ANCIENT INDIA

The Prehistoric Period The prehistoric period in the history of mankind can roughly be dated from 200000 BC to about 3500-2500 BC, when the first civilisations began to take shape. The history of India is no exception. The first modern human beings or the Homo sapiens set foot on the Indian subcontinent anywhere between 200000 BC and 40000 BC and they soon spread throughout a large part of the subcontinent, including peninsular India. They continuously flooded the Indian subcontinent in waves after waves of migration from what is present-day Iran. These primitive people moved in groups of few families and lived mainly on hunting and gathering. Stone Age The age when the prehistoric man began to use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. The Stone Age is divided into three broad divisions Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (from unknown till 8000 BC), Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (8000 BC-4000 BC) and the Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (4000 BC-2500 BC) on the basis of the specialization of the stone tools, which were made during that time. Paleolithic Age The human beings living in the Paleolithic Age were essentially food gatherers and depended on nature for food. The art of hunting and stalking wild animals individually and later in groups led to these people making stone weapons and tools. First, crudely carved out stones were used in hunting, but as the size of the groups began to increase and there was need for more food, these people began to make specialized tools by flaking stones, which were pointed on one end. These kind of tools were generally used to kill small animals and for tearing flesh from the carcass of the hunted animals. The basic technique of making these crude tools was by taking a stone and flaking its sides with a heavier stone. These tools were characteristic of the Paleolithic Age and were very rough. By this time, human beings had come to make and use fire. Mesolithic Age In the Mesolithic Age, the stone tools began to be made more pointed and sharp. To ensure a life that had abundance of food and clothing, the stone tools began to appear in increasingly specialized way. The simple handheld stone tools were now attached to thick branches from trees with rope made from animal skin and sinew. These tools are known as hand axes, which could be flung at fast-moving animals from a distance. Apart from hand axes, they also produced crude stone-tipped wooden spears, borers, and burins. This period also saw the domestication of animals and graving of wild varieties of crops. Because of farming, small settlements began to take shape. Archaeological excavations have unearthed Mesolithic sites in the Chotta Nagpur area of central India and the areas south of the Krishna River. The famous Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal belong to the Mesolithic Age and are famous for their cave paintings. The 1

exact dale of these paintings is not certain, but some of the paintings are as old as 12,000 years. The prehistoric artist used natural white and red pigments in depicting the various themes, which were close to his heart and sustenance. Neolithic Age The Neolithic Age (4000 BC-2500 BC) or the New Stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age and ischaracterized by very finely flaked, small stone tools, also known as blades and burins. The Neolithic Age also saw the domestication of cattle, horses, and other farm animals. which were used for dairy and meat products. An important invention of this time was the making of the wheel. The Neolithic Age quickly gave way to a number of small cultures that were highly technical. These people used copper and bronze to make a range of utilitarian tools. This phase or period is termed as the Chalcolithic Age(1800 BC-I000BC). Chalcolithic Phase Towards the end of the Neolithic period, metals like bronze and copper began to be used. This was the Chalcolithic phase (1800 BC to 1000 BC). Chalcolithic cultures extended from the Chotanagpur plateau to the upper Gangetic basin. Some of the sites of this era are Brahmgiri (near Mysore) and Navada Toli on the N armada. Indus Valley Civilization (2500 BC 1500 BC) From the beginning of the 4th millennium BC, the individuality of the early village cultures began to be replaced by a more homogenous style of existence. By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast. It was a highly developed civilization and derived its name from the main river of that region Indus.The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere else in Western Asia.

Important Discoveries Year 192I 1922 1927 193I 1953 1953 1955-56 1957 1972-75 1973-74 Site Harappa Mohenjodaro Sutkagendor Chanhudaro Rangpur Kalibangan Ropar Lothal Surkotada Banwali Discovered by Dayaram Sahni R. D. Banerjee R. L. Staine N. G. Majumdar M. Vats A. Ghosh Y. D. Sharma S. R. Rao .I. Joshi R. S. Bisht 2

Sources of Materials Material Gold Silver Copper Tin Agates Chalcedony Lead Lapis Lazuli Turquoise Amethyst Carnelian

Source Afghanistan, Persia (Karnataka) Afghanistan. Iran Baluchistan & Khetri (Rajasthan) Afghanistan. Central Asia Western India Saurashtra Rajasthan. South India. Afghanistan. Iran Badakashan (N. Afghanistan) Central Asia. Iran Maharashtra Jade Central Asia Saurashtra

Difference Between Pre-Harappan and roto-Harappan Cultures Cultures that preceded Harappan culture are pre-Harappan, while protoHarappan cultures are those pre-Harappan cultures which have some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have aniieipated certain essential elements of Harappan culture. In shun, all prolo-Harappan cultures are necessarily pre-Harappan cultures, but all pre-Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto-Harappan cultures. Script and Language Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and a variety of human forms. The script was boustrophedon. written from right to left in one line and then from left to .right in the next line. The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600. The language of the Harappans is still unknown and must remain so until the Harappan script is deciphered. Pottery Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well 4

baked. It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain variety being more common. Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised, perforated and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world. On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch. Seals They are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people. Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone). The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a unique invention of the Harappans. The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short inscription. Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals. Main type - (a) the square type with a carved animal and inscription, (b) the rectangular type with inscription only. Some New Finds Site Dholavira Ganverivala RakhiGarhi Location Rann of Kachh (Gujarat) Pakistan Jeend (Haryana) Discovered by R. S. Bisht Rafeeq Mugal Rafeeq Mugal

Burial Practices Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjodaro, viz. complete burials. fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts birds) and post-cremation burials. But the general practice was extended inhumation, the body lying on us back, with the head generally to the north. Religions The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by lour animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each lacing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feel. The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms

 There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus, have been discovered. The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal. Kalibangan and Harappa. Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (piapal, etc.) and animals (unicorn etc) Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them. Trade and Commerce Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra. South India, parts of Western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia and Bahrain. Trade was carried on by overland as well as overseas transport. Bullock carts and pack-oxen were employed for land transport. There is evidence of sea and river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart from the dockyard at Lothal. The Sumerian texts refer lo trade relations with Meluha which was the ancient name given to Indus region and they also speak of two intermediate stations called Dilmun (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Decline After 2000 BC, the Indus culture slowly declined and gradually faded out. Some ascribe this to the decreasing fertility of the soil t)ii account of the increasing salinity, caused by the expansion of the neighbouring desert. Others attribute ii to some kind of depression in the land, which caused Hoods. Still others point out that the Aryans destroyed it. According to some scholars, decline of trade, particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians, must have contributed partly in the decline. Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this civilization, the most accepted version is that of ecological destruction. Major Sites Harappa The Great Granary measuring 1 69 ft x 3 5 feet is the largest and the most remarkable structure found at Harappa. So far 891 seals have been recovered from Harappa, and that is 40% of the total number of seals belonging to Indus Valley Civilization that have been found. A red sandstone naked male torso has been found, which shows traces of Jainism Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular platforms, probably for the pounding of grain

 At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowded one-room dwellings, which suggest slave habitats. Mohenjodaro In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means mound of the dead. It is the largest of all Indus cities The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length) X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth). Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as a ritual-bathing site Remains have been found of an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building, which must have served administrative purposes. Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south, intersecting subordinate ones, running east-west at right angles. The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of woven cloth has been discovered from here There is a large granary consisting of podium of square blocks of burntbricks with a wooden superstructure Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages found The workmen or poor sections Of the society perhaps used these cottages. Abronzedancinggirl,steatitestatueof a priest and a seal bearing Pashupati have been found here It is important to remember that Mohenjodaro shows nine levels of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain Excavation reveals that the city was flooded More than seven times Kalibangan Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases. Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro There is evidence of mud-brick fortification Pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed unlike the Harappan period. Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub

Chanhudaro Only Indus city without a citadel. Existence of Pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phase A small pot was discovered here, which was probably an ink pot.

 Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert craftsmen. Archaeologists have discovered here metal-workers, shell-ornament makers and bead-makers shops The city was twice destroyed by inundations. Here more extensive but indirect evidence of super-imposition of a barbarian lifestyle is seen Banwali Like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural phases - pre-Harappan and Harappan. Human and animal figures, clay bangles and statue of mother Goddess found here. Here we find large quantity of barely, sesamum and mustard. Surkotada Excavations leveal a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified. It is the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been round. Kot Diji Pre-Harappan and Harappan phases found. According to excavations, the city was probably destroyed due to fire Wheel made painted pottery, traces of a defensive wall and well-aligned streets, knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc. Five figurines of Mother Goddess discovered

Ropar The excavations have yielded five-fold sequence of cultures Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval. The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is very interesting One example of rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed. Dholavira It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts Citadel and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications. Here are two inner enclosures the first one hemmed in the citadel (which probably housed the highest authority)and the second one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the rulers and other officials). The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city. Lothal 8

 Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection. Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC) The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad. Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here Vedic Age (1500 BC-1000 BC) It is generally agreed that Aryans originally lived somewhere in Steppes stretching from southern Russia to central Russia. The consensus of opinion is that originally they lived somewhere in the East of Alps. On their way to India, Aryans first appeared in Iran and a little later than 1500 BC they appeared in India. Kassite Inscription of about 1600 BC and Mittani Inscription of 1400 BC found in Iraq bear some Aryan names, which suggest that from Iran a branch of Aryans moved towards west. The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta - the oldest text in Iranian language. Rig Veda is the earliest specimen of any Indo-European language. According to Rig Veda, early Aryans first settled in the region called Sapta-Sindhava or the land of seven rivers encompassing the present East Afghanistan, Punjab and Western UP Early Aryans were semi-nomadic and kept large herds of cattle. As they settled down in villages, they also became cultivators. using ox to draw their ploughs. They were ruled by warriors, who depended upon priests to perform the rituals to protect their crops and cattle, and insure victory in war. The Indian subcontinent got its name Bharat Varsha after the Bharata tribe, which was the strongest one. During the later Vedic phase, the Aryans moved away from their Original Home of Aryans Central Asia Max Muller Tibet Dayanand Saraswati German plain Prof. Penka Pamirs Mayor Turkistan Hurz Feld Bactria J. C. Rod Steppes Brandstein Arctic Region B.G. Tilak Central India Rajbali Pandey Kashmir L. D. Kala Sapta Sindhu A. C. Das Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda Old Name New Name Gomati Gomal 9

Krumu Kubha Suvastu Sindhu Drishadvati Satudri Vipas Parushni Asikni Vitasta

Kurram Kabul Swat Indus Ghaghar/Chitang Satluj Beas Ravi Chenab Jhelam The Sun Gods

Surya Similar to that of the Greek God Helios. Savitri The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri. Pusan His main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle. VishnuArelativelyminorGodatthattime Words Mentioned in Rig Veda Word Om Ashva Jana Gau Vis Brahmana Kshatriya Yamuna Sudra Vaishya Rajya Kulpa Ganga Samudra Times mentioned 1028 315 275 176 171 14 9 3 1 1 1 1 1 1

Metals Known Gold Hiranya Iron Shyama Copper Ayas

(Krishna Ayas)

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Rig Vedic Polity The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana. However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal Assemblies. Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal Assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. The two most important Assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha. Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rigvedic times. There were a few non-monarchical states {ganas), which are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha. A Celebration of Life The Aryans were a wild, turbulent people and had few of the taboos prevalent in later India. They were much addicted to inebriating drinks, of which they had at least two, soma and sura. Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by religion. Sura was purely secular and more potent, and was disapproved by the priestly poets. The Aryans loved music, and played the flute. lute and harp, to the accompaniment of cymbal and drums. People also delighted in gambling. They enjoyed chariot races. Rigvedic Gods The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children). Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spiritual upliftment or misery. Indra 250 hymns are attributed to India. He was the Aryan warlord and also controlled the weather. Has been called Purandhar or destroyer of forts. He was the proverbial Rain God (prajanya),responsible for causing rainfall. He was associated with thunder and storm and bore the thunderbolt (Vajra), with which he destroyed his He has been addressed by various names - Ratheshtha, Jitendra, Somapa, Purandra, Vritrahan and Maghayan. Varuna He was the upholder of Rta or cosmic order and whatever happened in the world was thought to be reflection of his desire. As an administrator of the cosmic law (Rta), he regulated all activities in the world. It is he who has spread out the earth and set the sun in 11

motion. He is therefore called the world sovereign and is also regarded at the of human morality. His worship gives the earliest signs of Bhakti. In every hymn for Varuna. there is an appeal for forgiveness. Agni About 200 hymns on the Rig Veda are attributed to Agni. He was the intermediary between Gods and men. He consumed the sacrificial offerings and carried them to Gods. He dwelt in heaven in the form of lightning. On earth he existed in many forms. He dwelt in the domestic hearth. Yama A sort of Adam - The first man to die, who became the guardian of the world of dead. Soma The God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also named Soma. The Soma sacrifice was an important Vedic rituals. He is the special God of Brahamans, who referred to him as their patron deity. Later Vedic Gods India and Varuna lost their previous importance and Prajapati attained the Supreme position. Rudra and Vishnu became more important than before. Pushan became the God of Shudras. Brahmin monopoly over divine knowledge was established. An elaborate system of Yajnas developed. Among the important ones were Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and Vajapeya.

Other Gods Vayu Wind God Dyaus Father of Heaven Aditi Mother of Surya Morals Storm spirits Gandharva s Divine musicians

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Ashvins Ribhus Apsoras Rudra

Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art Gnomes Mistresses of Gods. An archer God, whose arose brought disease

Rig Vedic Society

Based on kinship, the early Aryan society was essentially tribal and egalitarian. People owed their primary loyalty to their tribe, which was called Jana. The family was essentially patriarchal and birth of son was desired. The family was a large unit, indicated by a common word for son, grandson, nephew and one word for paternal and maternal grandfather. Rashtra (kingdom) had not come into existence The Cow The cow seems to be the most important form of wealth. Most wars were fought for cows. The term for war in Rig Veda is Gavishthi or search for cows. Duhitri is a word for daughter, which literally means one who milks cows. The term Aghanya, or not to be killed has been used for cow. This indicated cows economic importance. Primarily a military leader, the King fought for cows and not for territories Guests were called Goghana, which indicates that beef was offered to them. The gift made to priests usually consisted of cows and women slaves and never of land. Position of Women Women held respectable position in society. They could attend tribal assemblies. They took part in sacrifices alongwith their husbands. There are no examples of child marriage and the marriageable age for girls was 16 to 17 years. We also get evidence of widow remarriage and practice of Niyoga (levirate) in which a childless widow would co-habit with her brother-inlaw until the birth of a son. Monogamy was the established practice. However, polygamy and polyandry were also known. Female Deities Usha Aditi Prithivi Aryani Saraswati Goddess of dawn Mother of Gods Earth Goddess Forest Goddess The River deity

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Important Rituals Rajasuya: The Kings influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him. Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for 3 days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed. Vajapeya: A King performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen (a case of match-fixing!). The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position of Raja to that of Samrat. Chief Priests a. The chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were Hotri - the Invoker, he recited hymns from Rigveda. b. Adhvaryu - the executor, he rected hymns from Yajurvada. c. Udgatri - the singer, he recited hymns from Samveda.

Social Divisions When the Aryans first came to India, there was no consciousness of caste, nor were the professions hereditary. The word Varna is used in the Rig Veda with reference to only the Aryan or Dasa having respectively, fair or dark complexion, but never with reference to the Brahmana or Rajanya (Kshatriya). Quadruple division of society made its formal appearance only at one place in the Tenth Mandala of Rig Veda (Purushsukta hymn). The term Shudra is mentioned for the first time in the Tenth Mandala of Rig Veda. The Ashrama system had not developed fully till the Later Vedic Period. Types of Marriage i) ii) fee. iii) Arsa: A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of the dowry. iv) Prajapatya: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price. v) Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of the two parties (love marriage). Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class. Daiva: The father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his

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vi)

Asura: Marriage in which the bride was bought from her father. It was looked down upon with disfavour by all sacred texts, though Arthashastra allows it without criticism. vii) Rakshasa: Marriage by capture, was practised especially by warriors. viii) Paishacha: Marriage by seduction. Of these eight forms the first four were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. Daiva marriage was considered the ideal. The other forms were looked down upon with varying degrees of disfavour. Gandharva marriage. Which often might amount to no more than a liaison, was surprisingly respected. A special form of the Gandharva marriage was the Swayamvara Administrative Officers Purohita Chief priest Senani The leader of the army. Vrajapati Officer who enjoyed authority over pasture ground. Kulapas Heads of families led by Vrajapati. Gramini Head of fitting hordes under Vrajapati. There was no officer for tax collection, nor we do hear of any officer for administering justice. Spies (Spasa) were employed to watch over anti-social activities like theft and burglary. The chief received from people voluntary offering called Bali. Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC) During the Later Vedic Age the Aryans thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by Yamuna, Ganges and Sadanira. They crossed the Vindhyas and settled in the Deccan, to the north of Godavari. Political Organisation During the Later Vedic Age popular assemblies lost much of their importance and royal power increased at their cost. In other words, chiefdom gave way to kingdom. Formation of large kingdoms made the king more powerful. For all practical purposes, kingship became hereditary. The Vidhata completely disappeared. Sabha and Samiti continued to hold ground, but their character changed and they were no more representative of the will of the majority. Women were no longer permitted to attend the assemblies. which came to be dominated by nobles and Brahamanas. The term rashtra indicating territory first appealed in this period. 15

Gotra The institution of Gotra appeared in the Later Vedic Age. Literally meaning cowpen, Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor. The Gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the sociopolitical ties,as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. People began to practice Gotra exogamy. In other words, marriage between persons belonging to the same Gotra was prohibited. Regions and Kings Eastern King Samrat Western King Suvrat Northern King Viral Southern king Bhoja King of middle country . Raja Pottery Various types of pottery known: (a) (b) (c) (d) Black and Red ware Black Slipped ware Plain Grey ware Red ware Red ware was most popular. However, the most distinctive type of pottery was Painted Grey Ware. Aranyakas There were some sages dwelling in the forests who explained the Vedic scriptures to their pupils in the form of Aranyakas (Aranyaka means belonging to the forest) and they came to be known as forest texts. They explain metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. They are the forest books and were taught in the forests due to their magical powers. They form the concluding part of Brahmanas. Brahmanas The Brahmanas are the prose commentaries on various Vedic hymns.

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They explain the Vedas in an orthodox way. They explain the hidden meaning behind the hymns They are ritualistic by nature They are expressive of the cause hetu). etymology (nirvachana), censure ninda). dount (samshaya) and injunction (vidhi). Social Organisation Society in the Later Vedic Age came became increasingly complex and came to be divided into four Varnas - Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. Brahamanas: The growing cult of sacrifice enormously added to the power of Brahmanas, who performed various rituals and sacrifices for their clients. In the beginning, they were merely one of the sixteen classes of priests, but later on they overshadowed others. Kshatriyas: They constituted the warrior class. Majority of the rulers belonged to this class. Vaisyas: They were the agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders, artisans and metal workers, which formed the bulk of population. In some texts, the Kshatriyas are represented as living on the tributes collected from the Vaisyas. Sudras: They were the lowest in social hierarchy and were meant to serve the upper three varnas. The upper three varnas were known as the Dvijas (twice born). The upper three varnas were entitledto upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread. Education began with upanayana ceremony. Sometimes the girls were also initiated. The age of upanayana was 8 years for Brahamana. 11 for Kshatriya, and 12 for Vaisyas. Certain sections of artisans such as Rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed high status and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. In Later vedic Age, polygamy was prevalent and there were instances of child-marriage. The term Nagara appears for the first time in the Later Vedic Age, showing faint beginnings of town life. Vedic Literature The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word Veda meaning, to know or knowledge par excellence. Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing), which is distinct from Smriti (based on memory). Four Vedas and their Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the

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 Sruti.

