc
At t = +, i3 = I 0
3Vm (Cos Cos ( + )) I0 = 2Lc
351/454
di1 V pn = Van L dt di3 V pn = Vbn L dt

di1 di3 2V pn = Van + Vbn L + dt dt
V pn = Van + Vbn V = cn 2 2
352/454
V0 = V pn Vmn
= Vcn Vcn = 1.5Vcn 2
Reduction in V0 = (V0) :
V0 = 6 2
+
(V
bc
+ 1.5Vcn ).dt
6 = 2
3Vm Sin t + 60o + 1.5Vm Sin(t 2 ).dt
353/454
3 3Vm (Cos Cos( + )) = 2
Vdco 2Lc I0 = 2 3Vm
3Lc
I0
3Lc
V0 = Vdc 0Cos
I0
354/454
Representation of inverter mode of operation in presence of
Vd = Vdco cos Rc I d
355/454
Vd = Vdco cos + Rc I d
= Vdco cos( ) + Rc I d
= Vdco cos + Rc I d
delay angle
Angle of advance
356/454
Converter
delay angle overlap angle
Inverter
= - advance angle overlap angle = - extinction angle = -(+)
357/454
Vdco Vo = [cos cos( + )] 2
Vd = Vdco Vo
Vdco = [cos + cos( + )] 2
Also
Vdco [cos + cos( + )] Vd = 2
= [cos( ) + cos( )]
358/454
Vdco = [cos + cos ] ( A) 2

3Vm [cos cos( + )] Id = 2Lc
3Vm = [cos( ) cos( )] 2Lc

3Vm = [cos cos ] ( B) 2Lc
359/454
Eq. A+B
2Vd 2Lc 2 cos = + Id Vdco 3Vm
Vd = Vdco cos 3 3
Vm
Lc
3Vm
= Vdco cos
3Lc
Id
= Vdco cos Rc I d
360/454
12-pulse converter
Series connection of two 6-pulse converters
3- voltages supplied to one bridge is displaced by 30o from those applied to 2nd bridge
361/454
DC voltage is doubled Harmonic spectrum has improved

12n 1 on AC side 12n on DC side
362/454
363/454
Relation between Ac and DC quantity : With multi phase bridge If no. of bridges in series
Vdo = 1.35.B.T .VL No load

Corresponding voltage drop :
Id 3
XC
bridge
Output V = Vd = VdoCos I d 3 .B. X C

364/454
3 Vd = VdoCos I d .B. X C
3 = VdoCos I d .B. X C
365/454
Summary of technical data of Padghe

Nominal line voltage 400 kV Maximum line voltage 430 kV Minimum line voltage 380 kV
Total Q at both stations 800 MVar
4*200 MVar
12th harmonic filter 2*120 MVar
366/454
24/36 harmonic filter 2*80 MVar
Power :
Nominal Power 2*750 MW
2*75 MW 2*825 MW 2*1000 MW
367/454
Minimum (single pole) 2 hours overload 5 Sec. overload
Direct voltage :
Nominal line voltage 500 kV Maximum line voltage 512 kV Minimum line voltage 488 kV
368/454
Direct current :
Nominal I 1500 A Maximum I at nominal load 1542 A Max. I at 2 hour over load Max. I at 5 sec. over load 1695 A 2140 A
Nominal line resistance = 7.5

369/454
Rectifier firing angle :

Minimum 5o
Mini. during normal operation 12.5o Max. during normal operation

17.5o
Inverter firing angle :

Minimum 16o
18o
370/454
Max. during normal operation

Basic control :
DC voltage or I (or power) can be controlled by controlling the internal voltage (Vdcor Cos) and Vdcoi Cos
Gate control or using tap changing of converter transformer Gate control is fast
371/454
Tap changing : Slow ( 5-6 sec/step) Gate control is used for initial rapid control action
Followed by tap changing to restore the converter quantities ( of rectifier & for inverter) to their normal ranges
372/454
Basis for selection of control :

Following considerations influences the selection of control characteristics
Prevention of large fluctuations of DC current due to variation in AC system Maintaining DC voltage near rated value Maintaining power factor at the sending & receiving end that are as high as possible Prevention of commutation failure in inverter
373/454
Rectifier control To prevent large fluctuations in DC current
Vdcor Cos Vdcoi Cos Id = Rcr + RL Rci

374/454
Denominator is very small A small change in Vdcor or Vdcoi cause a large change in Id 25% change either in Vdcor or Vdcoi changes id by 100% If & are kept constant, Idc can vary over a wide range for small change in i/p AC voltage at either end
375/454
Not acceptable Rapid converter control prevents fluctuation of Idc For a given power transmitted Vdc profile along the line should be close to rated values It minimizes Id & therefore line loss
376/454
P.F should be as high as possible Minimize losses and current rating of equipment in the AC system Reduce the voltage drop at the AC terminal as load the cost of reactive power supply to line
377/454
So keep the rated power of the converter as high as possible for a given V & I rating of transformer P.F depends on &
min = 5o (a +ve V should appear across the device)
Normally operate at 15 20o, so that Vdcor can be to control DC power flow