Upanishads form a class of literature known as

Rig Veda It is divided into 10 Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to be later additions. A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families. Written between 1700-1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab. Books II to VII are earliest and are also called as family books. They are attributed to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudeva. Am. Bhardwaj, Vashishtha. Kanva and Angiras. The IX Mandala is dedicated exclusively to Soma The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas. Yajur Veda A ritualistic Veda. It is divided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. Atharvaveda mentions beliefs and practices of non-Aryans. In Atharvaveda, Sabha and Samiti are described as uterine sisters the two daughters of Prajapati. Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns. Sama Veda Sam Veda derives its roots from Saman. which means a melody. A collection of melodies. A collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all others were derived from Rig Veda. Atharva Veda Kandas. disease. A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 It is the latest Veda. Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula. It contains charms and spells to ward-off evil and Its content throws light on the practices of non-

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Aryans. The Upanishads The term Upanishada indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher. They consisted of discussions on several problems such as the creation of the universe, the nature of God. the origin of mankind etc. They are anti-ritualistic and define the doctrine of Karma (Action), Atman (Soul) and Gad (Brahma). They are spiritual and philosophical in nature. They are called the Vedanta or the end of Vedas. They advocate J nana Marga and are anti-ritualistic in nature. There are 108 Upanishads. Generally, the period from 800 to 500 BC is known as the period of Upanishads. The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Upanishads belong to Rig Veda. Chhandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to Sama Veda. Taittiriya. Katha and Svetasvatara Upanishad belong to the Krishna Yajur Veda. Brihadaranyaka and Isa belong to the Shukla Yajur Veda. Prasna. Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda. Ashramas The ashrama system is found mentioned for the first time in the Aitareya Brahman a. Meant mainly for regulating the life of the male members of the higher castes, they consisted of four stages: (a) Brahmacharin or student life; (b) Grihastha or life of the householder; (c) Vanaprastha or partial retirement and Sanyasin or complete retirement (ascetic life). Full recognition of the fourth stage was done only in the post-Vedic period. Kalpa Sutras These are the treatises dealing with Vedic rituals on one hand, and with customary law on the other they are written in a laboriously compressed style, sometimes approaching the structure of algebraic formulas, unintelligible without the help of authoritative commentaries. With a view to conveying to the future generations the ancient and contemporary literature, the Aryan sages invented a special concise method called the Sutra style. Thus the massive Vedic texts were condensed into short, terse formulae, which could be easily remembered and transmitted orally - from father to son or from Guru to Shisya. Most of the Vedic literature was handed down orally in this manner. The Sutra literature is divided into three classes: (a) Srauta Sutras - dealing

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with large public sacrifices. (b) Griha Sutras: dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc. Dharma Sutras - explain social and local customs. which later on became the basis of Mann Smriti. Dharma-Shastras Dharma-Shastras are the later Vedic Age or Epic Age treatises on ethical and social philosophy. They deal systematically with the proper conduct of life and describe social, ethical and religious obligations. The Dharma-Shastras are, ill fact, another name for Smritis, which are the law books, written in the sloka metre. The chief among them are the Manav Dharma Shastra, the Vishnu Dharma Shastra. the Yajnavalkya Smriti. and the Narad Smriti. Manav Dharma Shastra or Mann Smriti is the oldest and the most famous. Its author Manu is supposed to be the first king and the first law-giver. Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were compiled. These books are not merely accounts of civil and criminal laws of the time but they also cover all aspects of the daily life of the individual. They throw considerable light on the social and political life of the age -the caste system, Ashramas of life, economic conditions as also state of professions, arts and crafts, architecture and the working of administration. Vedangas In order to understand the Vedic Literature, it was necessary to learn-Vedangas or the limbs of Vedas. These are treatises on science and arts. They are a. Shiksha (Phonetics) b. Kalpa (Ritual) c. Vyakarana (Grammar) d. Chhand (Metrics) e. Nirukta (Etymology) I. Jyotisha (Astronomy) Yaskas Nirukta (5th century BC) is the oldest Indian linguistic text. Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4lhCentury BC) on Vyakaran, Upvedas There were four Upvedas Epics Mahabharata is older compared to Ramayana and possibly reflects the state of affairs from 10th Century BC to 4th Century . AD. 20

Ayurveda dealing with medicine Dhanurveda dealing with the art of the warfare Gandharvaveda dealing with music Shilpaveda dealing with art and Literature

 Originally Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jayasamhita. These were raised to 24000 and came to be known as Bharata. The final compilation brought the number of verses to 100,000 and came to be known as Mahabharata. The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses which were raised to 12000 and finally to 24.000 Composition of Ramayana started in 5th century BC. It passed through several stages and attained its present form as late as 12th century AD. Six System of Philosophy 1 Nyaya (Analysis) 2 Vaisesika (Atomic Characteristic) 3 Sankhya (Enumeration) 4 Yoga (Application) 5. Purva Mimansa (Enquiry) 6 Uttar Mimansa (Vedanta) Gautam Kanada Kapil Patanjali Jaimini Vyasa

Later Vedic Religion

Towards the end of the Vedic Age, a section of society began to resent priestly domination. The Upanishads criticised the cult of rituals and sacrifices and laid stress on Right Belief and Right Knowledge. They emphasised that knowledge of self (Atman) should be acquired and relation of Atman with Brahma (God) should be properly understood. Deeds of one life affected the next. This gave the theory of Karma. Puranas The strikingly varied nature of the contents of Puranas seems to be the result of diverse materials: tales, anecdotes, songs and ballads, traditional lore etc. These include mythology, cosmogony, various legends, genealogical accounts, folk beliefs, law codes and miscellaneous topics. The Puranic literature is thus a unique outcome of the ever-continuing synthesis of various socio-economic formations operative between the 5th century BC and the 12th century AD. Every addition in the Puranic literature brought in its train numerous new deities with images and temples, pilgrimages and vows, sects etc. The change in the mode of worship (from sacrifice to worship of idols), visual appeal of the denies as against the worship of ideas, the fact of idol worship being more satisfying than yajna or sacrifice, revulsion to the violence and bloodshed involved in animal sacrifices-all these explain the socioreligiouseconomic transformations taking place in the Aryan society. The Puranas may be regarded as a unique record of the outcome of continual clash

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and friction, readjustment and mobilization, accommodating spirit of the Indian society. keen to come to terms with its evolving ethos. The Sangam Age Three Early Kingdoms The Pandayas (Emblem - Fish)

conservatism

and

the

The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthanese. who said that then kingdom was famous for pearls. The Pandyan territory included modern districts of Tirnelvelli. Ramanad and Madurai in Tami Nadu it had its capital at Madurai. Situated on the banks of Vaigai river. The Pandya king Profited from trade with Roman Empire and sent emissaries to Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan The Pandyas find mention in the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi, who ruled from Madurai. He accused Kovalan of theft. As a result, the city of Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi (Kovalans wile). The Cholas (Emblem - Tiger) The Chola kingdom called as Cholamandulam was situated to the northeast of Pandya kingdom between Pennar and Vellar rivers. The Chola kingdom corresponded to modern Tanjore and Tiruchirapalli districts. Its inland capital was Uraiyaur a place famous for cotton trade. One of the main sources of wealth for Cholas was trade in cotton cloth. Puhar identical with Kaveripattanam was the main port of Cholas and served as alternative capital of Cholas. The earliest know Chola king was Elara who in 2nd century B C conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly S3 years. Their greatest king was Karikala (man with charred leg) who founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of embankment along die Kaveri River. They maintained an efficient navy. The Cholas were wiped out in the attack of Pallavas from North. The Cheras (Emblem - Bow) The Chera country occupied the portion of both Kerala and Tamil Nadu The capital of Cheras was Vanjji. It main ports were Muzris and Tondi. The Romans set up two regiment at Muzris (identical with Cranganore) in Chera country. The also built a temple of Augustus at Muzris. One of the earliest and better known among Chera rulers was Udiyangeral It is said that he led both the armies of Kurukshetra war and so earned the title Udiyangeral

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The greatest of Chera king however was Senguttuvan of Red Chera. It is said that he invaded north and even crossed the Ganga He was also the found?! of the famous Pattini cull related to worship of goddess of chastity - Kannagi. Sangam Administration The king was the center of administration. He was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan Korravan or Iraivan, Avai was the court of crowned monarch. Officials Amaichhar -Ministers Purohitar -Purohits Dutar - Envoys Senapatiyar - Senapati Orar - Spies The kingdom was divided into mandalam, (small village), perur (big village).

nadu (province), ur (town), sirur

Revenueadministration Karai Land Tax Irai Tribute paid by feudatories and booty collected in war. Ulgu Customs duties. Iravn Extra demand or forced gift. Variyam A well known unit of territory yielding tax. Variyar Tax collector Sangam Literature Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held probably under royal patronage of Pandyan kings in Madurai. According to tradition. the assembly lasted for 9990 years and was attended by 8.598 poets and 197 Pandyan kings. The first Sangam was attended by Gods and legendary sages and all its works have perished. Of the second Sangam. the only surviving work is Tolkappiyam, an early work on Tamil grammar written by Tolkapiyyar. The Sangam literature can roughly) be divided into two groups narrative and didactic. The narrative texts are called Melkannaku or eighteen major works consisting of eight anthologies (Ettutogai)and ten idylls (Pattupattu). The didactic works are called Kilkannaku or eighteen minor works consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar The Epics 23

 Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) - Written by Mango Adigal. it deals with the story of Kovalam and Madhavi of Kaveripattinam. Manimekalai - Written by Sattnar. deals with the adventuresof Manimekalai. daughter born of Kovalan and Madhavi. The rise of the Magadha Kingdom (600 to 300 BC)

Mahajanapadas Capitals Mahajanapadas Capitals 1. Gandhara Taxila 10. Matsya Virat Nagari 2. Kamboja Rajput 11. Vajjis Vaishali 3. Asmaka Potna 12. Anga Champa 4. Vatsa Kaushambi 13. Kashi Banaras 5. Avanti Ujjain 14. Kosala Sravasti 6. Shurasena Mathura 15. Magadha Girivraja 7. Chedi Shuktimati 16. Panchala Ahichhatra 8. Malla Kushinara (North). 9. Kurus Hastinapur Kampilya (South) PGW and NBPW Painted Grey Ware (PGW) (1000-700 BC) was finely made of well-levigated clay on a wheel. It is typically grey in color, thin in section and painted with black or red geometric patterns. The limited range of shapes includes a flat-based convex-sided dish, a small hemispherical bowl, medium and large flat-based straight-sided bowls and a vase (lota)with a straight-sided body, sharp carination at the shoulder and a straight neck. PGW represents the deluxe ware in a mixed ceramic assemblage of various fabrics and manufacture. These ceramic assemblages have been found in the Ghaggar and Indo-Gangetic regions and belong to the Early Iron Age in India. The appearance of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) (600- 200 BC) marked the beginning of the second phase of urbanisation in India. This was a 24

very glossy and shin) type of pottery made of very tine and hard fabric. It is technically the finest Pottery of the time, with a brilliantly burnished dressing almost ofthe quality ofa quality ofa glaze in colour fromjet black to a deep grey or metallic blue and iron. Shreds of NBPW have been found from the Gangetic plains lo the northern Deccan. The Mahajanapadas About 6th century BC, iron implements began to be used widely. As iron implements helped clear the dense forests of the Gangetic plains, civilization expanded eastwards. The new agricultural tools and implements improved the knowledge of cultivation. This helped in the production of surplus food grains, which could be collected by the Kings to meet their military and administrative needs. Establishment of an agrarian economy enabled the people to lead a settled life, to stick to their land, and also to expand at the cost of the neighbouring virgin areas. Around this time, sixteen Mahajanapadas or kingdoms rose to pre-imminence in India. According to Anguttara Nikaya, they were Kashi. Kosala, Anga. Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja. These Mahajana padas were either monarchical or republican in character. The Mahajanapadas of Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Shursen, Ashmak, Avanti, Gandhar and Magadha were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had the supreme authority. The Mahajanapadas of Vrijji, Malla, Kuru. Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga and Moriya. These repub-lican states had a Gana-parishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Ganaparishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad.Again the republic were basically of 2 types: (a) the republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kollis and the Mallas. (b) the republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy liketheVrijjis. Magadhan Ascendancy Of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti were more powerful. They fought amongst themselves for political pre-eminence for about a hundred years. Ultimately, Magadha, under the leadership of Bimbisara (542 BC - 493 BC) and Ajatshatru (493 BC - 461 BC) emerged victorious. The victory of Magadha was a victory for the monarchical system, which was now firmly established in the Ganges plain. Magadhan ascendancy began with Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. He married the princesses of Kosala, Vaishali and Madia, which helped him in his expansionist policy. His one and only conquest was that of Anga. He also gained a part of Kashi as (he dowry in his marriage with the sister of King Prasenajit of Kosala. Bimbisara was murdered by his own son. Ajatasatru (492-

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460 BC). He defeated Prasenajit, married his daughter, and annexed Kashi. Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), who founded the new capital at Pataliputra. The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Sisunaga dynasty, which destroyed the power of Avanti and incorporated it in the Magadhan empire. Thus, the 100-year-old rivalry between Avanti and Magadha came to an end. The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas. Who annexed Kalinga to the empire. Mahapadma Nanda was the most important king of his dynasty. The Nandas are said to have checked Alexanders army from ad-vancing towards Magadha. Their rule was supplanted by that of the Mauryas, Religious Movements The period between 7th and 5th century BC was a turning point in the intellectual and spiritual development of the whole world, for it witnessed the emergence of early philosophers of Greece, the great Hebrew poets, Confucius in China and Zoroaster in Persia. It was at this time that Jainism and Buddhism arose in India,each based on a distinctive set of doctrines and each laying down distinctive rules of conduct for attaining salvation Causes of New Movements The Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity. The Vedic religion had become very complex and degenerated into superstitions, dogmas, and rituals. Supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest in the society and Kshatriya reacted against the Brahmanical domination. Introduction of a new agricultural economy in eastern India. The desire of Vaishyas to improve their social position with the increase in their economic position due to the growth of trade.

Buddhism Buddha's Life Gautama, the Buddha also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata. Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), on the vaisakha purnima day at Lumbini, near Kapilvastu, capital of the Sakya republic. Left home at the age of 29 and attained Nirvana at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya. Delivered his first sermon at Sarnath.

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 BC.

He attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara in 483

Buddhist Councils The first Council was held in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha to compile the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka. The second council was held at Vaisali in 383 BC. The monks of Vaisali wanted some change in the rites. Schism into Sthaviravadins and Mahasan-ghikas. The third council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka. 236 years after the death of Buddha. It was held under the Presidentship of Moggliputta Tissa to revise the scriptures. The fourth council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir under the President ship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha and resulted in the division of Buddhists into Mahayanists and Hinayanists, Buddhist Scriptures The Vinaya Pitaka: (a) mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated, (b) it describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha. An account of the life and leaching of the Buddha is also given. The Sutra Pitaka: (a) Consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions, (b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda. Moggalana and others are also included in it. It lays down the principles of Buddhism. The Abhidhamma Pitaka: Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddhas teachings, (b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly are. The Khandhakas: contain regulations on the course or life in the monastic order and have two sections - the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The thud part - the Parivara is an insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk. Among the non-canonical literature Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are important. The later two are the great chronicles of Ceylon. Know The Important Facts AsvaghoshaContemporary of Kanishka. lie was poet, dramatist. musician, scholar and debator. NagarjunaHe was a friend and contemporary of Satavahana king Yajnasri Gautamiputra of Andhra. He propounded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as

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Sunyavada. Asanga and VasubandhuTwo brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in fourth century AD. Asanga was the most important teacher of the Yogachara or Vijnanavada School founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhus greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is still considered an important encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Buddhaghosha Who lived in the fifth century AD was a great Pali scholar. The commentaries and the Visuddhimaga written by him are a great achievement in the Post-Tripitaka literature. DinnagaThe last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, is well known as the founder of the Buddhist logic. Dharmakirtilived in the seventh century AD was anther great Buddhist logician. He was a subtle philosophical thinker and dialectician. Buddhist Philosophy Idealism: Two source of valid knowledge: (a) Perception and (b) Inference. Doctrineof dependent origination (Pratisamutpada): Central theory of Buddhist Philosophy. It tells us that in the empirical worid dominated by the intellect, everything is relative, conditional. dependent, subject to birth and death and therefore impermanent. Theory of momentariness (Kshanabhanga or Impermanence): It tells that everything, in this world is merely a conglomeration of perishable qualities. According to it. Things that can produce effect exist and whatever can not produce effect has no existence. Five Great Events of Buddhas Life and their Symbols Birth: Lotus and Bull Great Renunciation: Horse Nirvana: Bodhi tree First Sermon: Dharmachakra or wheel Parinirvana or Death: Stupa

Four Noble Truths The world is full of sorrows. Desire is root cause of sorrow. If Desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed. Desire can be removed by following the eight-fold path. 28

Eight Fold Path Three Ratnas

Right Right Right Right Right Right Right Right

understanding speech livelihood mindfulness thought action effort concentration

Buddha Dhamma Sangha

Sacred Shrines Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya. Sarnath and Kusinagar, where the tour principal events of the Buddhas life, namely, Birth, Enlightenment. First sermon and Mahaparinirvana took place. To these are added tour places Sravasti, Rajgriha. Vaishali and Sankasyathese eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas). Other centres of Buddhism in Ancient India Amravati and Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar; Junagadh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharhut in MP; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra, Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kannauj. Kausambi and Mathura in U.P.: and Jagadala and Somapuri in West Bengal. Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz. (a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved) (b) Chaitya (prayer hall) Vihara (residence) Types of Buddhism Hinayana (a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha, (b) They sought individual salvation through selfdiscipline and meditation. (c) They did not believe in idol-worship, (d) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God. (e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all. (f) The oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali) or the Doctrine of the Elders, (f) Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more philosophical is known as Sarvastivada or the doctrine which maintains the existence of all things, physical as well as mental, (g) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched oft another school called Sautantrika, which was more critical in outlook. Mahayana: (a) Its followers believed in the 29

heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas. (b) Believes in idolworship, (c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive state of bliss, (d) Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the Yogachara. (e) The former took a line midway between the uncompromising realism of Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara. (f) The Yogachara school founded by Maitreyanatha completely rejected the realism of Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism. Vajrayana: (a) Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they called Vajra. (b) The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras. It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar. Know The Important Facts The Buddha extended the teaching of two elder contemporaries, Alara Kalama, and Udlaka. According to Buddhism there is no-self, no God, no soul and no spirit. There is very little theological or philosophical speculation involved Buddhism is scientific in approach, a search for cause and effect relationships and knowledge of reality, as each individual human being experiences it. It is psychological in approach, that is, it begins with human being. If women were not admitted into the monasteries, Buddhism would have continued for a thousand years, but because this admission has been granted, it would last only five hundred years Buddha Roots of Buddhism in the Past The Vedanta Sankhya philosophy The Upanishads : Ideas about Kerma, soul, rebirth, moksha, ahimsa etc. Contribution of Buddhism The doctrine of Ahimsaso strongly stressed, devoutly preached and sincerely practiced by the Buddhists. Was incorporated in Hinduism of later days. The practice of worshipping personal Gods, making their images and erecting temples in their honour became a part of the later day Hinduism. Buddhism proved to be one of the greatest 30

civilising forces, which India gave to the neighbouring countries. Buddhism broke the isolation of India and helped in establishment of intimate contacts between India and foreign countries. Jainism Life of Mahavira Born in 540 BC at Kundagrama near Vaisali. Siddhartha was his father: Trisala his mother, Yasoda his wife and Jameli was the daughter. Attained Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama in eastern India at the age of 42. Died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at Pavapuri near Rajagriha. He was called Jina or Jitendriya, Nirgrantha and Mahavira. Way to Nirvana (Three Ratnas) Right faith (Samyak vishwas) Right knowledge (Samyak jnan) Right conduct (Samyak karma)

The Principles of Jainism as Preached by Mahavira Rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals. Did not believe in the existence of God. Believed in karma and the transmigration of soul. Laid great emphasis on equality. Five Main Teachings (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Non-injury (ahimsa) Non-lying (saryai) Non-stealing (asateya) Non-possession (aparigraha) Observe continence (Bralmmcharya). (The first four principles are of Parsavanath and the fifth Bramacharya was included by Mahavira). Sacred Literature The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi, and may be classified as follows: The twelve Angas 31

(b) (c) (d) (e)

The twelve Upangas The ten Parikarnas The six Chhedasutras The four Mulasutras.

Jaina Philosophy Syadvada: All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional and limited. According to Syadvada (the theory of may be) seven modes of predication (saptabhangi) are possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation both are wrong. All judgements are conditional. Anekantavada: The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic and relativistic pluralism. It is called Anekantavada or the doctrine of the manyness of reality. Matter (Pudgala) and Spirit (Jiva) are regarded as separate and independent realities. Spread of Jainism Jainism received patronage from the kings of the time, including Chandragupta Maurya. In the south, royal dynasties such as the Gangas, Kadambas. Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. In.Gujarat, patronage came from wealthy merchants. The concrete expression of Jainisms religious zeal is seen all over the country in works of art and architecture. The 57-foot high statue of Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola in Mysore, erected in 983 or 984 AD is a marvel of its kind. The temples at Mount Abu and those at Palithana in Gujarat and Moodabidri and Karkala in the south make a rich contribution to the Indian heritage. Jaina Councils By the end of fourth century BC, there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley leading to a great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India (Sravana Belgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to the Gangetic valley after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulabahu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or naked) and Svetambaras (white-clad). First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas. Invasion of Alexander Alexander crossed the Indus in 326 BC. After defeating the fierce tribes of the north west, he encountered two powerful kings, Ambhi and Porus. Ambhi. the king of Taxila, sent a mission to Alexander. offering to help him. if 32

his own kingdom was spared. Porus, however, decided tooppose the Macedonian and the battle of Hydaspes (Ravi) was fought on the banks of the river Jhelum. Greek sources mention that Porus was defeated but was restored to his dominion as a vassal of Alexander. Alexander wanted to continue his advance but his soldiers mutinied and refused to go beyond river Hyphasis (Beas) and he had to retreat. Alexander died in Babylonia in 323 BC. After his death, most of the Macedonians returned home by 31b BC. Though Alexanders stay in India was brief; it was an important influence. By curbing the fierce tribes who inhabited the hills and passes of North-west India, he paved the way for the rise of a united empire under the Mauryas. Alexanders campaign opened up and reinforced a number of trade routes between North-Western India. via Afghanistan and Iran to Asia Minor and to the ports along the eastern Mediterranean. The Mauryan Empire (325 BC -183 BC Chandragupta Maurya In 305 BC Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nikator, who surrendered a vast territory. Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus. Chandragupta became a Jain and went to Sravanbelgola with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation (Sale/than). Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of northern India was united. Trade flourished, agriculture was regulated, weights and measures were standardized and money came into use. Taxation, sanitation and famine relief became the concerns of the State. Bindusara Bindusara extended the kingdom further and conquered the south as far as Mysore. Bindusar asked Antiochus I of Syria to send some sweet wine, dried figs, and a Sophist. Antiocus I sent wine and figs but politely replied that Greek philosophers are not for sale. Bindusar patronized Ajivikus. Asoka According to the Buddhist tradition, Asoka usurped the throne alter killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one. Radhagupta a Minister of Bindusar helped him in fratricidal

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struggle. Under Asoka. the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the subcontinent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control. Asoka (ought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in the 9th years of his coronation. The king was moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest. In oilier words, Bherighosha was replaced by Dhammaghosha. Asoka was not an extreme pacifist. He did not pursue the policy of peace for sake of peace under all conditions. Thus he retained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into his empire. Asoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas, and five States ruled by Greek kings. We also know that he sent missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarnabhumi (Burma) and also parts of South East Asia. Asokas Dhamma Asokas Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. Its broad objective was to preserve the social order it ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show mercy to slave and servants. He held that if people behaved well they would attain Swarga (heaven). He never said that they would attain Nirvana, which was goal of Buddhist Teaching. The empire The empire was divided into a number of provinces. Probably, five. The northern province, called Uttarapatha had Taxila as its capital Western province, known as Avantipatha had its capital in Ujjain. Prachyapatha with its capital Toshali (Kalinga) formed the Eastern province while Dakshinapatha with its capital Surarnagiri was the Southernmost province. Central province. Magdha, with its capital at Pataliputra, was the headquarters of the entire kingdom. Arthashastra Arthashastra, written by Chandragupta Mauryas Prime Minister Chanakya, primarily delves into the statecraft and administration. The treatise lays down various rules that should be formulated for a ruling monarch. It laid down strategies for a well-planned state economy. The Arthashastra has 15

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adhikarnas or books. Of which, the first five deal with tantra or internal administration of the state, eight deal with avapa or its relations with neighboring stales, and the last two are miscellaneous in character. The work is concerned with all the topics that deal with the internal administration and foreign relations. Army The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was maintanence of a huge army. They also maintained a Navy. According to Megasthenes the administration of Army was carried by a board of 30 officers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of 5 members. They are: (i) Army (ii) Cavalry (iii) Elephants (iv) Chariots (v) Navy (vi) Transport The state controlled almost all economic activities. Tax collected from peasants varied from to 1/6 of the Produce. The state also provided irrigation facilities and charged water-tax. Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at gate. The slate enjoyed monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc Facts about Mauryas During Mauryan rule, though there was banking system in India. yet usury was customary and the rate of interest was 15/ per annum on borrowing money. In less secure transactions (like sea Voyages etc) the rate of interest could be as high as 60# per annum. During Mauryan period, the punch marked coins (mostly of silver) were the common units of transactions. Tamralipti m the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous port on the East Coast of India. Megasthenes in his Indies had mentioned 7 castes in Mauryan society. They were philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and councilors. The Mauryan Administration

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The King The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy of which the nucleus was the king. The Mantri Parishad The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose members included (i) The Yuvaraj, the crown prince The Purohita, the chief priest The Senapati. the commander-in-chief of the army a few other ministers. Important officials Amatyas The Secretaries Sannidhata Chief treasury officer Samaharta The collector general of Revenue Durgapala Governor of fort Antapala Governor of the frontier Akshapatala Accountant General Vachabhumika Officer in charge of the rest houses, groves and wells etc. Dhamma- A new post created by Asoka, empowered with the dual functions of mahamatras propagating Dhamma and taking care of the common folk for their material well-being. Lipikaras Scribes Prativedikas Reporters. Kumaras The viceroys in charge of a province. Generally they were of regular though the exceptions were also there. In order to check the growing power of the viceroys the provincial ministers were empowered sufficiently. Pradesikas They were the modern district magistrates and in charge of district. They were to make tours once in every 5 years to inspect the entire administration of the areas under control. Rajukas They were the later day Patwaris. They were responsible for surveying and assessing the land. In rural areas they were the judicial officers. Yukra A subordinate revenue officer of the district level. He was responsible for the secretarial work of accounting. Gopa Responsible for accounts. Sthanika The lax collecting officer directly under the control of the Pradesikas. The village level officers Gramika Head of a village. He was generally elected by the people. He was not a paid servant. Gramvriddhas Village elders (To assist the Gramika in his work). Every village had its own Panchayat to settle the disputes.

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The municipal administration Nagaraka The officer in charge of the city administration. Sitaadhyaksha Supervised agriculture. Panyaadhyaksha Superintendent of commerce. Samsthadhyaksha Superintendent of market. Pauthavadhyaksha Superintendent of weight and measures. Navadhyaksha Superintendent of Ships. Sulkadhyaksha Collector of tolls. Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines. Lohadhyaksha SuperintendentofIron. Art & Architecture The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on large scale. Fragments of stone pillars and slumps indicating the existence of an 80-pillared hall have been discovered at Kumarhar on outskirts of Patna. The pillars represent the Masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone. only their capitals which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in form of lion or bulls are joined with pillar on the top. Single Lion capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh. Single bull capital at Rampurva. Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi. A carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi. The Mauryan artisans also started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. the earliest example are Barabar caves in Gaya. Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine (he relics of Buddha. Of these, the most famous are at Sanchi and Bui hut The Decline The Mauryan Empire lasted a little over a century and broke up fitly years after the death of Asoka. Slowly, the various princes of the empire began to break away and set up independent kingdoms. In 185 BC. the Mauryan king was overthrown by Pushyamitra Shunga, an ambitious Commander-in-Chief of armed forces. He started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. The Mauryan Empire ushered in a dream that was to survive and echo again and again in centuries to come. Some probable causes of decline of the Mauryan Empire: 1. Brahmanical reaction 2. Financial crisis 3. Oppressive rule

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4. Neglect of north-west frontier. 5. Weak successors 6. Pacific policy of Asoka 7. New knowledge in outlying areas-Dissemination of knowledge of manufacturing Iron The Age of the Guptas (320 AD-550 AD) Some 500 years after the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, a new dynasty called the Guptas arose in Magadha and established its control over the greater part of India (though their empire was not as large as that of the Mauryas). This period is also referred as the Classical Age or Golden Age of ancient India and was perhaps the most prosperous era in the Indian history. The Gupta Dynasty Chandragupta I Samudragupta Ramagupta Chandragupta Vikramaditya Kumargupta Mahendraditya Skandagupta 320 - 335 AD 335-375 AD 375 - 380 AD 380-413 AD 415-455 AD 455-467 AD

Later Guptas Purugupia, Narasimhagupta, Baladitya. Kumargupta II, Buddhagupta*. Bhanugupta. Harshagupta, Damodargupta, Mahasenagupta . Buddhagupta was the last emperor of Guptas, who preserved unity When he passed away, Huns safely entered into Sialkot region and eastern Malwa Chandragupta I He was the first Gupta ruler to assume the title of Maharajadhiraj. He strengthened his kingdom by matrimonial alliance with the powerful family of Lichchhavis who were the rulers of Mithila. His marriage to Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. brought an enormous power, resources and prestige. He took advantage of the situation and occupied the whole of fertile Gangetic valley He started the Gupta Era in 319-20 AD. Samudra Gupta Samudragupta was perhaps the greatest king of Gupta dynasty. His name appear in Javanese text Tantrikamandaka, and Chinese writer, WangHiuen-Tse refers that an ambassador was sent to his court by King Meghvarma of Sri Lanka, who had asked his permission to build a Buddhist monastry at Bodh Gaya for the monks travelling from Sri Lanka. The most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the Allahabad pillar inscription, composed by his court poet Harisena. 38

 Samudragupta believed in policy of war and conquest and has been termed as the Napoleon of India by Vincent A. Smith. When he died his mighty empire bordered with Kushan of Western province (modern Afganistan and Pakistan) and Vakatakas in Deccan (modern southern Maharashtra). Samudragupta was a staunch Hindu. Allahabad pillar inscriptions mentions the title Dharma Prachar Bandhu for him that is he was the upholder of Brahmanical religion. After all his military triumphs, lie performed the Ashwamedha, which is evident on some of his coins. Ashwamedha gave him the coveted title of Maharajadhiraj, the supreme king of kings. His greatest achievement can be described as the political unification of most of (lie India or Aryavarta into a formidable power. Coins - Archer type, tiger type and Battle type. On some of his gold coins he is represented playing the Veena. Kumargupta I Adopted the title of Mahendraditya. Introduced worship of God Kartikeya. Founded the monastry of Nalanda, which developed into a great centre of learning. Kalidas flourished in the reign of both Kumar Gupta 1 and Chandragupta II. Social Developments The Brahamanas claimed many privileges on account of wealth accumulated by land grants. The position of Sudras improved in Gupta period. They were now permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas. They could also worship lord Krishna. They were also allowed to perform certain domestic riles. which brought fees to priests. The practice of untochability became more intense than before. The untouchables especially Chandalas increased in number. Art Bronze image of Buddha recovered from Sultanganj. Lofty stone images of Buddha at Bamiyan in Afghanistan belonged to Gupta period. Among the best specimen of the images of Buddha is a sealed Buddha image of Sarnath, which depicts the Buddha preaching the Dhamma. For the first time we gel images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Gods. 39

 The fragmentary remains of Vishnu temple at Deogarh is the example of the most ornate and beautifully composed Gupta temple building.Another fine example of Gupta architecture is found in the Vaishnavite Tigawa temple at Jabalpur (415 AD). Bhita in Uttar Pradesh has a number ol ancient Gupta temples. Some of the caves at Ajanta may be assigned to the period of Guptas. Administration It was during the Gupta rule that the village headmen became mine important than before In towns. Organised professional bodies (Guilds) were given considerable share in the administration. Guilds of artisans, merchants and scribes conducted the affairs of the town. The Kumaramatyas were the most important officers of the Gupta period who were in charge of several portfolios. It was from them the mantris. Senapati, Mahadanda-nayaka (Minister of justice) and Saiulhi vigrahika (Minister of war and peace) were generally chosen. The Gupta military organisation was feudal by character (though the emperor had a large standing army) Decentralisation of the administrative authority began during the Gupta age. he Gupta age also experienced an excess of land grants. Land grants included the transfer of royal rights over salt and mines, which were under the royal monopoly during the Maurya period. In Gupta period land taxes increased in number and those on trade and commerce declined. The king collected taxes varying from to 1/6 of the produce. In Gupta period the army was to be fed by the people whenever it passed through the countryside. This tax was called Senabhakta. The villagers were also subjected to forced labour called vishti for serving royal army and officials. In the Gupta period for the first time civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated. The Huns Huns were primitive pastoralists owning herds of cattle and horses but knowing nothing of agriculture. They roamed in the steppe in search of pasture and water. For their food they depended on hunting and food gathering. From the Oxus, the White Huns came into Afghanistan, destroyed the Kushan power there (in 415 AD) and after establishing themselves there, began to pour into India in 458 AD. However, Skandagupta. who was at the time ruling in Northern India, checkmated them effectively. In 466-67, the Huns attacked again under

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Tormana and with the fall of the Persian empire to the Huns, the Gupta empires resistance collapsed and Huns occupied the areas up to Central India and Malwa about 500 AD. Ajanta Paintings In A.D 1817, some British soldiers chanced upon a collection of caves in a horseshoe shaped ravine close to Aurangabad lying abandoned. This was when the an of Ajanta was exposed to the enthralled world. Started in the second century BC and given up some time in the seventh century AD this complex of 29 chaitya and vihara caves were chiselled into live rock and are host to some of the best preserved paintings and sculptures of the Gupta period. The themes of the paintings on ihe walls are religious in tone and center around Buddha. Bodhisattva. and the Jatakas. The depiction of the Jatakas and incidents from the life of Buddha (which offer visual representations of didactic themes to supplement the teachings of the elder monks to their pupils), offered the painter an unlimited scope. The paintings at Ajanta were mirrors of the contemporary life in the palace, court, town, village, hamlet and hermitage. Religious Developments Under the patronage of Gupta ruler. Vaishnavism became very popular. The Gods were activated by their unions witli the respective consorts. Thus, Laxmi got her association with Vishun (Skandguptas time) and Parvati got her associationwith Siva (Kumaragupta Is time). This was the period of evolution of Vajrayanism and the Buddhist tantric cults. Idol worship became a common Feature of Hinduism from Gupta period onwards. Position of Women The position of women deteriorated further. Polygamy was common. The first example of sail appears in Gupta lime in 510 AD in Eran in Madhya Pradesh The women of higher orders did not have access to independent source of livelihood. Women lacked property rights. However her stridhana was considered her property.

Literature
Author Book Bhasa Shudrak Amarkosh Iswara Krishna Vatsyana Vishnu (Gupta) Svapanavasavdattam Mrichchakatika Amarsimha Sankhya Karika Kama Sutra Panchatantra

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Narayan Pandit Bhattin Bhaivi Dandin Aryabhatta Vishakha Datta Indrabhuti Varahamihara Brihad

Hitopdesha Ravan Vadha Kiratarjunyam Daskumarachanta Aryabhattyan Mudura Rakshasa nanassiddhi Panchasiddh antika. Samhita

Trade and Coinage . In Gold content Gupta coins arc not as pure as Kushans The Guptas also issued good number of silver coins for local exchange. The Gupta copper coins are very few as compared to Kushanas, which show that use of money did not touch common people. Gupta period witnessed decline in long distance trade. Trade with the Roman Empire declined after the third century AD. Indian merchants began to rely more heavily on the south-east Asian trade. Kalidas Kalidas wrote a number of such excellent dramas like Sakuntala, Malavikagnimitram, Vikrumorvasiyatn, epics like the Raghuvamsa, and lyric poetry like the Ritu-Samhara and the Meghaduta. II the best-known work of Kalidas is his drama Sakunatala. his Meghaduta is among the most fascinating little poems that ever came to be written in Sanskrit. Both in drama and poetry Kalidas stands not only unsurpassed, but even unrivalled. His poetry is characterized by grace, simplicity and sentiment, and is decorated by striking figures of speech. He is unsurpassed in describing love and pathos. His works are famous not only for their aesthetic beauty and poetic appeal, but for the ideal which they place before us. Astronomy Aryabhatta wrote Suryasiddh-anta, which dealt with epicyclic revolution of earth, nature of eclipse, reckoning of lime etc. Aryabhatta calculated Pi as 3.1416 and the length of the solar year as 365.358 days. He postulated that the Earth was a sphere rotating on its own axis and revolving around the Sun as well. He also postulated the exact cause of eclipses. He propounded the Heliocentric theory of gravitation, thus predating Copernicus by almost one thousand years. Aryabhattas Magnum Opus, the Aryubhatliya was translated into Latin as early as 13th century. 42

The Post-Gupta Period Harshavardhana (606-647 AD) Harsha belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty, which ruled from Thanesvar. Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas, but had assumed independence after the Huna invasions. His reign is comparatively well-documented, thanks to his court poet Bana, who was the author of works such as Harshacharita (an account of Harshas rise to power), Kadambari and Parvatiparinay. Harshas dramas such as Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika give us information about the political conditions in those days. In his first expedition. Harsha drove away Sasanka from Kanauj who had occupied it alter murdering Harshas brother. He made it his new capital The area under his control covered many parts of northern India. including the Punjab, eastern Rajasthan and the Ganga valley as far as Assam. But, his empire included territories of distant feudal kings too. Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas. The kings he conquered paid him revenue and sent soldiers when he was fighting war. They accepted his sovereignty, but remained rulers over their own kingdoms. Harshas ambition of extending his power to the Deccan and southern India were stopped by Pulakesin II. the Chalukya king of Vatapi in northern Mysore Pallavas (560-903 AD) There is controversy regarding the origin of Pallavas. Possibly the Pallavas were a local tribe who established their authority in the Tondamadu or the land of creepers. They were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their capital was at Kanchi. Both Chalukyas and Pallavas tried to establish their supremacy over land between Krishna and Tungahhadra. Pallava king Narshimhavarman (630-68 AD) occupied Chalukyan capital at Vatapi in about 642 AD and assumed the title Vatapikonda. The Chola Empire (9th-12th Century) The founder of Chola Dynasty was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850 AD. The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (98543

1014 AD) and his son Rajendra I (1014-1044 AD). Raja built a Saiya a temple of Rajarajeshwara at Tample . Rajendra I assumec. the title ol Gangaikondachola and built a city called Gangaikondacholapuram) The Chola Empire was divided into Mandalams or provinces and these in turn were divided into Valanadu and Nadu. The arrangement of local self-government has been regarded as the basic feature of the administration of Cholas. The style of architecture which came into vogue during this period is called Dravida e.g. Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram. Another aspect was image making which reached its climax in dancing figure of Shiva called Natraja. Kambama who wrote Ramavatrama was one of the greatest figures of Tamil poetry. His Ramayana is known as Kamba Ramayana. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna are considered as three gems of Kannada poetry. Pallavas Cholas Pratiharas Chalukyas Rashtrakutas (300-888 AD) (850-1276 AD) (773-1019 AD) (973-1192AD) (7501142 AD) Dantidurga Govinda IV
Simhavishnu Vijayalaya Nagabhatta I Pulakesin I Krishna I Amoghavarsha III Mahendravarman I Parantakal Vatsaraja Kirtivarman I Govinda II Krishna III Narasimhavarman I Rajarajal Nagabhatta II Mangalesa Dhruva Khottiga Mahendravarman II Rajendral Mihira Bhoja Vikramaditya IGovinda III Karka II ParamesvaravarmanI Rajadhiraja Mahendrapala 1 Vinayaditya Amoghavarsha I Narasimhavarman II Rajendrall Mahipala Vikramaditya Krishna II Paramesvaravarman II Virarajendra VikramadityaII Indra III Nandivarman II Kulottungal Kirtivarman II Amoghavarsha II

Northern India: Age of three Empires A Dumber of powerful Empires arose in northern India and the Deccan between 750-1000 AD. These were Palas, which dominated eastern India till the middle of (>lh century, the Pratiharas. which dominated eastern India and the upper Gangetic valley and the Rastrakutas, which dominated Deccan. The Palas Gopala founded the Pala Empire in 750 AD. His son Dharmapala succeeded him. Dharmpala revived Nalanda University, which had been famous all over the eastern world. He also founded the Vikramshila University 44

The Pratiharas The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara-Pratiharas probably because they originated from Gujrata of southwest Rajas than. Bhoja was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. He was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha. He is sometimes called Mihir Bhoja to distinguish him from Bhoja Parmara of Ujjain The Rashtrakutas Dantidurga who fixed his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur founded the kingdom. The greatest Rastrakuta rulers were Govinda 111 and Amoghvarsha. Amoghavarsha ruled for 68 years but by temperament he preferred persuit of religion and literature to war. He was himself an author and wrote Kavi Rajamarga the earliest Kannada hook on poetics. The famous rock cut temple of Shiva at Ellora was built by one of the Rastrakuta kings Krishna I in 9th century. Chalukyas (543-757 AD) They established their capital at Vatapi (Badami) in district of Bijapur in Karnataka. Pulakesin II was able to check Harshas design to conquer Deccan. Aihole Inscription is a eulogy written by his court poet Ravikirti. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom. Pallava ruler Narsimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya kingdom, killed Pulakesin II and captured Badami. Chalukya Art They developed the Deccan or Vesara style in the building of structural temples, which reached culmination, however, only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoyasalas They perfected the art of stone building, that is, stones finely joined without mortar. Under then auspices, the Buddhists, Jainas and Brahmins competed with each other in building cave temples. Thought the cave frescoes began earlier, some of the finest specimens belonged to the Chalukyas. The murals that were executed on the walls dealt with not only religious themes but also with secular ones.