378/454
necessary to maintain a certain minimum extinction angle to avoid commutation failure Device should attain forward voltage blocking capability
=
= 15o at 50 Hz depends on Id & i/p V
379/454
Control of HVDC system
380/454
Vdcor Cos Vdcoi Cos Id = Rcr + RL + Rci
Power at rectifier terminal, Pdr = Vdc .Id Power at inverter terminal = Vdi .Id = Pdr-id2 RL
381/454
Control characteristics
Ideal characteristics :
Voltage regulation & current regulation
Kept distinct & are assigned to separate terminals
Under normal operation :

Rectifier maintains current control (CC) & Inverter operates constant extinction angle (CEA)
382/454
Maintains adequate commutation margin Vdc measured at the rectifier terminals Inverter characteristics includes Id.RL drop
Vd = Vdcoi Cos + (RL Rci )I d
383/454
Rectifier characteristics can be shifted horizontally by adjusting reference current or current command or current order If measured current < current command, controller Inverter characteristics can be raised or lowered by means of transformer taps
384/454
As taps are changed, CEA regulator quickly restores desired Id changes Current regulator of rectifier changes and control i Tap changer of rectifier acts to bring in the desired range (10-20o)
385/454
Review
Rectifier firing angle :
Minimum 5o Mini. during normal operation 12.5o Max. during normal operation
17.5o
Inverter firing angle :

Minimum 16o
18o
386/454
Max. during normal operation

Basic control :
DC voltage or I (or power) can be controlled by controlling the internal voltage (VdcoCos) and VdcoCos
Gate control or using tap changing of converter transformer Gate control is fast
387/454
Tap changing : Slow ( 5-6 sec/step) Gate control is used for initial rapid control action
Followed by tap changing to restore the converter quantities ( of rectifier & for inverter) to their normal ranges
388/454
Basis for selection of control :

Following considerations influences the selection of control characteristics
(a). Prevention of large fluctuations of DC current due to variation in AC system
R 10 and L =250 mH Back to back L =1H for long line =20 m.sec roughly
389/454
Simulation study taking line L, R & C in addition Lfilter is required

(b). Maintaining DC voltage near rated value (c). Maintaining power factor at the sending & receiving end that are as high as possible (d). Prevention of commutation failure in inverter
390/454
Rectifier control To prevent large fluctuations in DC current
Vdcor Cos Vdcoi Cos Id = Rcr + RL Rci

391/454
necessary to maintain a certain minimum extinction angle to avoid commutation failure Device should attain forward voltage blocking capability
=
= 15o at 50 Hz depends on Id & i/p V
392/454
Control of HVDC system
393/454
Control characteristics
Ideal characteristics :
Voltage regulation & current regulation
Kept distinct & are assigned to separate terminals
Under normal operation :

Rectifier maintains current control (CC) & Inverter operates constant extinction angle (CEA)
394/454
Quantities forming the co-ordinates are measured at some common point in the DC line Converter terminal can be one such possibility
Vd = Vdcoi Cos + (RL Rci )I d

Has a small ve slope
395/454
Maintains adequate commutation margin Inverter characteristics includes Id.RL drop
396/454
Rectifier characteristics can be shifted horizontally by adjusting reference current or current command or current order If measured current < current command, controller Inverter characteristics can be raised or lowered by means of transformer taps
397/454
As taps are changed, CEA regulator quickly restores desired Id changes Current regulator of rectifier changes and control i Tap changer of rectifier acts to bring in the desired range (10-20o)
398/454
Constant current characteristics could be a line parallel to y-axis If proportional controller slope could be -ve Generally current control is given to both the converters Ref. current for rectifier > Ref. current for inverter
399/454
Iref(conv) Iref(inv) = Imargin = +ve Assume that power flows in the line to be conv takes the value of min Incase Id approaches Iref(conv), then
rectifier is working under constant ignition control Inverter is working under constant extinction control
400/454
After some time, tap changer changes the tap

of the converter to attain its normal operating value (12- 17o)
401/454
Actual characteristics :
Rectifier maintains constant I by changing can not be < min Once min is reached, no further V is possible Rectifier will operate constant ignition angle (CIA)
402/454
Therefore rectifier characteristics has two segments (AB & FA) Constant current characteristics may not be truly vertical Depends on the current regulator With proportional control C.C characteristics has ve slope
403/454
VdcoCos = K [I order I d ]
= Vd + Rcr I d
Iord current order
Vd = KI order (K + Rcr )I d
Vd = (K + Rcr )I d
Vd = (K + Rcr ) I d
(with PI it is vertical)
404/454
At normal voltage , characteristics is defined by FAB At reduced V, it shifts down F1 A1 B1
CEA characteristics of the inverter intersect at E for normal V condition