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Hieun Tsang The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hieun Tsang visited India dining Harshas reign. He has left a lengthy account of his travels Hieun Tsang noticed that Buddhism was not as popular in all pans of India as he had thought it would be. But in eastern India, it was still popular. Nalanda University was still a famous centre of Buddhism. He also recorded the existence of a rigid caste system and talks about the existence of many subcastes He also takes note of many outcastes and untouchables, who were segregated and not allowed to mix with the people of the higher varnas and had habitations marked with a distinguishing sign. Chola art In the temples, the Vimana or the tall pyramidal tower dominates the whole structure of the shrine and imparts an extraordinary dignity to it. Gopuram and Garbhagriha are the other two important structures. The best specimens are the temples of VijayalaCholeswara. the Nageswara temple, the Koranganatha temple and the Muvarakovintha temple. Hoyasala art Temples usually stand on a high platform. The minute carving of the Hoyasala temples is their most attractive feature, achieving the effect of Sandalwood and ivory carving and reproducing the same infinite variety of ornamental decoration. The temple at Hoyasaleshvara at Halebid is the greatest achievement of Hoysala art.

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Art and Architecture Gandhara Art It Clearly exhibits the influence of Greek and Roman art. However, patrons of this art were not Greeks but Sakas and Kushanas. The school specialized in Buddha and Bodhisattva images, stupas and monasteries. Built mostly of blue schist stone. Buddhas of this school are gentle. graceful and compassionate. (Lacking the spirituality of those of the Gupta period). The chief characteristics arc the realistic representation of human figures, distinguished muscles of the body and transparent garments. Gupta Art anthropomorphic. Achieved the highest level of perfection. The art was sensitive, secular

and

Gupta temple was not excavated from rock, it

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was an independent structure built of dressed stone blocks. Dasavatara temple at Deogarh is a beautiful example of Gupta architecture. Two of the best examples of Gupta images are the standing Buddhas from Mathura. The rock sculpture showing the Varaha avatara of Vishnu in the Udayagiri cave represents the vigour of which the art was capable. Mathura Art Buddhas of Gandhara were copied here but in a more refined way. The art represents an important formative stage in the history of Indian art. The great majority of creation consisted of nude seminude figures of female Yakshinis or Apsoras in erotic pose. The images exhibited not only form, masculinity and energetic body but also grace and religious feeling. The attempt to display spiritual strength by halo began with Muthura School. The forms of Brahmanical deities became crystallized at Mathura for the first time.

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MEDIEVAL INDIA Qutb-Hul-din ibak Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the founder of first independent Turkish kingdom in northern India. For his generosity, he was given the title of Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs). He constructed two mosques - Quwal-ul-lslam at Delhi and . Adhai din ka Jhopra at Ajmer. lie also began the construction of Qutub Minar, in the honour of famous Still saint Khawaja Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. Aibak was great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan- unNizami. author of Taj-ul-Massir and Fnkhr-ud-Din. Author of Tarikh- iMubarak Shahi. Iltutmish Iltutmish was the real founder of Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi the capital in place of Lahore. He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz Khan - the Mongol leader by refusing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing. He completed the construction of Qutub Minar. He issued the silver lanka for the first time. He organized the Iqta system and introduced reforms in civil administration and army, which was now centrally paid and recruited. He set up an official nobility of slaves known as Chahalgani (group of forty). He patronized Minaj-us-siraj, author of Tabaqat-i-nasiri. Razia Sultan Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, the nobles placed Rukn-ud-din Firoz on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Rukn-ud-din and ascended the throne. Razia was popular among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and theologians. She further offended the nobles by her preference for an Abyssinian slave - Yakut. Soon after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi and Lahore openly revolted against her. There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainty of Razia. Razia accompanied by Yakut marched against Altunia. However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi. In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban Balban ascended the throne in 1265 AD. He broke the power of chahalgani and restored the prestige of the crown. That was his greatest contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies

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 He created a strong centralized army to deal with internal disturbances and. to check Mongols who were posing u serious danger to Delhi Sultanate. He established the military department - Diwan-i-Arz. The Persian court model influenced Balbans conception of kingship. He took up the title of Zil-i-Ilahi (shadow of God). He introduced Sijda (prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (kissing the feel of monarch) as the normal forms of salutation, He destoryed Mewati Rajput brigandage in the doab, where forests were cut and forts built. Alauddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji ascended the throne after getting his uncle Jalal-ud-din murdered. He was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed - Kingship knows no Kinship. Alauddins Imperialism Alauddin annexed Gujarat (1298 AD), Ranthambhor (1301 AD). Mewar (1303 AD), Malwa (1305 AD), Jalor (1311 AD). In Deccan. Alauddins army led by Malik Kafur defeated Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warrangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of Madurai. Administrative Reforms In order to avoid the problems created by the nobles, Alauddin issued four important ordinances. The first ordinance aimed at confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands. By the second ordinance Ala-ud-din reorganised the spy system. An army of informers was created and their duty was to spy on all that happened in Empire and submit reports to Sultan. The third ordinances prohibited the use of wine. The fourth ordinance issued by Alauddin laid down that nobles should not have social gatherings and they should not inter-marry without his permission. He introduced the system of Dagh or the branding of horse and Chehra or preparation of the descriptive role. Alauddin ordered that all land was to be measured and then the share of state was to be fixed. The post of special officer called Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue. The peasants had to pay half the produce as land revenue. Alauddin sought to fix cost of all commodities. For the purpose he set up three markets at Delhi. One Market for food grains, the second for costly cloth and third for horses, slaves and catties. Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna who maintained a register of the merchants and strictly controlled the shopkeepers and the prices. The check on market was kept by two officers - Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahna-i-Mandi. All goods for sale were brought to an open market called the Sarai-Adl.

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 Many forts were built by him and the most important of them was Alai Fort. He also constructed the Alai Darwaja the entrance gate to Qutub Minar. He also built the palace of thousand Pillars called Hazar Situn. Amir Khusro Amir Khusro was a prolific Persian poet (1253-1325 AD) associated with royal courts of more than seven rulers of Delhi Sultanate. Amir Khusro was a genius of those times. A very versatile person, he was a soldier, a composer of poetry in Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and a diplomat, shrewd in Court matters and was also a good musician. He accompanied Allauddin Khalji, when he conquered the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri. As a result of fusion of musical thoughts of Amir Khusro, many innovations took place. One of them was the present day Khayal that evolved around the fourteenth century. Amir Khusro wrote Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ulFatuh. In this book he gave an account of conquest of Alauddin. He wrote another book called Ashiqa, which contains the love story of Deval Rani and Khizr Khan. In his Nur-Siphir or nine skies, he gave the Story of Sultan Mubarak Shah. He also lived in the court of Ghias-ud-din Tughluq and wrote Tughluqnama. Khushro is also known as Tuti-i-Hind or parrot of India. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had five ambitious projects for which he has become particularly debatable. 1. Taxation in the Doab: The Sultan made an ill-advised financial experiment in the Doab between the Ganges and Jamuna. He not only increased the rate of taxation but also revived and created some additional Abwabs or cessess. Although the share of the state remained half as in time of Alauddin. it was fixed arbitrarily not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for converting the produce into money. It is said that the increase was twenty-fold and to this were added Ghan or House tax and the Charahi of pasture tax. The Sultan created a new Department of Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi. The main object of this Department was to bring more land under cultivation by giving direct help to peasants. 2. Transfer of Capital: The most controversial step which Muhammad Tughlaq undertook soon after his accession was the so called transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogir. Deogir had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in South India. It appears that the Sultan wanted to make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control south India better. Deogir was thus named Daulatabad. After a couple of years Muhammad Tugluq decided to abandon Daulatabad largely because he soon found that just as he could not control South India from Delhi, he could not control North from Daulatabad. 3. Introduction of Token Currency: Muhammad Tughlaq decided to introduce bronze coins, which were to have same value as the silver ones. 53

Muhammad Tughlaq might have been successful if he could prevent people from forging the new coins. He was not able to do so and soon the new coins began to be greatly devalued in markets. Finally Muhammad Taghlaq decided to withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange silver pieces for bronze coins. 4. Proposed Khurasan Expedition: The Sultan had a vision of universal conquest. He decided to conquest Khurasan and Iraq and mobilized a huge army for the purpose. He was encouraged to do so by Khurasani nobles who had taken shelter in his court. Moreover there was instability in Khurasan on account of the unpopular rule of Abu Said 5. Quarachil expedition: This expedition was launched in Kumaon hills in Himalayas allegedly to counter Chinese incursions. It also appears that the expedition was directed against some refractory tribes in Kumaon Garhwal region with the object of bringing them under Delhi Sultnate. The first attack was a success but when the rainy season set in, the invaders suffered terribly. His five projects had led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in checking the revolts (altogether 36 revolts in 25 years). Nature of the State The Turkish state in India was militaristic and artistrocratic. The Turkish nobles tried at first to monopolize the high offices of state denying a share to Tajiks, Afghans and non-Turkish immigrants. Thus a noble birth still remained a very important qualification for high office. Though the Sultans did not allow any violation of Islamic law, they however did not allow the Muslim divines to dictate the policy of state. The Sultans had to supplement the Muslim law by framing their own regulation (Zawabit). The Hindu subjects had been given the status of or protected people who accepted Muslim rule and agreed to pay tax called Jizya. Literature Book Khazyan-ul-Futuh Tughluq Nama Tarik-i-Alai Tabqat-i-Naisiri Tarik-i-Firoz Shahi Gila Govind Sasttra Dipika Mitakshara Dayabhaga Nagachandra Alhakhandra Hammir Raso Ashiqa Amir Author Amir Khusro Amir Khusro Amir Khusro Minhaj-us-Siraj Zia-ud-din Barni Jayadeva Parthasarthi Misra Vighanes Vara J imuta Vahana Pampa Ramayan Jagnayak Sarangdhara Khusro 54

Amuktamalyada Futuhat-l-Firozshahi Prasana Raghava Hamir-Mada-Mardana Pradyumnabhyadaya Verman Parvati Parinay Iqta

Krishnadeva Raya FirozShah Jayadeva Jay Singh Sun Ravi Vaman Bhatta Bana

Sometiems mistranslated as Jagir. It is that part of land granted by the sultan in us military chiefs for maintenance of a given number of troopers. The land was normally taken back when the Iqtadars were not in a position to maintain the army. Firoz Shah Tughlaq Alter his accession Firoz Tughlaq was faced with the problem of preventing the imminent break up of Delhi Sultunaie. He adopted the police of trying to appease the nobility, the army and theologians and of asserting his authority over only such areas, which could be easily administered from the centre. He therefore made no attempt to re-assert his authority over South India and Deccan. He decreed that whenever a noble died his son should be allowed to succeed to his position including his Iqta and if he had no sons, his son-inlaw and in his absence his slave. Firoz extended the principle of heredity to the army. Soldiers were allowed to rest in peace and to send in their place their sons. The soldiers were not paid in cash but by assignments on land revenue of villages. This novel technique of payment led to many abuses. Firoz tried to win over the theologians proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and the state under him was truly Islamic. In order to keep the theologians satisfied a number of them were appointed to high offices. He tried to ban practices, which the orthodox theologians considered unIslamic. Thus he prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at graves of saints. It was during the time of Firoz that Jizya became a separate tax. Firoz refused to exempt the Brahamanas from payment of Jizya since this was not provided for in Shariat. The new system of taxation was according to Quran. Four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed and those were Kharaj, Zakat. Jizya and Khams. Kharaj was the land tax, which was equal to 1 /10 of the produce of the land. Zakat was 2Wk tax on property. Jizya was levied on non-Muslims and Khams was 1/6 of the booty captured during war. In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation. Firoz repaired a number of canals. The first canal was from Sutlej to Ghaggar. The second canal carried the waters of Jamuna to the city of Hissar. The third canal started from neighbourhood of Mandhavi and

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Sirmour Hills and connected with Hansi. The fourth canal flowed from the Ghaggar by the fort of Sirsuti up to village of Hiram - Khera. He was a great builder, to his credit are cities of Fathabad, Hissar. Jaunapur and Firozabad. During his Bengal campaign he renamed Ikdala as Azadpur and Pandua as Firozabad. The two pillars of Asoka, one from Topra and another from Meerut were brought to Delhi. The Sultan established at Delhi, a hospital described variously as Dar-ulshifa, Bimaristan and Shifa Khana. The chief architect of slate was Malik Ghazi Shainan who was assisted in work by Abdul Haq. A new department of Diwan-i-Khairat was set up to make provision for marriage of poor girls. Another step which Firoz took was both economic and political in nature. He ordered his officials that whenever they attacked a place they should select handsome and wellborn young boys and send them to Sultan as slaves However his rule is marked by peace and tranquility and credit for it goes to his Prime Minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul. Timur Invasions (1398-99 AD) Timur invaded India in 1398 AD during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud of Tughlaq Dynasty. The raid into India was a plundering raid and its motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the Sultans o( Delhi over the last 200 years. He plundered Delhi and Tugluk empire could not recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end in 1412 AD. Administration The Turkish Sultan in India declared themselves Lieutenant of the faithful i.e. of the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad and included his name in Khutba, it did not mean that the caliph became the legal ruler. The Caliph had only a moral position. Political, legal and military authority was vested in the Sultan. He was responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice. No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne. The key figure in the administration was Wazir. In the earlier period the VVazir was primarily a military leader but now he began to be considered more an expert in revenue affairs and presided over a large department dealing both with income and expenditure. The head of military department was called Ariz-i-Mamalik. The special responsibility of Arizs department was to recruit, equip and pay the army. Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with religious mailers. pious foundations and stipends to deserving scholars and men of piety. It was presided over by a chief Sadr or chief Qazi.

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 The Qazi dispensed civil law based on Muslim law (Sharia). The Hindus were governed by their own personal laws, which were decided by panchayats in villages. The rulers posted intelligence agents called Bands in different parts of empire to keep themselves informed of what was going on. Wakil-i-Dar was the officer responsible for maintenance of proper decorum at the court and he looked after the personal comfort of Sultan and the Karkhanas. When the Turks conquered the country they divided it into number of tracts called Iqtas, which were parceled among the leading Turkish nobles. The holders of the office were called Muqti or Walis. It was these tracts, which later became province or Subas. Below the province were the Shiqs and below them the Paragana. We are told that the villages were grouped into units of 100 or 84 traditionally called Chaurasi. The Paragana was headed by Amil. The most important people in villages were the Khuts (Landowners) or Muqaddam or headman. We also hear of village accountant called Patwari. Sikander Lodhi Sikander Lodhi conquered Bihar and Tirhut. He transferred his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. Sikander Shah was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jawalamukhi Temple at Nagarkot and ordered the temples of Mathura 10 be destroyed. He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the gaz-i- Sikandari (Sikandars yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields Ibrahim Lodhi The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom loving but it was because of its fissiparous and individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened. Moreover. Ibraham Lodhi asserted the absolute power of the Sultan. As a result, some of the nobles turned against him. At last Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab invited Babur to overthrow Ibrahim. Babur accepted the offer and inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibraham in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 AD. Ibrahim was killed in the battle and with him ended the Delhi Sultnate. Zia-ud-din Barani The most famous historian of the period was Zia-ud-din Barani (born 1286), a contemporary of Muhammad Tughlaq and Firoz Shah. He enjoyed the patronage of both the Sultans. He composed Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and Fatwa-iJahandan. These chronicles not only served as important historical materials of study in themselves, but also furnished an example which Hindu writers and Hindu rulers were not slow to imitate. Some Landmarks Quwwat-ul-lslam mosque, Delhi Qutub-ud-din Aibak. Arhai Din Ka Jhopra, AjmerQutb-ud-din Aibak. 57

 Qutub Minarlltutmish. Alauddin Khilji was responsible for construction of Jamaat Khan Masjid at the Dargah of Nizamuddin Auliya and Alai Darwaja at Qutub. The other monuments at Delhi were city of 5/// and the Hauz-i-Alai or Hauz-i-Khas tank. He also constructed palace ol thousand pillars called Hazar Situn. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the city of Tughlaqabad. Muhammad Tughlaq founded the small fortress of Adilabad and city of Jahanpanah. Firoz Shah Tughlaq was responsible for the foundation of cities of Jaunpur. Fathehabad and Hisar Firuza. A. Delhi he built the palace fort of Firozabad. The best examples of architecture during the period of Sayyid and Lodhi kings are the tombs of kings and nobles, the most important among them being the tombs of Bare Khan and Chore Khan, Bara Gumbad, Shish Gumbad, the tomb of Sbihab-ud-din Taj Khan, Dadi ka Gumbad and Port ka Gumbad. Central Administration Department Purpose Diwan-i-Risalat Department of appeals Diwan-i-Ariz Military department Diwan-i-Bandagan Department of slaves Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik Department of justice Diwan-i-Isthiaq Department of pensions Diwan-i-Mttstakhraj Department of arrears Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity Diwan-i-Kohi Department of agriculture Diwan-i-lnsha Department of correspondence Art and Architecture under Sultanate The assimilation of different styles and elements to create a new one is well represented by the architecture of the Sultanate period. Many of the characteristics of Indian architecture are obvious in the buildings of the Muslim rulers. This was because though the buildings were designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, Hindu craftsmen actually built them. The new features brought by the Turkish conquerors were: (i) the dome; (ii) lofty towers: (iii) the true arch unsupported by beam: (iv) he vault. This showed advanced mathematical knowledge and engineering skill. They also brought with them an expert knowledge of the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India. The Sultans of Delhi were liberal patrons of architecture and they erected numerous splendid edifices

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The Arhai-din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer has a beautiful prayer hall. an exquisitely carved mehrab of white marble and a decorative arch screen. The first example of true or voussoired arch is said lo be the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in Mehrauli. In the Khalji period the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established once and for all. The monuments show a rich decorative character. Famous examples are the tomb of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia at Delhi, whose style of beam-on-brackets under the entrance arch of the central chamber came to be almost regularly employed in subsequent buildings The Tughlaq buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety. probably indicating less financial resources as well as puritanical taste. Sloping walls and a dark appearance characterise the buildings. Typical of the Tughlaq style is thick and battered or sloping walls. squinch arches for supporting domes, multidomed roofs and tapering minaret-like buttresses or supports at the external angles of buildings. The trabeate and arcuate are combined. Some notable Tughlaq monuments are the fort of Tughlaqahad, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, which marked a new phase in Indolslamic architecture by serving as a model for later tombs and the fort of Adilabad. The Sayyid period was too short to allow construction of elaborate buildings. But the tombs of this period display some characteristics such as use of blueenamelled tiles, the lotus-motif covering the dome and free use of guldastas. These features had much influence on the architectural style of the subsequent period. The resources available to the Lodhis were limited, and this is clearly indicated by the hard and bare tombs they erected. Bui some ol their buildings were quite elegant, with the use of enamelled tilesa technique introduced from Persia. A certain amount of imagination and a bold diversity of design are also displayed in the Lodhi architecture. Another characteristic was the use of double domes. One building of note is the Moth Ki Masjid erected by die prime minister of Sikandar Lodhi. Religious Movements of Medieval Age Bhakti Saints Ramanuja - In 11th century Ramanuja tried to assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of Vedas. He argued that grace of God was more important than knowledge about him in order to attain salvation. The tradition established by Ramanuja was followed by number of thinkers such as Madhavacharya, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya and others. Jnandeva (1275-96 AD) - He was progenitor of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra. Namdeva (1270-1350 AD) - He was a Nirguna Upasaka. Some of his abhangas are included in Guru Granth Sahib. Ekanath (1548 AD) - He was opposed to caste distinction and evinced greatest sympathy for men of low caste. 59

 Tukaram - He was a farmers son and a great devotee of Vitthal. Ramadasa (1608) -- He established ashramas all over India. It was from him that Shivaji received the inspiration to overthrow Muslim authority and found the kingdom. Gurunanak (1469-1539 AD) - He was a mystique of Nirguna School. But his followers branched off from Hinduism and founded a separate religious system. He became a wandering preacher of a casteless, universal, ethical, anti-ritualistic and monotheistic and highly spiritual religion. Surdasa (1483-1513 AD) - He belongs to Saguna School. He was a disciple of famous religious teacher Vallabhacharya. He sang the glory of Krishnas childhood and youth in his Sursagar. Tulsi Das (1532-1623 AD)- He belongs to Saguna school of Hindu Mystics. He composed the famous Ramacharitamanas. Another popular movement, which arose around the 12th century, was Lingayat or Vir Shaiva movement. Its founder was Basava and his nephew Channabasava who lived at the courts of Kalchuri kings of Karnataka. In South, the Bhakti movement was led by a series of popular saints called Nayanars and Alvars. The chief object of their worship was Shiva and Vishnu respectively. They spoke and wrote in Tamil and Telugu. Adi Sankaracharya The period alter Guptas is marked by revival and expansion of Hinduism and continued ecline of Jainism and Buddhism. Al the intellectual level the most serious challenge To Buddhism and Jainism was posed by Sankara who revived Hinduism. He is called Aquinas <>t Hinduism, since he reduced the apparently self- contradictory passages of the Upanishads into one consistent system. He propounded the doctrine of Advaita (non-dualism). According to this philosophy, there are various levels of truth. On a lower level, the world is a creation of Brahma. But. on the highest level, the whole universe is Maya (illusion) The only ultimate reality was Brahma, the impersonal world soul. Creation is his lila (eternal play). He is imminent and omniscient. According to Sankara. God and the created world were one. The differences were apparent but not real and arose due to ignorance He wrote excellent commentaries on Bhagwadgita and Upanishads. After his death 4 mathas were established in Sringeri (Karnataka), Dwaraka (Gujarat). Puri (Orissa) and Badrinath in the Himalayas Hindu Religious Ideas Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja-charya -It means qualified monoism. The ultimate reality according to it is Brahma (God) who is imminent in matter and individual souls and controls them from within. Sivadvaita of Srikanthacharya-He propounded the view that Shiva endowed with Shakti is ultimate Brahma who pervades the universe and exists beyond it.

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 Dvaita of Madhavachaiya - According to this dualism the world is not an illusion but reality full of real distinctions. God, matter and soul are all unique in their nature and are irreducible to each other. Dvaitadvaita of Nimbark-acharya -According to this dualistic monoism Brahma really transformed himself into the world and souls, which are real and distinct and different from God, but cannot exist without its support. Suddhadvaita of Vallabha-charya - Vallabhas philosophy is known as Pushtimarga (the path of grace) and his school by the name of Rudrasampradaya. Brahma is identified with Sri Krishna. Salvation is through Sneha (deep-rooted and all surpassing love for God). Achintyabhedavada of Chaitanya god according to Chaitanya is Krishna. He is infinite life and bliss He is full of infinite power and consciousness. Radha is the power of Krishna, there is no difference between him and Radha. Although infinite he incarnates in form of finite mortals and is subject to love. Bhakti or devotion is only means of liberation. Chaitanya spread the message that Raag Marg or path of spontaneous love was the best for salvation. Sufism Those saints among the Muslims who advocated a life of purity and renunciation were called Sufis. Another view is that the word Sufi came out of the word Sooph meaning wool. Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul wajud or unity of being. This doctrine was propounded by lbn-Ul-Arabi(1165-1240AD). One of the earliest Sufis was a woman saint Rabia of Basra who laid great emphasis on love as bond between god and individual soul The Sufis were organized in 12 order or Sitsilas. The silsilas were generally led by a prominent mystic who lived in Khanqah along with his disciples. The link between the teacher or Pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital part-of Sufi system. Every Pir nominated a successor or Walt to carry out work. The Sufi orders are widely divided into two - Ba-sahara that is those who followed the Islamic law and Be-Sahara that is those, who were not bound by it. 01 the Be-sahara movement only two acquired significant influence. These were the Chisti and Suharwardi Silsilahs. Chisti Silsila: The Chisti order was founded by Khwaja Abdal Chisti in Herat, it was brought to India by Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti (1141- 1236). He arrived at Lahore in 1161 AD and settled at Ajmer about 1206 AD. However, the most famous of Chisti saints were Nizamitddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi. Auliya was generally known as Mahbub-i-llahi (beloved of God). They made themselves popular by adopting musical recitation called Sama to create mood of nearness to god. Suhrawardi Silsila: It was founded by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. The credit of organising it goes to Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya. Its main

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centre was Multan. Saints of this order had big Jagirs and had close contact with state. Firdausi Silsila: Slunk Badruddin of Samark first established it in Delhi, but later on it moved to Bihar and became the most influential mystic older. Its most distinguished saint was Shaikh Shamasuddin Yahya Munair who believed in Pantheistic monoism. Shattari Silsila: It was founded in India by Shah Abdullah Shattari. However it gained in popularity under Shaik Muhammad Ghauth of Gwalior. Among his disciple were the famous musician Tansen. The Shattari saints sought to synthesize Hindu and mystical Muslim thoughts to practice. Qadiri Silsila Shah Niamatullah Qadri was probably the first notable saint of this order to enter India but it was Syed Muhammad Jilaui who organised it on affective basis. Dara Shikoh. the eldest son of Shah Jahan was follower of this order. Naqshbandi Silsila: This Silsila was introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah during the later years of Akhars reign. It attained a position of great importance in India under the leadership of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. He was opposed to pantheistic philosophy wahadat-ul-wujud and propounded the theory of wahadal-ul- shudud Mahdawi Movement: It was initiated by Syed Muhammad Mahadi of Jaunpur He concentrated his energies on regeneration of people. Raushaniyah Movement: The movement owed its origin to Miyan Bayazid Ansari a native of Jalandhar. He emphasized inter organisation of religious riles and inspired his followers with the ideal of ascetic self-denial. The Coming of the Mughals Babur (1484-1530) Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, descended from his fathers side in the 5th generation from Timur. and through his mother in the 15th generation from Chenghiz Khan. Reasons for his Indian expedition. TheOttomans defeated the Safavids and the Uzbeks controlled Trans oxiana forcing Baburs imperial impulses towards India. Meagre income of Kabul Desire to emulate Timur Punjab was part of the Timurid province and hence was considered a legal partrimony of the Timurids Apprehension of Uzbek attacks. He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodi, Subedar of Punjab; Ibrahim Lodis uncle Alamkhan Lodi and Rana Sanga. He was successful in his 5th expedition. In the Battle of Panipat 20th April 1526. he finally defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur was the first one to entitle himself as the Padshah Battle of Panipat (1526)- Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi Battle of Khanwa (1527)- Babur defeated Rana Sanga Battle of Chanderi(1528)- Babur defeated Medini Rai

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He wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnama in Turkish. It was translated into Persian by Abdur Raltim Khan i-Khanan. Other works include a Masnavi Significance After the Kushans, he was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian empire, which provided stability since it was the staging post of invasions of India. This helped in promoting trade since these towns were the starting points of caravans meant for China in the east & Mediterranean in the west. He smashed Lodi and Rajput power, destroying the balance of power which paved the way for. an empire. New mode of warfare was introduced with combination of artillery and cavalry. He restored the prestige of the crown after Feroze Shah Tughlaq. Humayun (1530-40; 1555-56) Campaigns 1530 Kalinjar : The Raja offered nominal submission. 1532 Muhamud Lodi defeated at Daubrua. 1533 - Siege of Chunar. Slier Khan (later Slier Shah) offered nominal submission by sending son Qutb Khan to Humayuns court. Humayun then built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital. Second siege of Chunar and then the march to Gaur which was slopped at Teliagarhi pass by Jalal Khan (Slier Shahs son) in 1538. Occupied Gaui where Slier Shah had left wine, women and opium to delay Humayun who renamed it Jannatabad (paradise). Hindal meanwhile assumed the crown at Agra. 1539: Battle of Chausa Buxar. Humayun was saved by Nizam, the water carrier (Bishti). 1540 Humayun was again defeated by Sher Shah at Kanauj He faced a formidable opponent in the Afghan, Sher Khan (Shah) who in the successive battles of Chausa and Kannauj defeated Humayun and forced him to flee India. Humayun saw the death of Sher Shah as an opportunity to regain the throne. Humayun had conquered Qandahar and re-established his control over Kabul with the help of the Safavid King of Persia. He could now use Kabul as his base for campaigns into India. His sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote his biographyHumayunama. Humayun died while climbing down the stairs of his library in 1556. Sher Shah (1540-1545) He was born to Hasan, (the Jagirdar of Kwaspur, Sahasram and Hajipur Tanda) as Farid. Ibrahim lodi transferred his fathers Jagir to him. In 1527-28-he joined Baburs service and then returned to Bihar as deputy governor and guardian of the minor king Jalal Khan Lohani. He aided Mahmud Lodi at Ghagra. 1530-he usurps throne as Hazarat-i-Ala. He gamed Chunar by marrying the widow Lad Malika. Humayun besieged Chunar again, in 1539, he captured Chausa. He assumed the title Slier Shah as emperor, in 1540 he annexed Kanauj and then Lahore. He died in 1545 while conquering Kalinjar. Various Diwans Wazarat-revenues and finance. 63

Ariz-military Rasalatmuhtasib-correspondence. Insha-dispatches. Quza-justice. Barid-intelligence. Saman-Toy a\ household.

Administration He continued the central machinery of administration which had developed during the Sultanate period. A number of villages comprised of Pargana, which was under the charge of Shiqdar, who looked after the law and order and general administration. The Munsif or Amil looked after the collection of land revenue. Above the Pargana was the Shiq or Sarkar under the charge of the shiqdar-i-shiqdaran and munsif-i-munsifan. A number of Sarkars were grouped into a province. Justice Civil cases of pargana were heard by Amin and criminal cases by a Qazi or Mir-i-Adal. He introduced the principle of local responsibility for local crimes. Muqqadams were punished for failure to find culprits. Revenue System Land was measured using the Sikandari-gaz (a unit of measure introduced by Sikandar Lodi) One third of the average was fixed as tax. The peasant was given a patta (title deed) and a qabulivat ( deed of agreement) which fixed the peasants rights and taxes Zamindars were removed and the taxes were directly collected. Customs All internal customs and duties were abolished. Only 2 duties were levied. Currency He introduced the silver rupiya Public works Parana Qila was built along with Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon (Bengal) to Attock (NWFP). He also built 17(H) sarais (rest houses) which also served as dak chuukis. Akbar (1556-1604) Akbar was 14 veals old when he was crowned at Kalanaur in 1556 but he could consolidate his position only after the second hunk of Panipat (5th November 1556), fought against Mohammad Adil Surs Wazir Vikramaditya (Hemu).

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 Between 1556-60. Akbar ruled under Bairam Khans regency. Akbars earliest campaigns were against Durgawati of Garh-Katanga (Gond & Rajput principalities) followed by Chittor (Rana Udai Singh); Ranthambor (Rao Surjan Hada). The two powerful forts of RajasthanRanthambor and Chittor (guarded by Jaimal)were captured by the Mughals. Akbars deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmednagar {defended by Chand Bibi). Ahmednagar soon resurrected itself under the leadership of Malik Amber. Akbars last campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting in the annexation of Khandesh( 1601). Akbar conquered Kandahar in 1595. Bharmal of Amber, followed by Jaiselmer and Bikaner established marital relationships with Akbar. Bhagwan Das (5000/at) and Man Singh (7000 zat) enjoyed a privileged position in the Mughal court. Akbar faced a rebellion in Gujarat in 1572. which was crushed and following which he built the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. Organization of the Government Parganas and Sarkar continued as before. Chief officers of the Sarkar were Fauzdar and Amalguzar. The former being in charge of law and order and the later responsible for the assessment and collection of the land revenue. The empire was divided into Jagir. Khalisa and Inam. Akbar reorganized the central machinery of the administration on the basis of division of power between the various departments. Wazir - Head of the revenue department Mir Bakshi - Head of the military department Barids -Intelligence Officers Waqia navis- Reporters Mir saman - In charge of imperial household Qazi - Head of the judicial department Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas in 15X0. These were Bengal. Bihar. Allahbad. Awadh. Agra. Delhi. Lahore. Multan. Kabul. Ajmer. Malwa. & Gujarat. A Subbahdar. diwan. bakshi. sadr, qazi. and a waqia- navis were appointed each to of the provinces

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Akbar's Religious Policies He abolished Jaziya and pilgrimage tax and forcible conversion of prisoners of war. He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri to discuss religious matters. He invited many distinguished persons. To curb the dominance of Ulema. Akbar introduced a new Khutba. written by Faizi and proclaimed Mahzarnama in 1579. which made him the final interpreter of Islamic law (Mujtahid Imam-i-Adil) in case of an) controversies. It made him Amir ul Momin (leader of the faithful) and Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler). His liberalism is reflected again in the pronouncement of Tauhid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-llahi. which propounded Sufi divine monotheism. Tenets of Din-i-llahi (1582) It could be adopted on Sunday by performing paibos (The emperor placed his feel on the head of the initiated). Following which Akbar gave Shat (formula) The initiated had to express greeting in the form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalalhu a He had to abstain from meat and give alms.

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 There were no scriptures and priests. Tauhid-i-llahi had four grades of devotion in the ascending ordersacrifice of property, life, honor and religion. Birbal. Abul Fazl and Faizi joined the order. Badauni believed that Akbar was creating a new religion but contemporarv historians believe that he was only trying to attain the status of Insaan-i-Kamil. Akbar's Court Todar Mai, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mullah do Pyaza and Man Singh were gems of his court. Akbar established the painting Karkhana, headed by Abdus Samad. Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit AkbarsCourt. Abul Fazl wrote Akbarnama, the appendix of which was called Ain-iAkbari. This section deals with the laws and revenue system. Jahangir (1605-27) His wife, Nurjahan (daughter of Itimad-daulah) exercised tremendous influence over the state affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum. Jahangir banned slaughter of animals on Sunday and Thursday. He established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for the seekers of royal justice. Jahangir also married Jodha Bai of Marwar, and a Kachchwaha princes. His son Khusrau, who received patronage of Guru Arjun Dev, revolted against Jahangir. The fifth Sikh Guru Arjun Dev was later sentenced to death for his blessings to the rebel prince. Khurram (Shahjahan) supported by his father-in-law, Asaf Khan, also revolted against Jahangir but the two soon reconciled. His military general, Mahabat Khan revolted and abducted him but Nurjahan saved him due to her diplomatic efforts. He was well read and wrote his memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. On the refusal to pay the fine, Guru Arjuns son, Hargovind was imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior. Jahangir faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber (an Abyssinian) in his expedition to Ahmednagar. Shahjahans military capacity was proved during the expeditions undertaken during Jahangirs reign and Ahmednagar was annexed (1601). John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years (1609-11). He was given the mansab of 400. Sir Thomas Roe (1615-18) was ambassador of James I. Shahjahan (1628-58) In 1612 he married Arzmand Banu Begum who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal In 1632, he defeated Potugese and annexed Ahmednager in 1636

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 Shahjahans reign is described by French traveller Bernier and Tavernier and the Italian traveller Manucci. Peter Mundi described the famine that occured during Shah Jahans time. Shahjahan succeeded to the throne on the death of Jahangir in 1628. The first thing that he had to face was revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodi, the governor of Deccan). He sent his armies to Balkh and Badakshan in Central Asia in order to secure the defence of northwestern India. Shah Jahan who had recovered Kandahar (1638) from the Iranians but lost it again (1649) despite three campaigns under Prince Murad, Aurangzeb and Dara. The War of succession took a notorious turn during Shahjahans reign and his two daughters Jahan Ara and Roshan Ara supported his two sons. Dara and Aurangzeb, respectively. Aurangzeb (1658-1707) He defeated Dara (1659). He took the title of Alamgir in 1659. He was called as Zinda Pir, the living saint. In 1662, Mir Jumla, Aurangzebs ablest general led the expedition against Ahoms. He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins. He ended the celebration of Navroz festival. Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) were appointed. He forbade music in the court. He ended Jarokha darshan, use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor. Aurenzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgri. Jaziya was re-introduced. However, the Hindu mansabdars maintained their high proportion during his rule. The Mughal conquests reached a climax during his reign, as Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in 1686 and 1687, respectively. Revolts under Aurangzeb Aurangzebs failure to understand the root causes and nature of the rise of Marathas, gave him a formidable opponent, Shivaji. The first anti- imperial reaction took place in the form of Jai \ Rebellion under Gokla. Rajaram and Chinaman Satnamis. First Afghan rebellon was by Yusufshahi tribes of Afghanistan of Roshnai sect. Second Afghan rebellion led by Ajmal Khan. During his reign, ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed. Mughal State and Architecture

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Mughal Architecture Babar Babars built two mosques one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand. Humayun Humayun laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi. Humayuns tomb is called the proto type of Taj Mahal. It has a double dome of marble, while the central dome is octagonal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum. The garden and the gateway are to be found in all Mughal-style tombs. Akbar Buildings built by Akbar are Agra Fort (1565), Lahore Palace (1572), Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza and Allahabad Fort (1583). The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asian and various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles . It is also known as Epic poem in red sandstone. Indian tradition includes deep eaves, balconies and Kiosks. Central Asian Style is evident in the use of glazed blue tiles. Two unusual buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Panch Mahal & Diwan-i-Khas The Panch Mahal has the plan of Buddhist Vihara. The Jodhabais Palace, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas are Indian in their plan. Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory), formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. It is built in the Iranian style of half dome portal. Salim Chistis tomb (redone in Marble by Jahangir is the first Mughal building in Pure marble), palaces of Birbal, Anup Talao, Mariyam Mahal are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri. He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir. Haroon MinorTower built by Akbar in memory of his elephant (Haroon). He also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which, was later completed by Jahangir. Jahangir The style of architecture used by both Jahangir and Shahjahan is known as Indo Persian. Important features of this style are Curved lines, Bulbous dome, foliated arches vigorous use of marble instead of red sand stone and use of pietre dura for decorative purposes. Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-Daulas (another name of Mirza Ghiyas Beg) marble tomb at Agra, which is noticeable for the first use of pietra dura (floral designs made up of semiprecious stones) technique. He built Moti Masjid in Lcdwre and his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore). He also changed the plan of Akbars tomb at Sikandara. It is an unusual tomb as it is not surmounted by a dome and built on the model of a Buddhist Pagoda. 69

Shahajahan Mosque building activity reached its climax in Taj Mahal. He also built the Jama Masjid (sand stone). Some of the important building built by Shahajahan at agra are Moti Masjid (pniy mosque of marble) in Agra, Khaas Mahal, Musamman Bun (Jasmine Palace where he spent his last years in captivity ) and Sheesh Mahal with mosaic glasses on walls and ceilings. Many stone buildings were destroyed by him and replaced by marble. He laid the foundations of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the Red Fort and Taqt-i-taus (Peacock throne). Most richly ornamented building in Red Fort was the Diwan-i-Khas or Rang Mahal He laid the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Shahjahan built Nahar-i-Fuiz. Aurangzeb Only building built by Aurangzeb in the Red Fort is Moti Masjid. Only monument associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Makbara which is the tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-daura in Aurangabad. He also built the Badshahi mosque in Lahore. Mughal Painting The Mughals introduced new themes depicting the conn, battle scenes and the chase and added new colours (Peacock blue and Indian red). Humayun had taken into his service two master painters Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad. Jaswant and Dasawan were two famous painters of Akbars court. Apart from illustrating Persian books of fables (Hamzanama), the painters illustrated Razamnama (Mahabharta) and Akbaranama. Jahangir claims that he could distinguish (he work of each artist in a picture. Under Akbar, European painting was introduced at the court by the Portuguese priests. Regional Architecture Jaunpur Tughlaq influence on the Sharqi architecture is seen in the use of arch and beam, and battering walls. Propylons (huge recessed arch framed by tapering square minars divided into registers) have been used in Atala Masjid (Ibrahim Shah) and Jami Masjid (Hussain Shah). Malwa

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 It is notable for the excellent combination of arch and lintel, construction of stairs of flight, the use of coloured tiles and lofty plinth for the buildings. Malwa boasts of Hussain Shahs tomb, Jami Masjid. Jahaz Mandal, Hindola Mahal and the palaces of Baa: Bahadur and Rupmati. In Chanderi, Shahzadi Ka Rauza, Kushak Mahal and the Badal Mahal are located.