405/454
At reduced V, it does not intersect F1A1B A big reduction in rectifier V would cause Id & P System could shut down
406/454
In order to avoid the problem, inverter is provided with current control Inverter Iord < rectifier Iord
Iord(R) Iord(I) 0.1 Irated
407/454
Under normal condition Rectifier C. C Inverter CEA When i/p V rectifier V Operating point E1 Changes from one mode to another is known as mode shift
408/454
When inverter is on current control

Vd = RL I d Rci I d + Vdoi Cos Vdoi Cos = Vd RL I d + Rci I d
With proportional controller
K (I ord I d ) = Vd RL I d + Rcr I d
409/454
(Vdoi Cos ) = K (I ref I d ),

= Vd I d (RL Rci )
K >1
Vd = (RL Rci + K )I d
Vd = (RL Rci + K )I d I d
Vdor to id Vdoi to id
410/454
Slope is +ve
When does change over take place ?

Current order is given to both the converters
Iref(C) > Iref(I) Iref(C) > Iref(I) - Imargin +ve (assume) Imargin = 0.1 0.15 Irated
411/454
Assume that i/p AC has dipped due to fault, Idc ,

conv min and with this new value of , Idc is
If Idc < (Iref(C) - Imar), inverter takes over the current control & converter is working under C.I.A, after some time tap changer changes the tap
412/454
Review
Rectifier characteristics
Constant current by control Constant ignition angle control
Can have a ve slope
C.C
Can be parallel to Y-axis

413/454
Contd..
Current control is given to both converters
But Iref(R) > Iref(I) Iref(R) - Iref(I) = Imargin 0.1Irated
Current control loop of inverter is inactive when current Iref(R)
414/454
e is ve, K is +ve Iact should be Iact > (Iref Imar)

should be decreased o/p of PI is zero selector switch selects min
415/454
e is +ve, Iact < (Iref Imar)

, should be , so that Iact , K is +ve, o/p of PI starts increasing Selector switch selects maximum of two inputs
416/454
Due to line fault or during low i/p AC voltage condition Vdco(R) will drop Assume Vdco(R)Cosmin < Vdco(I)Cos
If there is no current control by the inverter , id will and eventually becomes zero
417/454
In order to avoid this situation inverter is also provided with current control Operate at E' till tap changer changes the tap
What happen If Imar is ve ?

Rectifier is trying to control Iref(R) Inverter is trying to control Iref(R)+ Imar
418/454
Inverter side :
Id can be by As , Id, but rectifier controller tries to the current (Iref(R) < Iref(I) ) Since Id is due to increase in , rectifier controller to reduce Id
towards 90o towards 90o
419/454
New operating point could be D' Correct sign to Imar is very important Imar should not be too small because there could be measurement error
420/454
Mode stabilization :
Intersection of min characteristics of converter and inverter CEA may not be well defined There could be multiple crossings Instead change the slope of the inverter characteristics near the crossing
421/454
Alternative inverter control

Instead of regulating (CEA) Maintain a constant DC voltage at a desired point Could be sending end Required inverter voltage to maintain the above voltage is estimated by computing I.R drop
422/454
V profile is flat Constant characteristics has drooping characteristics

18o in voltage control mode
423/454
Constant control :
= +
function of id & Vac
Choose for worst case At low loads additional security against commutation failure As id , minimum may be encountered
424/454
Vdcoi Cos remains constant As id , Vd = VdoiCos + (RL+Rci)Id also

425/454
Use either constant Vdc or constant control
426/454
Current limit
Maximum current limit : Max. short term current = (1.2 -1.3) Irated Minimum current limit : if id below a certain limit due to finite ripple in I, current will become discontinuous
12-pulse converter 12 times in one cycle current become zero (current interruption)
427/454
There could be lightly damped oscillations (smoothing L & line C) Over voltage across the device Simulation study is required Ensure Imin in DC link
428/454
Voltage depend current-order limit (VDCOL)