Bengal Adina Masjid built by Sikandar Shah and the Eklakhi tomb of Mahmud Shah were constructed. Some other monuments are Dakhil Darwaza, Tantipura Masjid, the Bara Sona Masjid etc. Kashmir Wood was the principle building material and the roofs are pyramidal. Kashmir has two buildings of prominence: Mir Sajjid Ali Hamadanis Mosque and Jami Masjid of Sikandar Shah. Gujarat Notable monuments are Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Nagina Masjid of Champaner and the cities of Mahmudabad and Mustafabad founded by Mohammed Beghara. Sur Architecture Sur Architecture forms the climax of Pre Mughal style of Architecture. Surs buit tombs at Sasaram which were octagonal but most outstanding was Shei Shahs Mausoleum built on a huge plinth. amidst a lake and is multi storeyed. He also built the Parana Qila whose surviving monuments are Qila-iKuhna Masjid and the Sher Mandal library. Mughal State and Administration Provincial Administration Mughal empire was divided into subas which was further subdivided into sarkar. parganas and villages. However, it also had other territorial units as Khalisa, (royal land), Jagirs (autonomous rajas) and Inams (gifted lands, mainly waste lands). There were 15 territorial units (subas) during Akbars reign, which later increased it) 20 under Aurangzebs reign. Province (Suba) SipahsalarThe Head Executive(under Akbar and later he was known Nizam or Subedar) DiwanIncharge of revenue department BakshiIncharge of military dept. 71

District/Sarakar FauzdarAdministrative head Amal/AmalguzarRevenue collection KotwalMaintenance of law and order, trial of criminal cases and price regulation. Pargana ShiqdarAdministrative head combined in himself the duties of fauzdar and kotwal Amin, QanungoRevenue officials Village MuqaddamHeadman PatwariAccountant ChowkidarWatchman Mansabdari System 1. Mansabdari system which was introduced in 1595-96, was a combined status, showing a nobles civil and military capacity. 2. Twin ranks Zat and Sawar, were allotted. The former indicated a nobles personal status, while the latter, the number of troops he had to maintain. 3. Mansabdari had three scale gradation, viz sd Mansabdar (500 zat and below) Amir (between 500-2500 zat) Amir-i-Umda (2500 zat and above) 4. The salary of the Mansabdar was fixed on a Month Scale system. During Jahangirs reign, a du aspa siha aspa system was introduced through which, a nobles sawar rank could he increased without affecting his zat. 5. Mansab was not an hereditary system. Mansabdars were paid through revenue assignments (jagirs). State and Economy Apart from land revenue (charged 1/3 to ) the state being a military state, also depended upon benefits of conquest. However, much of its revenue was wasted in ostentation and wars The revenue was collected by state machinery in alliance with local Zamindars who got their due share. There were several methods of revenue collection in practice viz. Kankut (estimate). Rai (yield per unit area) and zabt (based on the yields of crops). Zabti: A standardized method of collection based on rates of crops determined alter 10 years assessment Todar Mai pioneered it. It required annual measurement of land and where it was not possible Nasaq was prevalent. 72

 Another method, muqtai was prevalent in Bengal. GhallaBaqshi: Assesment by the division of crops (in Thatta, Kabul and Kashmir). Jagirdari system was the assignment of land in proportion to a jagirdars salary. Hence. Every Mansabdar was entitled to a jagir if he was not paid in cash. A jagir could be transfered and the jagirdar had no police powers over the land Madad-i-maash or Suyur ghal/inam were land grants to people of favour/religious assignment. Zamindars were hereditary claimants in every category of land revenue assignment. They collected revenue on behalf of the state and received assistance callednankarorMalikana Mughal Administration Wazir Akbar abolished the post of all-powerful Wazir. He became the head of the revenue department Also known as Diwan-i-ala. Diwan Responsible for all income and expenditure and had control over Khalisa and jagir land. Mir Bakshi Headed military department, nobility, information and intelligence agencies. Mir Soman Incharge of Imperial household and Karkhanas. Diwan-i-Bayutat Maintained roads, government buildings etc. and worked under Mir Saman. Diwan-i-Bayutat Maintained roads, government buildings etc. and worked under Mir Saman. Sadr us Sadr Incharge of charitable and religious endowments Qazi id Quzat Headed the Judiciary department Muhtasib Censor of Public Morals. Later Mughals Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) Aurangzeb died in 1707. A war of succession started amongst his three surviving sons viz. Muazzam-the governor of Kabul, Azam-the governor of Gujarat and Kam Baksh-The governor of Bijapur. Muazzam defeated Azam and Kam Baksh and ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur .Shah. He pursued pacifist policy and was therefore also called Shah Bekhaber. P He also assumed the title of Shah Alam I. P He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shahu. P He forced Ajit Singh to submit but later in 1709. recognised him as the Rana Marwar. P He defeated Banda Bahadur at Longarh and reoccupied Sirhird in 1711 Jahandar Shah (1712-13) ascended the throne with the aid of Zulfikhar Khan. His nephew, Farrukh Siyar, defeated him. He abolished Jiziya .

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Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan who were Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectively Farrukh Siyar was killed by the Sayyid brothers in 1719. Banda Bahadur was captured at Gurudaspur and executed. Mohammad Shah (1719-48). During his reign Nadir Shah raided India and took away the peacock throne and the Kohinoor diamond. He was a pleasure loving king and was nick named Rangeela. Nizam ul mulk was appointed Wazir in 1722 but he relinquished the post and marched to the Deccan to found the state of Hyderabad. Bengal acquired virtual independence during the governorship of Murshid Quli Khan. Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed governor of Awadh by him laid down the foundation of the autonomous state. Ahmed Shahs (1748-1754) During his reign, Ahmed Shah Abdali(one of the ablest generals of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi And the Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan. Alamgir(l754-l759) During his reign Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was also plundered by the Marathas. Shah Alam II (1759-1806) During his reign Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful in Delhi so much so that Shah Alam II could not enter Delhi. The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought during his reign. Akbar Shah II (1806-37), During his reign Lord Hastings ceased to accept the sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an equal status. BahadurShah II (1837-1862), The last Mughal king , who was confined by the British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857 he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebellions. He was deported to Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion. Vijaynagar Empire and the Bahamani Kingdoms Vijaynagar (c. 1350 - 1564) Vijaynagar Kingdom and the city was founded by Harihar-l and Bukka-1 (sons of Sangama) who were feudatories of Kakatiyas and later became ministers in the court of Kampili. Harihar and Bukka were brought to the centre by Mohammed bin Tughlaq, converted to Islam and were sent to south again to control rebellion but on the instance of Vidyaranya, they established Vijaynagar Kingdom in 1336 AD. Vijaynagars arch rival were Bahmani Sultans with whom they fought over Tungabhadra doab(between Krishna & Tungabhadra). Krishna-Godavari delta (Raichur) and Marathwada. Vijaynagar-Bahamani contest was started by Bukka I in 1367 when he attacked the Bahmani fortress at Mudkal. Il was a war state its resources being devoted to military purposes. Vijayanagar Dynasties Dynasty Founder Period Sangama Harihar and Bukka 1336-1485 74

Saluva Tuvalu Aravidu

Saluva Narsimha Veer Narsimha Tirumala

1485-1505 1503-1570 1570- mid 17th c

Famous Travellers to Vijayanagar Kingdom Abu Abdullah/Ibn Batuta: A Moroccan traveller. Left account of Harihara Is reign in his book Rehla also called Tuhfat-un-Nuzzar ft Gharaib-ul-Amsar Wa Ajaib-ul-Assar. Nicolo de Conti: A Italian traveller who visited during the time of Deva Raya I. Left an account in Travels of Nicolo Conti. Abdur Razzak: Ambassador of Shah Rukh of Samarqand at the Court of the Zamorin of Calicut, He gives an account of the reign of Devaraya 11. in his Matla us Sadain Wa Majma id Bahrain. Athanasius Nikitin: A Russian merchant who described the conditions of the Bahamani kingdom under Muhammad 111 in his Voyage to India. Ludvico de Vorthema: An Italian merchant who visited India in 1502-1508 and left his memoirs in Travels in Egypt, India. Syria etc.

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Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516): A Portugese He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar government under Krishna Deva Raya in his famous book - An Account of Countries bordering the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants Dominigas Paes: Portugese who spent a number of years at Krishna Devas court has given a glowing account of his personality. Fernao Nuniz: A Portugese writer of 16th century spent three years in Vijayanagar. (1535-37). Vijayanagar Coins The Vijayanagar rulers issued gold coins called Varahas or Pagodas. (Varaha because the most common symbol was the Varaha-the boar incarnation of Vishnu). These help us know that they were Vishnu worshippers. Impressions found on Vijayanagar coins include the bull, elephant and various Hindu deities and the Gandahherunda (a double headed eagle holding an elephant in its beaks and claws). On the reverse they contain the kings name in Nagari or Kannada script. Harihara 1 and Bukka I employed the Hanuman symbol, while Krishnadeva Raya had Venkatesh and Balkrishna, Achutya Raya used Garuda, while Tirumala maintained the original Varaha. Deva Raya II is described as Gajabentakara. The Varaha was the main coin, of gold with slight copper content. The Perm was half a varaha. The Fanani was one tenth a Perta. All were of gold mixed with alloy, with the Fanam as the most useful. Tar was a silver coin which was a sixth of the Fanam. The Jital was a copper coin worth a third of the Tar. Vijaynagar Local Government The country was divided into kuttams; a kutiam into nodus; a nadu into adimhadin melagram, below this came the agaram. A province in Karnataka was divided into venthes; a venthe into simes; a simi into sthalas: and a sthala into valitas. The Auagar system was an important feature of the village organistion. Body of twelve functionaries, known as ayagars, conducted every village affair. They were granted tax free lands manyoms, which they were to enjoy in perpetuity. In addition to land tax there were various other taxes such as properly lax, tax on sale of produce (rate varied according to the type of soil, crop, method of irrigation etc), profession taxes, military contribution, taxes on marriage etc. Vijaynagar Architecture The Vijayanagara rulers produced a new style of architecture called as Provida style. The large number and prominence of pillars and piers are some of the distinct features. Horse was the most common animal on the pillars. Another important feature was the Mandapa or open pavittion with a raised platform, meant For seating deities. Important temples were Vithatswami and Hazara temples at Hampi, Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaram and Varadrajcf and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram.

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The Vijaynagar rulers started the practice of inscribing the stories of the Ramavana and the Mahabharata on the walls of the various temples. Hazara temple and Vithalswami temples are examples of this / type of wall inscription.

Bahmani Kingdoms Kingdom Year Founder Dynasty Annexation Beirr 1484 Fataullah Imad Shah [mad Shahi 1574 (Ahmednagar) Bijapur 1489 Yusuf Adil Khan Adil Shahi !686(Aurangzeb) Ahmadnagar 1490 Malik Ahmad Nizam Shahi l633(Shahjahah) Golkonda 1512/1581 Quli Shah Qutab Shahi l687(Aurangzeb) Bedar 1526-27 Amir Ali Band Band Shahi 16IS(Bijapur) Vijaynagar Trade Accounts of foreigners like Nuni:, & Paes indicate a dependence on foreign trade for maintenance of the two most important bases contributing to the might of military strength iW the Vijayanagara empire; its cavalry and its firearms. Thus the success of the Vijayanagara state depended directly upon its contacts with Muslim & Portuguese traders. The trade in warhorses remained securely in the hands of foreigners. The Vijayanagara emperors monopolized the trade so thai they could assign the best cavalry to warriors. Artillery and musket became important parts of Vijayanagara war machine. Vijaynagar Society Only empire in Medieval India which employed women in the state services. Women even went to battles.Only state that promoted widow remarriage. Status of women improved during this time. Important Terms: Viprulu: Brahmins (teachers and preisls) Rajutu: Kshatriya Natavajativaru: Shudras Vipravinoilins: Artisans Kaikollas: Weavers Tottiyans or Kambalattars: Shephards Sahaguman: Sati Besabaga: Forced labour under begara. Bahmani Kingdom Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-58): He also known as Hasan Gangu and whose original name was Ismail Mukh, founded the Bahmani kingdom with us capital at Gulbarga (First capital). There were a total of fourteen Bahmani Sultans. Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (1397-1422): The Greatest among them all. He was determined to make Deccan the cultural centre of India. Inducted large number of Hindus in the administration

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on large scale. Paid much attention to the pons of his Kingdom Chaul & Dabhol which attracted trade ships from Persian Gulf & Red Sea. Ahmad Shah Wali (1422-35): Transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar Mahmud Gawan He was the Prime Minister or the Peshwa of Muhammad Shall III between 1463-81. The Bahmani kingdom saw a resurgence under his guidance. His military conquests included Konkan. Goa and the Krishna-Godavari delta. He divided the kingdom into eight tarafs , each governed by a tarafdar. In every province . Khalisa (tract of land) was set apart for the expenses of the Sultan . The discontented nobles, particularly the Deccan(also called Habshis) nobles who resented the rise ofAfaqis (also called gharibs) or new arrivals from West Asia organised a conspiracy against Gawan (an Afaqi) and had him executed in 1482. After Gawans execution, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline and disintegrate. Break up of the Bahmani Kingdom Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagur (1490-1633): Founder of city of Ahmednagar and the Kingdom was Ahmad Nizam Shah. Later conquered and annexed by Shah Jahan (1633). Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490-1686): Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. Greatest ruler was Ibrahim Adil Shah. Introduced Dakhini in place of Persian as court language. Gol Gumbaz, was built by Muhammad Adil Shah. It is also famous for the so-called Wispering Gallery. Bijapur was later conquered and annexed by Aurangzeb (1687). Imad Shahis of Berar (1490-1574): Founded by Fatullah Khan lmad-ul-mulk with Daulatabad as capital. Later it was conquered and annexed by one of the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagur. Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518-1687): Founded by Quli Qutub Shah (1518-43) who built the famous Golconda fort and made it his capital. Another Qutub Shahi ruler, Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, was the greatest of all. and it was he who founded the city of Hyderabad (originally known as Bhagyanagar after the name of the Sultans favourite, Bhagyamati) and he also built the famous Charminar. Most important port of QutubShahi Kingdom was Masulipatnam. The kingdom was later annexed by Aurangzeb (1687). Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528-1619): Founded by Ali Barid. It was later annexed by the Adil Shahis of Bijapur. The Advent of the Europeans Portuguese Discovery of the New Sea Route The Cape route, was discovered from Europe to India by Vasco da Gama. He reached the port of Calicut on the May 17. 1498, and was received by the

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Hindu ruler of Calicut (known by the title of Zamorin). This led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore. Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India. Utter Goa replaced it. Alfonso d' Albuquerque arrived in India in 1503 as the governor of the Portuguese in India in 1509 (The first governor being Francisco de Almeida between 1505-09). He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510. Other Governors Nino da Cunha (1529-38) transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa (1530) and acquired Diu and Bassein (1534) from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat Martin Alfonso de Souza (1542-45) the famous Jesuit saint Franrisco Xavier arrive in India with him Dutch Formation of the Company in March. 1602, by a charter of the Dutch parliament the Dutch East India Company was formed with powers to make wars, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build for tresses. Establishment of Factories The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605). Pulicat (1610)-. Surat (1616), Bimilipatam( 1641), K.arikal( 1645), Chinsura (1653). Kasimbuzar.Baranagore, Patna. Balasore. Negapatam(all in 1658) and Cochin (1663). The Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with the East, including India. Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it. The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the battle of Bedera in 1759.

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English Before the East India Company established trade in the India. John Mildenhall a merchant adventurer, was the first Englishman who arrived in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for the purpose of trade with Indian merchants. Formation of the Company Popularly known as the English East India Company. it was formed by a group of merchants known as the Merchant Adventures in 1599. Decision to open a factory at Surat Following the decision of the East India Company to open a factory at Surat (1608). Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangirs court (1609) to seek permission. A farman was issued by Jahangir permitting the English to build a factory at Surat (1613). Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I to Jahangirs court in 1615 to obtain the permission to trade and erect factories in different parts of the empire. Danish The Danes formed an East India Company and arrived in India in 1616. They established settlements at Tranquebar (in Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and at Serampore (Bengal) in 1676. Serampore was their headquarters in India. They were forced to sell all their settlements in India to the British in 1854 French The French East India Company was formed by Colbert understate patronage in 1664. The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in I66H. A factory at Masulipatam was set up in 1669. The French power in India was revived tinder Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 and 1742. They occupied Mahe in the Malabar. Yanam in Coromandal and Karikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo-French conflict (Carnatic wars) re- sulting in their final defeat in India Establishment of Factories The East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease. Gerald Aungier was its first governor from 1669 to 1677. The first factory was built at Surat in (160S). Later, Surat was replaced by Bombay as the headquarters of the Company on the west coast in 1687. In 1639 Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory, which was named Fort St. George. Madras soon replaced Masulipatam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandal coast In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanuti and the zamindari of the three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Govindpur was acquired by the British (1698). These villages later grew into the city of Calcutta. The factory at Sutanuti was fortified in 1696 and this new fortified settlement was named fort William in 1700.

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In 1694. the British Parliament passed a resolution giving equal rights to all Englishmen to trade in the East. A new rival company, known as the English Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies (1698) was formed The final amalgamation of the company came in I 708 under the title ofThe United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. This new company continued its existence till 1858. The Maratha Age Shivaji (1627-80) Born at Shivneri to Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai. he inherited the Jagir o( Poona from his lather ill 1637. After the death of his guardian. Dadaji Kondadev, in 1647, he assumed full charge of his jagir. Before that, at the age of 18. he conquered Torna .built forts at Raigarh & Pratapgarh (1645-47). Afzal Khan was deputed by the Adil Shah ruler to punish Shivaji, but the later murdered Afzal in 1659. Later Shaista Khan, governor of Deccan, was deputed by Aurangazeb to put down the rising power of Shivaji in 1660. Shivaji lost Poona and suffered several defeats till he made a bold attack on Shaistas military camp and plundered Surat (1664) and later Ahmadnagar. Raja Jai Singh of Amber was then appointed by Aurangazeb to put down Shivaji (1665) and Jai Singh succeeded in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently the treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed according to which Shivaji ceded some forts to the Mughals and pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra In 1674 he was coronated at Raigarh and assumed the title of Haindava Dharmodharak (Protector of Hinduism). Shivaji died in 1680. Shivajis Administration Shivaji divided his territory under his rule (swaraj) into three provinces. each under a viceroy . Provinces were divided into prams which were subdivided into parganas or tarafs .The lowest unit was village headed by Headman or Patel. Shivaji was helped by the ashtapradhan (eight ministers) which was unlike a council of ministers, for there was no collective responsibility; each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji. Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on Malik Ambars (Ahmadnagar) reforms. Shivajis Revenue Administration Assessment of land revenue was based on measurement. The kathi of Ambar was adopted as the unit of measurement. Share of the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross produce Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas so as not be subjected to Maratha raids.

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Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 per cent on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire. Successors of Shivaji Sambhaji (1680-89): Sambhaji, the elder son, defeated Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji, in the war of succession. He provided protection and support to Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. He was captured at Sangamesvar by a Mughal noble and executed. Rajaram (1689-1700): He succeeded the throne with the help of the ministers at Raigarh. He fled from Raigarh to Jinji in 1689 due to a Mughal invasion in which Raigarh was captured along with Sambhajis wife and son (Shahu) by the Mughals. Rajaram died at Satara, which had become the capital alter the fall of Jinji to Mughals in 1698. Rajarams created the new post of pratinidhi, thus taking the total number of ministers to nine. Sivaji II and Tarabai (1700-1707): Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Sivaji II under the guardianship of his mother Tarabai. Shahu (1707-1749): Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah. Tarabais army was defeated by Shahu at the battle of Khed (1700) and Shahu occupied Satara. But the southern part of the Maratha kingdom with its capital at Kolhapur continued to be under the control of the descendants of Rajaram (Shivaji II and later Sambhaji II). Shahus reign saw the rise of Peshwas and transformation of the Maratha kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy. Shivaji's Ashtapradhan They included: PeshwaAlso called Mukhya Pradhan Finance and general administration; later he became Prime Minister and assumed great importance. Sar-i-NaubatSenapati or military commander: this was only an honorary post with no real military powers. Majumdar or AinatyaAccountant general during the rule of the Peshwas; he later became revenue and finance minister. Waqenavis Intelligence, posts and household affairs. Surunavis or SachivAlso called chitnis, looked after correspondence. Dabir or Suriiania Master of ceremonies. Nyayadhish Justice. Pandit Rao Charities and religious affairs. The Peshwas (1713-1818)

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Balaji Viswanath (1713-20): He began his career as a small revenue official and was given the title of Sena Karte (marker of the army) by Shahu in 1708. He became Peshwa in 1713 and made the post the most important and powerful as well as hereditary. He played a crucial role the final victory of Shahu by winning over almost all the Maratha sardars to the side of Shahu. Lie concluded an agreement with the Say y id brothers (1719) by which the Mughal emperor (Farukh Siyar) recognised Shahu as the king of the swarajya. Baji Rao 1 (1720-40): Baji Rao. the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath. succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20. I le was considered the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics alter Shivaji and Maratha power reached its zenith under him. Under him several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves entrenched in different parts of India(a) the Gaekwad at Baroda. lb) the Bhonsles at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, (d.) the Scindias at Gwalior and (e) the Peshwas at Poona. After defeating and expelling the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland (1722). he conquered Bassein and Salsetle from the Portuguese ( 1733). lie also defeated the Nizam ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the treaty of Durai Sarai by which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (1737). lie led innumerable successful expeditions into north India to weaken the Mughal empire and to make the Marathas the supreme power in India. lie said: let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves. Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61): Popularly known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded his lather at the age of 20. After the death of Shahu (I 749). the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. In an agreement with the Mughal emperor (Ahmad Shah), the Peshwa (1752) was to protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external (Ahmad Shah Abdali) enemies in return for the chauth. The battle of Panipat (January 14. 1761 ) resulted in the defeat of the Marathas by Ahmad Shah Abdali and the death of Viswas Rao (son of Nana Saheb). Nana Saheb died in 1761. Madhav Rao (1761-72). Narayana Rao (1772-73). Sawai Madhav Rao (I 77.3-95). and Baji Rao (1795-1 81 8) succeeded him

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Ascendanof the British Anglo Mysore Wars First War (1766-69) Haider Ali defeated the British. Treaty of Madras signed Second War (1780-84). Warren Hastings attacked French port Mahe. which was in Hyder Alis territory. Hyder Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Marathas and captured Arcot. In 1781. Hyder Ali was defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre Coot. Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was signed by Tipu Sultan. Third War (1789-92). Marathas and Nizam aided the British. Cornwallis captured Bangalore. By Treaty of Seringapatnam, Tipu ceded half of his territories. Fourth War (1799). ford Wellesley attacked and Tipu died. Anglo Sikh Wars Began after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839. First War (1845-46). Sikhs were defeated in all the four battles at Mudki. Feroz Shah, Aliwal and Sobraon. Treaty of Lahore ended the War. Sir Henry Lawerence became the first resident. Second War (1948-49/. Dalhausie annexed Punjab. Sir John Lawerence became the first Chief Commissioner of the Punjab. The East India Company and the Bengal Nawabs Siraj ud Daula (1756-57) He seiged the English factory at Kasimbazar. On 20th June 1756, Fort William surrendered hut Robert Clive recovered Calcutta.

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 On 2nd January 1757, Treaty of Alinagar was signed, whereby Siraj conceded practically all the demands. British then captured Chandernagore. the French settlement, on March 1757. Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757. Owing to the conspiracy. the Nawab was defeated. The following betrayed the Nawab: Mir ./afarMir Bakshi ManikchandOfficer in charge of Calcutta AminchandRich Sikh merchant Jagat SethBiggest banker of Bengal. Khadim Khan Commanded a large number of Nawabs Troops Mir Jafar (1757-60) The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It received the Zamindari of 24 Parganas. Mir Jafar, however, fell into arrears and was forced to abdicate in favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim. Mir Qasim (1760-64) Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. He shifted his capital to from Mursidabad to Monghyr. Mir Qasim soon revoked as he was angry with the British for misusing the dastaks (free duty passes). However, having been defeated by the British, he fled to Awadh, where he formed a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daulah and Shah. Alain. Battle of Buxar (1764) Shuja-ud-daulah. Shah Alam and Mir Qasim were defeated by Munro. Mir Jafar (1763) was again placed on the throne. Nizam-ud-Daulah(l 765- 72) On Mir Jafars death, his son Nizam-ud-daulah was placed on the throne and signed a treaty on 20th February. 1765 by which the Nawab was in disband most of his army and to administer Bengal through a Deputy Subahdar nominated by the company. Clive concluded two separate treaties of Allahabad with Shuja ud daula and Shah Alam II. Dual system of government started in Bengal. The company acquired both Diwani and Nizamat lights from Najm-ud- Daula (1765-66). the new nawab of Bengal. But the company did not take over direct administration and revenue collection. Warren Hastings ended the Dual system of government in 1772.

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Anglo-Carnatic (Arcot) Wars Anglo-Burmese Wars Aims To control forest resources. To increase exports To check French influence. First War (1824-26). British forces drove the Burmese out of Assam, Cachar, Manipur and Arakan. Peace Treaty of Yandobo signed. Second War (1852). British an-nexed Pegu but faced a popular guerrilla warfare. British now controlled whole of Burmas coastline. Third War (I8S5). The British annexed upper Burma Anglo-Afghan Wars An instance of Anglo French Rivalry. First (1746-48). The French besieged Madras. At St. Thome battle the Nawab of Carnatic's army was defeated by French under Dupliex Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession. Second War (17-49-54). Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic). Alter initial victories. Robert Clive emerged victorious. Third War {1758-63) French, Count de Lally captured Fort St. David'. An instancxe of Angle French Rivarly. First (1746-48). The French besieged Madras. At st. Thome battle the Nawab of Carnatics army was defeated by French under Dupliex Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession. Second War (1749-54). Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (carnatic) After initial victories. Robert Clive emerged victorious. Third War (1758-63) French, Count de Lally captured Fort St. David. French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760). Pondichery was returned to French by the Treaty of Paris. First War (1839-42). Arose because the British (Lord Auckland) wanted 10 replace Dost Muhammad with a puppet ruler. Shah Shuja. The British laced a popular revolt but were able to re-occupy Kabul. However, they had to restore the throne to Dost Muhammad. Second War (1878-80). Afghan ruler. Slier Ali. was defeated by Lord Lytton and his son signed the Treaty of Gandamak. A British resident was kept in Kabul. Alter he was killed. British adopted the principle of noninterference (Lord Ripon). Anglo-Maratha Wars First War (1775-82). Favouring the cause of Raghunath Rao for Peshwaship, English (Hastings) came in conflict with the Marathas. On being defeated, the British had to sign the humiliating Convention of Wadgaon. British later signed Treaty of Salbai, renouncing the cause of Raghoba.

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 Second War (1803-06). The Marathas Peshwa signed the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty of Bassein (1802). The Maratha confederacy, which did not like the idea challenged the British power but were defeated by the British. Third War (1817-1888). Lord Hastings was determined to proclaim British paramountacy in India. Hastings moves against Pindaris transgressed the sovereignty of the Maratha chief and the war began. The Marathas were decisively defeated.

HISTORY AT A GLANCE Major Dynasties and rulers c. AD 650-1206 Major States, Dynasties and rule rs c. BC 550-c. AD 560 Century 6-4 BC Magadhan Ascendancy (North India) 543-491 Bimbisara 44 1-461 Ajatshatru 362-334 Mahapadma Nanda 4-2 BC Mauryan Empire (Areas south of Karnataka) 321-297 Chandraupta Maurya 297-272 Bindusara 272/268-232 Ashoka 2-1 BC Shungas (Ganges valley and part of central India) I SO-165 Demetrius II 155-130 Menander (Milinda) I BC-AD3 Satavahanas (North Deccan) 120 Gautanmiputra Satakarni I BC-AD 3 Shakas (West India) I BC-AD 3 Kushanas ( Northern India and Central Asia) 78-248 Kanishka AD 4-AD 6 Guptas (North India) 319/20-335 Chandragupta I 87

335-376 Samadragupta 376-415 Chandragupta II 415-454 Kumara Gupta I 454-467 Skanda Gupta AD4-AD9 Pallavas (Tamil Nadu) AD 5-AD 6 Hunas (Northwest India and Central Asia) AD 7 Harsha (North India) 606-747 Harshavardhana Major dynasties and rulers c. AD 650-1206 300-888 Pallavas (Tamil Nadu) 630-668 Narasimhavaraman Mahamalla 730-796 Nandivarman II 556-757 Chalukyas of Vatapi (West and Central Deccan) 610-643 Pulakeshin II 7th to 10th e Pandyas of Madurai (Tamil Nadu) 668-8 15 Veruguna I 815-862 Shrimara Shrivallabha 862-867 Varaguna II 630-970 Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) 750-1 142 Rashtrakutras (West and Central Deccan) 780-793 Dhruva 793-833 Govinda III 814-876 Amoghavarsha 878-914 Krishna II 914-972 Indra III 939-986 Krishna III 773-1019 Pratiharas (West India and Upper Ganges > 773-793 - Vatsaraja 793-833 Nagabhata I 836-885 Bhoja 908-942 Mahipala 850-1276 Cholas of Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu) 984-1014 Rajarajal 1014-1044 Rajendra 1070-1 I 18 Kulottunga I 916-1203 Chandellas (Bundelkhand) 850-1 195 Kalachuris of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh) 973-1 192 Chalukyas of Kalyani (West and Central Deccan) 992-1008 Satyashraya 1043-1068 Someeshvara I 1076-1 126 Vikramaditya VI 11 81-1 189 Someshvara IV 974-1238 Chaulukyas (Gujarat) 974-1060 Paramaras (Malwa) 1090-1 193 Gahadavalas (Kanauj)

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10-1327 Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (South Deccan) 18-1 199 Senas (Bengal) 90-1294 Yadavas of Devagiri (North Deccan) 197-1323 Kakatiyas of Warangal (Andhra Pradesh) Rulers of India 1526-1707 Mughals Emperors 1526-1707 (Empire 1508-1553 Burhan 1 ends 1858) 1553-1565 Husain 1526-1530 Zahir ud Din Babur 1565-1588 Murtaza 1530-1540 Nasir ud Din Humayun 1588-1589 Miran Husain (first reign) 1580-1590 Ismail 1540-1555 Suri Sultans of Delhi 1590-1594 Burhan II 1540-45 SherShah 1594 Ibrahim 1545-54 IslamShah 1594-1595 Ahmad II 1554-55 Muhammad Shah Adil 1595 Bahadur 1555-1556 Nasir ud Din Humayun Baridi Shahs of Bidar 1526-1609 (second reign) (Sultanate begins 1492) 1556-1605 Jalal ud Din Akbar I 1504-1549 Amir I 1605-1627 Nur ud Din Jahangir 1549-1562 Ali 1627-1628 Dawar Baksh 1562-1569 Ibrahim 1628-1657 Shihab ud Din Shah Jahan I 1569-1572 Qasimll 1657 Murad Baksh (in gujarat) 1572-1609 Mirza Ali 1657-1660 Shah Shuja(in Bengal) 1609 Amir II 1658-1707 Aurangzeb Alamgirl Adilshahis of Bijapur 1526-1686 Imadshahis of Berar 1526-1572 (Sultanate (Sultanate begins 1489) begins 1484) 151 1-1534 Ismail 1504-1529 Ala ud Din 1534-1535 Mallu 1529-1560 Burhan 1535-1557 Ibrahim 1 1568-1572 Tufal (usurper) 1557-1580 Alii Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar 1526-1595 1580-1627 Ibrahim 11 (Sultanate begins 1490) 1627-1660 Muhammad 1660-1686 Ali 11 Qutubshahis of Golconda 1526-1687 (Sultanate begins 1512) 1512-1543 Sultan Quli 1543-1550 Jamshid 1550 SubhanQuli 1550-1581 Ibrahim 1581-1612 MuhammadQuli 1612-1626 Muhammad 1026-1672 Abdullah 1672-1687 Abul Hasan Faruqi Sultans of Khandesh 1526-1601 (Sultanate begins 1370) 1520-1537 Miran Muhammad I 1537 Ahmad Shah

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1537-1566 Mubarak Shah II 1566-1576 Miran Muhammad II 1576-1577 Hasan Shah 1577-1597 RajaAli Khan or Adil Shah IV 1597-1601 Bahadur Shah Chhatrapati Bhonsles to 1707 1674-1680 Shivajil 1680-1689 Sambhajj 1689-1700 Rajaram 1700-1707 Tara Bai Rulers of India 1707-1858 Mughal Emperors 1707-1858 1756-1757 SirajudDaula (Empire ends 1858) 1757-1760 Mir Jafar 1707 A/am Shah 1760-1763 Mir Qasim 1707 Kam Bakhsh(in the Deccan) 1763-1765 Mir Jafar 1707-1712 Shah Alaml 1765-1766 Najmud Daula 1712 AzimushShah 1766-1770 Saif ud Daula 1712-1713 Muizz ud Din Jahandar Nawabs of Avadh 1724-1856 1713-1719 Farrukhsiyar 1724-1739 Saadat Khan 1719 Shams ud Din Rafi ud Darajat 1739-1754 Safdar Jang 1719 Nikusiyar 1754-1775 Shuja ud Daula 1719-1748 Nasir ud Dm Muhammad 1775-1797 Asaf ud Daula 1748-1754 Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1797-1798 Vazir Ali 1754-1760 Aziz ud Din Muhammad 1798-1814 Saadat Ali 1748-1754 Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1814-1827 Ghazi ud Din Haidar 1754-1760 Aziz ud Din Alamgir II 1827-1837 Nasir ud Din Haidar 1760 Shah Jahan 111 1837-1842 Ali Shah 1760-1788 Shah Alam II (first reign) 1842-1847 Amjad Ali Shah 1788 Bidar Bakht 1847-1856 Vajid Ah Shah 1788-1806 Shah Alam II (second reign) Nawabs of Arcot 1707-1858 1806-1837 Muin ud Din Akbar II 1703-1710 DaudShah 1837-1858 Sirajud Din Bahadur Shah II 1710-1732 Muhammad Sayyid Nawabs of Bengal 1703-1770 Saadatullah Khan I 1703-1727 Murshid Quli Jafar Khan 1732-1740 Dost Ali Khan 1727-1739 ShujaudDin 1740-1742 Safdar Ali Khan J739-I740 Sarfaraz Khan 1744-1749 Anvar ud Dm Muhammad 1740-1756 Alivardi Khan 1749-1795 Vain Jan Muhammad Ali 1795-1801 Umdat ul Umara 1801-1819 Azimud Daula IS 19-1867 Azam Jah Nizams of Hyderbad 1724-1858 (Rule ends 1948) 1724-1748 Mir Qamar ud Din, Nizarm ul Mulk Asaf Jah 1748-1750 Mir Muhammad Nasir Jang

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1750-1751 Muzaffar Jang 1751-1762 Mir Asaf ud Daula Salabat Jang 1762-1802 Nizam Ali ,Mir Akbar Ali KhanSikandarJah 1819-1857 Nasir ud Daula 1857-1869 Afzal ud Daula The lineage of Haidar Ali of Mysore 1761-1799 1761-1782 Haidar All 1782-1799 Tipu Sultan Maratha Peshwas 1714-1818 1714-1720 Balaji Vishwanath 1720-1740 Baji Rao I 1740-1761 Balaji Baji Rao 1761-1772 Madhava Rao Ballal 1772-1773 NarayanRao 1-773-1774 RaghunathRao 1774-1796 Madhava Rao Narayan 1796-1818 Baji Rao II HISTORY AT A GLANCE Important Battles In Indian History B.C. 327 Alexander the Great defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes 261: Ashoka captured Kalinga alter a body battle near Bhubaneswar 180: Menandcr, a Greek king invaded north-western India and became the Indo-Greek ruler till 160 B.C. Medieval India A.D. 712: Invasion of Sind under the command of Mohammedbin- Qasim 1191: Fust Battle of Taratn in which Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori 1192: Second Battle of Tarain in which Muhammad Kannauj was defeated by Muhammad Ghori 1194: Battle of Chandawar in which Jaichand of kannauj was defeated buy Muhammad Ghori 1526:- First Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur 1527: Battle of Khanua. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur 1529: Battle of Ghaghar. The Afghans were defeated by Babur 1539: Battle of Chausa. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri 1540: Battle of Kanauj or Bilgram. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri, who now became the ruler of Delhi 1556: Second Battle of Panipat. Hemu was defeated by Akbar 1565: Battle of Talikota or Banihati. Vijayanagar empire was defeated by the combined forces of live Muslim states. 1576: Bailie of Haldighali. Rana Pratap was defeated by Akbar

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1601: Battle of Asirgarh. Miran Bahadur Shah was defeated by Akbar 1615: A treaty of peace was signed between Emperor Jahangirand Rana Amar Singh of Mewar 1649: Kandahar was lost to Persia for ever by the Mughals 1658: Battle of Dharmat and Samugarh. Dara Shikoh is defeated by Aurangzeb 1665: Shivaji defeated by Raja Jai Singh and the Ticaty of Purandhar is signed Modern India 1707: Baltic of Khed. Tara Bai defeated by Shahu 1739: Battle of Karnal. The Mughal army defeated by Nadir Shah 1740: Battle of Gharia. Fought between Sarfaraz. Khan, Nawab of Bengal, and Alivardi Khan was killed. 1746-48: First Carnatic War. Fought between French and British forces. Madras was captured by French but returned to the English by he Treaty of Aix-laChappalle. It is famous for the battle of St. Thome, in which a small French army defeated the Nawabs large force. 1749-54: Second Carnatic War. Initially the French under Duplcix had some successes but at last the English got a hold 1758-63: Third Carnatic War. French captured Fori St. David in 1758, but suffered badly at Wandiwash (1760) 1557: Battle of Plassey. The Englhish forces under Robert Clivedefeatcd the army of Siraj-ud-daula 1761: Third battle of Panipat. Marathas were defeated by Ahmad shah Abdali 1746: Battle of Buxar. The English under Mttnrodefeated Mir Qasim. the Nawab of Bengal. Shuja-ud-daiila. Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam II. the Mughal emperor 1767-69: First Anglo-Mysore War. Contested between Haider Ali and the British 1770: Battle of Udgir. The Nizam was defeated by the Marathas 1775: Battle of Sindkhcd between the Marathas and the Nizam. The Nizam was forced to surrender some territories 1752-82: First Anglo-Maralha War. The British army was defeated. The humiliating convention of Wadgoan (1779) was concluded. Peace was at last restored by the Treaty of Salbai (1782) 1780-84: Second Anglo-Mysore War. Haider Ali died in the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son Tipti sultan. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Mangalore (1784) 1789-92. Third Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu Sultan was defeated (1792). The war came to a close with the Treaty of Seringapatam 1799: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu died fighting 1803-06: Second Anglo-Maratha war. The Marathas were defeated by the British 1814-16: Nepalcse War. Between the English and the Gurkhas The war came to an end with the Treaty of Sagauli 1817-19: Third Anglo-Maralha war. The Marathas were badly defeated by the British 1824-26: First Anglo-Burmese War. The British defeated the Burmese. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Yandahhoo

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1839-42: First Anglo-Afghan War. The Afghan ruler Dost Muhammad was defeated by the English 1845-46: First Anglo-Sikh War. The Sikhs were defeated by the English. The war was ended by the Treaty of Lahore 1848-49: Second Anglo-Sikh War. Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the British 1852: Second Anglo-Burmese War. The English were successful IS65: Third Anglo-Burmese War. The English annexed Burma 1878-80: Second Anglo-Afghan war. The English suffered losses 1919-21: Third Anglo-Afghan War. The English though victorious did noi benefit from the war. Important Foreign Travellers/Envoys Megasthenes (302-298 B.C.): An ambassador of Seleucus Nieator. who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote an interesting book India in which he gave a vivid account of Chandragupta Mauryas reign. Fa-Hsien (405-411 A.I).): He came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II Vikiamaditya. The object of his visit was to see the holy places of Buddhism and to collect Buddhist hooks and relics. He was the first Chinese pilgrim to visit India. Hiuen-Tsang (also spelt Yuan Chwang) (630-645 A.D): He usiied India during the reign of Harsha. 1-tsing (671-695 A.D): A Chinese traveller, he visited India in connection with Buddhism. His work Biographies of eminent Monks, provides us useful information about the social, religious and cultural life of the people of this country. Al-Masudi (957 A.D): An Arab traveller, he has given an extensive account of India in his work Murujul Zahab Al-beruni (1024-1030 A.D.): His real name was Abu Rehan Mahamud and he came to India along with Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his India raids. He travelled all over India and wrote a book Tahqiq-l-Hind. The book dealt with the social, religious and political conditions in India. Marco Polo (1292-1294 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he visited South India in 1294 A.D. His work The Book of Sir Marco Polo givers an invaluable account of the economic history of India. Ibn Butula (1333-1347 A.D.): A Morrish traveller, he visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. His book Rehla (the Travelogue) throws a lot of light on the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and the geographical, economic and social sonditions in India. Shihabuddin al-Umari (1348 A.D): He came from Damascus. He gives a vivid account of India in his book, Masalik albsar fi-mamalik al-amsar. Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he gives a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.): He was a Persian traveller who came to India and stayed at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid

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account of the Vijayanagar empire, especially of the city. He describes the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles. Athanasius Nikitin (1470-1474 A.D): lie was a Russian merchant, who visited south India in 1470. he describes (he condition of the Bahmani kingdom under Muhammad III (1463-82). Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.): He was a Portuguese traveller. He has given a valuable narrative of the government and the people of the Vijayanagar empire. Domingos Paes 11520-1522 A.D): He was a Portuguese traveller who visited the court of Krishnadeve Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire. Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D): A Portuguese merchant who visited the Vijayanagar empire. He wrote the history of the empire from its earliest dines lo (he closing years of Achyutdeve Rayas reign. John Hnghen Von Linschbotten (1583 A.D): he was a Dutch traveler, who has given a valuable account of the social and economic life of South India. William Hawkins (1608-1611 A.D.): He was an English ambassador of the British King James lo die court of Jahangir (1609). Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619 A.D.): He was an ambassador of James I, King of England, at (he court of Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. Franciso Palsaert (1620-1627 A.D.): He was a Dutch traveller who stayed at Agra and gave a vivid account of the flourishing trade at Sural. Ahmedabad, Broach. Cambay, Lahore. Multan, etc. John Albert de Mandesto (1638 A.D.): He was a German traveller, who reached Surat in 1638. Peter Mundy (1630-34 A.D): He was an Italian traveller (o (he Mughal empire m the reign of Shah Jahan. He gives valuable information about the living standard of the common people in (he Mughal Empire. Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1638-1663 A.D.): He was a French traveller who visited India six limes. His account covers the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Nicolae Manucci (1656-1708 A.D.): He was an Italian traveller, who got service at (he court of Data Shikoh. Francois Bernier (1656-1717 A.D.): He was a French physician and philosopher. Danishamand khan, a noble of Aurangzeb, was his patron. Jean de Thevenot (1666 A.D.): He was French traveller. Who has given a good account of cities like Ahmedabad. Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda. John Fryer (1672-1681 A.D.): He was an English traveller who has given a vivid account of Surat and Bombay. Gemelli Careri (1695 A.D.): He was an Italian traveler who landed at Daman. His remarks on the Mughal emperors military organization and administration are important. HISTORY AT A GLANCE Classical Writers in Indian Languages Author Work(s) 94