Under L.V condition it may not be desirable or possible to maintain rated current Commutation failure At one converter end Vac has
VdcoCos
429/454
To maintain the current, voltage at the other end of the line is adjusted Either or Reactive power demand Vac has , Q supplied by C or filter also Above problems can be addressed using voltage dependent current order limit
430/454
VDCOL characteristics could be a function of AC voltage or DC voltage
431/454
Review
Rectifier characteristics
Constant current by control Constant ignition angle control
Inverter Constant extinction angle control Current control is given to both converters
432/454
Contd..
But Iref(R) > Iref(I) Iref(R) - Iref(I) = Imargin 0.1Irated
Current control loop of inverter is inactive when current Iref(R)
433/454
Contd..
Imar should +ve :
If Imar is ve, reversal of power takes place (only academic interest)
434/454
Contd..
Mode stabilization :
Intersection is not well defined Change the slope
Constant Vdc Constant
435/454
Contd..
Current limit :
Imax = (1.2 -1.3) Irated Imin Should not be allowed to go into discontinuous
There could be lightly damped oscillations
436/454
Voltage depend current-order limit (VDCOL)

Under L.V condition it may not be desirable or possible to maintain rated current Commutation failure At one converter end Vac has
VdcoCos
437/454
To maintain the current, voltage at the other end of the line is adjusted Either or Reactive power demand Vac has , Q supplied by C or filter also Above problems can be addressed using voltage dependent current order limit
438/454
VDCOL characteristics could be a function of AC voltage or DC voltage
439/454
Rectifier inverter V-I characteristics

Power transfer over the line can be controlled by varying Imar Signals are transmitted through telecommunication lines Communication may fail or DC line fault
Reverse power flow may occur Inverter is provided with min. limit 95- 110o
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441/454
Summary of basic control principle :

HVDC system is basically current control To limit over current To prevent the system from running down due to fluctuations in AC voltage
442/454
Significant aspects of basic control :

Rectifier
Current control limit
In current control mode closed loop regulator controls the firing angle to regulate Id at Iord Tap changer control of the converter brings within 10-20o
443/454
Inverter is functioned with CEA control and a current control In CEA mode, is regulated at around 15o Inverter control could have constant control Under normal operation rectifier is in current control & inverter is on CEA control mode
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If there is a in AC voltage, of rectifier min (CIA mode) If current falls to a certain limit, inverter will assume C.C
Valve blocking & by passing :

If one bridge is to be taken out of service Only blocking will not extinguish the current that was flowing through the thyristor pair
445/454
Inject AC voltage in the link There could be V & I oscillations due to lightly damped circuit Transformer feeding the bridge is also subjected to DC magnetization By pass the bridge when the devices (valves) are blocked
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Achieved using by pass valve and by pass switch
Assume T2 & T3 are conducting & blocking command is given

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Commutation for T2 to T4 is in usual manner But incoming device T5 is prevented by not triggering T5. When T1 get F.B (VAB +ve ) trigger T1 Current by pass pair is shunted by closing S1 & open S
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For energization of blocked bridge Current is first diverted from S1 to bypass pair S1 will generate arc voltage Trigger bypass pair
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Modern techniques
HVDC using line commutated converters Requires AC voltage for commutation Requires reactive power DC link is equivalent to a current source V can reverse but I can not reverse Devices should be able to block ve voltage Not suitable for weak grid
450/454
Instead use VSI
I could be in phase with Vi Inverter devices are self commutated

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No AC voltage is required for commutation
Conversion at UPF is possible DC link is voltage source

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V can not reverse, but I can reverse Devices should be able to carry I in both directions
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Thank you
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Peps Lectures

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EE 660 Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems

B. G. Fernandes Department of Electrical Engineering I. I. T Bombay bgf@ee.iitb.ac.in

Theory Equipment Theory Equipment

Books for Reference

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Thermal limit (depends on ambient conditions) Voltage limit Stability limit

Voltage and Stability Constraints

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Type of conductors No. of Conductors Ambient conditions

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

High V & high KVar source 3-ph inverter can supply

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Provide Series capacitive compensation to cancel a portion of series X

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

At Tr. voltage levels PWM with high

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Point of common coupling

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Notation of quality of supply

Objectives of load compensation

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Load requires P.F correction

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Adding a compensator in parallel with load So that E = V Replace QL by

Vary QS => V rotates till E = V Solve (A) with E = V

There is always a solution for QC for any value of P

If the compensation is used to make P.F unity then

Z SC = RS + jX S , * Z SC = Z SC ISC S.C Current

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Change in V influenced by VR Neglect VX

VR Z SC = 2 {PL cos SC + QL sin SC } V V 1 {PL cos SC + QL sin SC } = S SC

If short circuit resistance of source=0 => CosSC = 0

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Vbc Vab VL 120 VL 0 = Ib = jX jX R R

Vca Vbc VL 120 VL 120 Ic = = jX jX jX jX

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Load balancing (Contd..)

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Each branch of will have 3-parallel compensating susceptances

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Corresponding to power consumed by the load

As the power varies, X also should change

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Can be shown that if

Non ideal case Var generated m Vdc

VC1 IC1R VC1 IC1

Application of Power Electronics in Power Systems B. G. Fernandes

Intelligent controller is required