Abdul Hamir Lathori ............................. Padshahnama Al-beruni ........................................... Kitab-i-Rahla AH Muhammad Khan .......................... Mirat-i-Muluk Amar Simha (Chandragupta II) ........................Amarkosa Amir Khusrau ......................................Tarikh-i-Alai Arybhatta......................................... Surya Sidhanta Asvaghosha .................................... Bhuddha Charita Ayapa Senani ................................ Nrutyaratnakaram Babur ........................................... Tuzuk-i-Baburi Banabuatta (Harshavardham) Kadambari, Harshacharita Barani ....................................... Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi Bharavi (Simhavishun)........................ Kiratharjuneeyam Bhavabhuti........ : ..................... Uttararamacharita Bilhana ................................Vikramanakadeva Charita Chand Bardoi Prithvaraj Raso Charaka .........................................Charaka samhita Dandin (Narasimhavaraman) ........... Dasa Kumara Charita Firdausi.................................................. Shahnama Gona Buddha Reddy......................Ranganadharamayanam Gulbadan Begum................................ Humayun-nama Hala .................................................. Suptasotka Harshavardhana .......... Priyadarsika. Ratnavali. Nagananda Hulakki Bhaskara ............................ Bhaskararamayananm Ibn Batuta................................ Tughlaqnama. Safarnama (Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq) llango Adign\ ..................................... Silappadikaram Jayadeva ........................................... Gita Govinda Jayasi ................................................... Padmavat Kathana ............................................Rahantarangini Kalidasa (Chandragupta II)........................ Ritusamhara. Raghuvamsa, Kumarasamhhava. Meghaduta, Malavikagnimitra.Vikramorvashi. Sakuntalam Kautilya Arthasastra Author Work(s) Kumaragiri Reddy ........................... Vasanta Rajeeyam Malikarjuna Pandita ................................ Sivatatvasara Manjhan ........................................... Madhumalati Minhaj-ns-Siraj.............................Tabaqat-i-Firuzahahi Mirza Muhammad Kasim ........................ Alamgir-nama Muhammad Manzil ............................ Miral-i-Sikandri Nagachandra.....................................jainaramayanam Nandi Timmana .............................. Parijatapaharanam Palkurki Somanata ................................ Basavapuranam Panini................................................ Ashtadhyayi Patanjali................................................Mahabhasya Pillalamarri Pina Veerabhadra ..................... Jaimini Bharatam

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Pingalisurana ..................................Kalapoornodayam Prataparudra ............................................. Neetisara Rajashekhara (Mahipal).. Vidha Salabhanjika, Bala Bharata. Kavyamimansa. Bala Ramayana Ravi Kirti (Pulakesin II)............................. Aihole Prasasti Saki Mustaid Khan ........................... Maasir-i-Alamgiri Shirazi ......................................... Tazkirat-i-Muluk Sri krishnadeva Raya .... Madalasa Charitra. Amuktamalyada Srinatha Haravilasam. Kasi Khandam ... Palnativeeracharitra. Sringara Naishadam Sudraka.......................................... Mrichchakatika Surdas................... SurSagar. SinSarawali. Sahitya Ratna Tenali Rama Krishna ................... Panduranga Mahatyain Tirnvalluvar.................................................. Kural Tulsidas.......................................... Ramacharitmans Varamihira .......................................Brihat Sidhanta Vatsyayana ............................................ Kamasutra Vijnaneswara......................................... Mitakshara Visakhadatta .....................................Mudrarakshasa Vishnu Sharma ......................... SambhavaPanchatantra Yahya-bin-Ahmed ........... Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi Sarhindi Mughal Literature Author Name of the Work Remarks Gulbadan Begam Humayun Namah About Humayuns reign Abul Fazl Ain-I-Akbari About Akbars reign Abul Fazl Akbar Namah About Akbars reign Badauni Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh About Akbars reign Mulla Daud Tawarikh-I-Alfi About Akbars reign Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Tabaqat-I-Akbari About Akbars reign Jahangir Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri Autobiography Mutamad Khan lqbal Namah About Jahangirs reign Abdul Haqq Nuriyya-I-Sultaniyya Theory of kingship Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshah Namah About Shah Jahans reign Muhammad Waris Padshah Namah About Shah Jahans reign Inayat Khan Shah Jahan Namah About Shah Jahans reign Muhammad Salih Shah Jahan Namah About Shah Jahans reign Dara Shikoh Safinat-ul-Auliya Biographies of Sufi saints Dara Shikoh Sakinat-ul-Auliya Upanishads Translation Dara Shikoh Hasanat-ul-Arifin His religious and Dara Shikoh Majma-ul-Bahrain philosophical ideas Aurangzeb Raqqat-I-Alamgiri A collection of his letters Khafi Khan Muntakhab-ul-Lub About Aurangzebs reign Rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire

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1339-1526 {Effective rule ends IM5) 1336-1354 Harihara I 1354-1377 Bukka I 1377-1404 Harihara II 1404-1400 Bukka I 1406-1422 Devaraya II 1447-1465 Mallikarjuna 1465-1485 Virupaksa 1485-1486 Praudhadevaraya 1486-1402 Saluva Narasimha 1492-1503 Immadi Narasimha 1503-1509 Vira Narasimha 1509-1530 Krishnadevaraya

MODERN INDIA
Economic & Commercial Policy The British conquerors were entirely different from the previous conquerors. Through laws and administrative, economic and fiscal policies, the British government in England and Companys administration in India used their powers to the advantage of British manufacturers and to the detriment of the Indian socio-political and economic fabric. The gradual development of underdevelopment has been traced through the three stages of British Colonialism by R. R Dutta in his classic work India Today. Phases of Economic Policy in India 1600-1757: The East India Company was a purely trading company dealing with import of goods and precious metals into India and export of spices and textiles. 1757 - 1813 (The Mercantilist Phase) The East India Company monopolized trade and began direct plunder of Indias wealth. They could impose their own prices that had no relation to the costs of production. This was the phase of buccaneering capitalism whereby wealth flowed out of the barrel of the traders guns. The company used its political power to monopolize trade & dictate terms to the weavers of Bengal The company used revenue of Bengal to finance exports oi Indian goods. 1813-1858 (The Industrial Phase) The commercial policy of the East India Company after 1813 was guided by the needs of the British industry The British mercantile industrial capitalist class exploited India as Industrial Revolution in Britain completely transformed Britains economy

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 Charter Act of 1813 allowed one way free trade for British citizens resulting in Indian markets flooded with cheap & machine made imports. Indians lost not only their foreign markets hut their markets in India too. India was now forced to export raw materials consisting of raw cotton jute and silk, oilseeds, wheal, indigo and lea, and import finished products. Indian products had to compete with British products with heavy import duties on entry into Britain. 1860 & After (Finance Colonialism): The essence of 19th century colonialism lay in the transformation of India into a supplier of foodstuffs and raw materials to the metropolis, a market for metropolitan manufactures and a field for investment of British capital. Started with the emergence of the phase of Finance Capitalism m Britain. The rebellion of KS57 was the key factor in the change of the nature of the colonialism. The British introduced roads and railways, post and telegraph, banking and other services under the guaranteed interests schemes (government paid a minimum dividend even if profits were nonexistent). Various investments by the British capitalists were also made in India. As a result of this, the burden of British public debts kept on increasing and India became, in the real sense, a colony of Britain. Drain of Wealth Theory R C Dutta & Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory. Naoroji brought ii to light in his book titled Poverty And Un-British Rule In India. R C Dutt blamed the British policies for, Indian economic ills in his book Economic History of India (1901-03). Drain of wealth refers to a portion of national product of India, which was not available for consumption of its people. Drain of wealth began in 1757 after Battle e>t Plassey when the companys servants began to extort fortunes from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and send home. In 1765 the company acquired the Diwani of Bengal & began purchase the Indian goods out of the revenue of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Companys investment. Duty free inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian counterparts. Constituents of the Drain Home charges: Costs of the Secretary of States India Office, East India Companys military adventures, cost of suppressing the Mutiny of 1X57 and the compensation to the companys share holders, pensions lo the British Indian officials and army officers, costs of army training, transport, equipments and campaigns outside India and guaranteed interests on railways.

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 Remittances: To England (a part of their salaries, incomes and savings) by English Civil servants, Military and railway employees lawyers, doctors etc. Foreign trade: The phase of finance imperialism entered India with the introduction of railways . development of plantations, mines, banking and factories financed through British capital. Much of the burden of the expanding railway network was met by the Indian taxpayer through the guaranteed interest scheme. Land Revenue Systems Permanent Settlement Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and districts of Benaras & Northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793. John Shore planned the Permanent Settlement. It declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence. theycould keep l/l1th of the revenue collected to themselves while the British got a Fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected. The Zamindars were free to fix the rents Assured of their ownership, many zamindars stayed in towns(absentee landlordism) and exploited their ten ants. Ryotwari System Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Munro (Viceroy) and Charles Reed recommended it. In this, a direct settlement was made between the government and the ryot (cultivator). The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding 30 years, on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of the crop. It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo. The position of the cultivator became more secure but the rigid system of revenue collecton often forced him into the clutches of the moneylender. Besides, the government itself became a big zamindar and and retained the right to enhance revenue at will while the cultivator was left at the mercy of its officers. Mahalwari System Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganga valley, NWFP. parts of Central India & Punjab. Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estates with landlords. In western Uttar Pradesh, a settlement was made with the village communities, which maintained a form of common ownership known as Bhaichara, or with Mahals, which were groups of villages. Revenue was periodically revised. Colonial Impact of Land Revenue Systems

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 The land settlements introduced market economy and did away with customary rights. Cash payment of revenue encouraged money-lending activity. It sharpened social differentiation. Rich had access to the courts to defend their properly. Forcible growing of commercial crops proved hazardous for the peasants because they had to buy food grains at high prices and sell cash crops at low prices. The stability of the Indian Villages was shaken and the setup of the rural society began to break up. The Revolt of 1857 The Beginning The earliest incident being the revolt in the 19th Native Infantry in Berhampur. 29th March 1S57 First spark of revolt at Barrackpore in Bengal where Mangal Pandey killed the British adjutant and was later hanged for tiring on senior officers. 10th May IS57Ninety sepoys of 3rd Native Regiment at Meerut revolted on the issue of the greased cartridges. After their trial and execution, entire garrison in Meerut revolted and raised the cry of Delhi Chalo. Centres of Revolt and Their Leaders Delhi Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan Kanpur Nana Sahib. Tantiya Tope, Azimullah Khan Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal (Awadh), Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Arrah (Bihar) Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur Causes of the Revolt Political Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Lucknow was annexed in 1856. on charges of maladministration and Jhansi was annexed owing to Doctrine of Lapse. Military Discrimination Indian soldiers were paid low salaries: they could not use above the rank of subedar and were racially insulted. The soldiers were also distressed by the fact that their cherished Awadh stale had been annexed by the British. Religious Discrimination

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 British social reforms (widow remarriage, abolition of Sati, school for girls. Christian missionaries) Rumours that Enfield rifles used greased (by pork or beef) cartridges. Economic Grievances Heavy taxation, summary evictions, discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products & destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans and small zamindars. Suppression of the Revolt Delhi: Recaptured on 20 Sept 1X57 by John Nicholson Kanpur: Recaptured on 6 December 1857 by Colin Campbell Lucknow: Recaptured on 21 March 1858 by Colin Campbell. Jhansi: Recaptured by Hugh Rose Arrah: William Taylor and Eyre suppressed the revolt Fate of the Leaders Bahadur Shah II - Deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead. Nana Sahib & Begun Hazrat Mahal - Escaped to Nepal Rani Jhansi - Died in the battle field. Tantia Tope - Was captured & executed on 15th April 1859. Who Said What about 1857 Revolt British Historians - A Mutiny, due to the use of greased cartridges. Disraeli (Opposition Leader) - A national revolt rooted in deep mistrust. V D Savarkar- First War of Independence. S B Choudhary - Civil Rebellion. R C Majumdar - Neither first nor national nor a war of independence. S X Sen - An effort by the conservative elements to turn the clock back Marxists - A soldier-peasant struggle against foreign and feudal bondage Malleson - Sepoy Mutiny Causes of Failure Lack of coordination and central leadership. Revolt lacked a forward-looking programme, coherent ideology, apolitical perspective or a vision of the future society and economy. Rebel leaders lacked resources and experience as compared to British Revolt lacked the support of martial races of the north. British power had remained intact in the Eastern. Western it Southern pans of India from where the forces were sent to suppress the revolt. Tacit support of certain sections of Indian public l modern educated Indians) to British authorities Lack of coherent ideology and political perspective Limited territorial and social base

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Impact of the Mutiny In August 1858. the British Parliament passed ail Act. which put an end to the rule of the Company. The control of the British government in India was transferred to the British Crown. A minister of the British government, called the Secretary of State, was made responsible for the government of India. The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of Viceroy, who was also the representative of the monarch. Marked the end of British Imperialism & Princely starts where assured against annexation. Doctrine of lapse was withdrawn After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divide and rule. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of while soldiers in the army. Total expense of the suppression was borne by Indians. Descriptive Note on the Spread of Mutiny and Civil Rebellion During 1857-58 2 l-ebruary 1857 - Mutiny of the 19th Native Infantry at Berhampur. 10 May 1857 - Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut. 11-30 May 1857-Outbreaks in Delhi. Ferozepur. Bombay. Aligarh. Etawah. Bulandshahr. Nasirabad. Bareilly. Moradabad, Shahjehanpur and other stations in UP. The Mughal Emperor proclaimed as the Emperor of India. June 1857 - Mutinies at Gwalior, Bharatpur. Jhansi. Allahabad. Faizabad. Sultanpur. Lucknow etc. The civil rebellion spreads through the Indo-Gangetic plain. Rajputana. Central India and some parts of Bengal. July 1857 - Mutinies at Indore, Mhow. Saugar and certain places in the Panjab like Jhelum. Sialkot etc. August 1857 -Civil rebel I ion spreads throughout Saugor and Nerbudda districts. September 1857 - The English recapture Delhi: further out-breaks in Central India. October 1857 - Revolt spreads to Kotah Stale November 1857 - The rebels defeat General Windham outside Kanpur December 1857 - Sir Colin Campbell wins the battle of Kanapur Tantia lope escapes March 1858 - Lucknow recaptured by the English April 1858 - Jhansi falls to the English, fresh rising in Bihar led by Kunwar Singh May 1858 - The English recapture Barcilly. Jagdishpur and Kalpi Indian rebels begin guerilla warfare in Rohilkhand July-December 1858 - English authority re-established in India.

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Brahmo Samaj Rammohan Roy (1771-1833) He was horn at Radhanagar in Bengal in 1772. He is regarded as the first great leader of modern India. He opposed idol worship and pressed on Doctrine of the Unity of God. He believed that basically all religions preach a common message. He was deeply influenced by monotheism, anti-idolatry of Islam, Sufism, and ethical teachings of Christianity & liberal & rationalist doctrines of the west. He was one of the earliest propagators of modern education. Started the Atmiya Sabha in 1814 The Brahma Sabha in 1829, (Brahmo Samaj). Based on the twin pillars ofreason, the Vedas and the Upanishads. Laid emphasis on human dignity, opposed idolatry, and criticised social evils. Succeeded in persuading Lord Bentick to abolish sati in 1829 He gave enthusiastic assistance to David Hare, who founded the famous Hindu college in Calcutta. Established a Vedanta College (1825) in which courses both in Indian and western social and physical sciences were offered Wrote in Persian his famous work ,4 Gift to Monotheists or Tuhafat-ulMuwahidin 1809 Launched a movement for the abolition of Sati through his journal Sabad Kaumudi (1819) Published his Precepts of Jesus 1820 He believed that the philosophy of Vedanta was based on this principle of reason. Was opposed to Sanskrit system of education , because he thought it would keep the country in darkness. Brahmo Ideas

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The purpose of Brahmo Samaj was lo purify Hinduism & to preach monotheism. It laid emphasis on human dignity, opposed idolatry & criticized such social evils as the practice of Sati Preached by Raja Rama Mohan Roy and later went through some changes Opposed idol worship, priesthood and the ritualistic worship Emphasized on worship through prayer, meditation and reading from Upanishads. It emphasized on higher human qualities like piety, virtue and benevolence The Brahmo Samaj The earliest reform movement of modern type. Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy in 1828 under the name Brahmo Sabha 1848 Devendranath Tagore joined the Samaj 1858 Keshab Chandra Sen joined the Samaj 1866Adi Brahmo Samaj (under Devendranath Tagores leadership) Brahmo Samaj of India (under Keshab Chandra Sens leadership) Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (Led by the disgruntled followers of Keshab Chandra Sen) It was based on democratic principles & gave equal rights to all members in management of Samaj. Important members of the Samaj were Sivnath Shastri, Anand Mohan Bose, Bipin Chandra Pal, Dwarkanath Ganguly & Sir Surendra Nath Bannerjee. They contributed immensely lo the growth of the spirit of nationalism in India It started many new journals lo educate the masses, such as Tattva-Kaumudi, Brahmo Public Opinion. Indian Messenger. Sanjibani, Nabhyabharat, Modern Review & Prabase. Dharma Sabha The orthodox Hindus organised the Dharma Sabha under the leadership of Raja Radhakant Dev. The chief objective of all the activities of the Dharma Sabha was only to counter the propaganda of the Brahmo Samaj. The Paramahansa Mandali Founded by Dadoba Pandurang & Bal Shastri Jambhekar in 1849 Founders believed in one god and were interested in breaking caste rules. Members took food cooked by low caste people. Believed in permitting widow remarriage and in education of women The Prarthana Sabha Founded in 1867 by M.G. Ranade. 104

 Prominent leaders were Dr. Atmaram Pandurang & R G Bhandarkar and /V G Chandavar kar Along with its reformist attitudes the Prarthana Samaj was also very much attached with the Maharashtrian Bhakti Cull. The two main planks of the Samaj were worship and social reform. It rejected idolatry, denied the Vedas and adopted the method of congregational worship. Arya Samaj The firs! Arya Samaj unit was organised in Bombay in 1875, by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. It stood for the Four-fold varna system determined by merit and not by birth. Stood for equal rights for both men and women in social and educational matters. Opposed untouchabiliry, caste discrimination, child marriage, and supported widow remarriage and inter caste marriages. Their head quarter was later shifted to Lahore. Accepted the authority of the Vedas (but sanctioned by rationalsm and utilitarianism). Preached father-hood of God and brother hood o\ man. Equality of sexes, love and charily towards all In |886- DAV School was instituted at Lahore by Lala 1Hansraj In 1902 Gurukula Pathsala at Hardwar was established. After the death of Dayanand in 1883, differences occurred in the Gurukul section led by Swami Shradhananda and DAV Section led by Lala Lajpat Rai and Lala Hansraj. While the Gurkul section laid emphasis on the traditional pattern of education the Dayanand-Anglo-Vedic section stood for the spread of English education stood for the spread of English education. This led lo the split of the Samaj in 1892. The Anglo-Vedic school established at Lahore in 1886 provided the nucleus for Arya Samaj movement. Lala Hansraj started the Gurukul near Hardwar to propagate the more traditional ideals of education. The Samaj started the shuddhi movement to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism. This became a contributory factor in the growth of communalism in India in the 20th century. Sister Organisations of Arya Samaj DAV Shudhi Sabha Jaat-Paat Todak Mandal by Bhai Parmananda Reaction to formation of Arya Samaj Dharma Mahamandal by conservative hindus Led.to formation of 2 divisions of Hinduism Sanatan Dharm of conservative following (Puranic Hindus) -Arya Samaj

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swami Dayananda Swami Dayanand Saraswati (or Mula shankar) was born in 1824 in Gujarat. He received education from Swami Virajonanda at Math lira . Formally organised the first Arya Samaj unit at Bombay in 1875 He was known as the earliest Neo-nationalist. His ideal was to unite India religiously, socially and nationally, lie looked on the Vedas as Indias Rock of Ages, the true original seed of Hinduism. His motto was Go back to Vedas. He condemned idol worship and preached unity of God. He decried untouchability and casteism and advocated remarriage and a high status of woman in society. Denounced infinite number of meaningless rues & launched a crusade against all religious superstitions. He was the first hindu reformer who turned from defence to attack., from protecting hindu faith from assaults . He wrote three books Satyartha Prakash in Hindi, Veda-Bhashya Bhumika in Hindi and Sanskrit and Veda Bhashya in Sanskrit. Ram Krishna Paramhansa & Swami Vivekanand Ram Krishna (1836-1886) His original name was Gadoidhar Chattopadhyay. He was born in 1836 in Kamarpukar village in Hooghly district of VVest Bengal. He was a priest in Dakshineshwar temple of Goddess Kali near Calcutta. He sought religious salvation in traditional ways of renunciation, meditation & devotion Emphasized that service to man was service to god His thinking was rooted deeply in Indian thought and culture although he emphasized the truth in all religions. Ram Krishna Mission The Ram Krishna monastic order & mission was officially established in 1887 by Swami Vivekananda to carry on humanitarian relief & social work. Il laid emphasis not on personal salvation bin on social good or social service. It opened many schools, hospitals & dispensaries, orphanages, libraries, etc. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) His original name was Narendranath Dutta and was burn at Calcutta in 1863. He was a disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa. He attended the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893 and published two papersPrabhudha Bharata in English and Udbodhana in Bengali. Social ideas He stressed on social action & proclaimed the essential oneness of all religions and condemned any narrowness in religious matters. He believed that only in uplifting the- masses lay the vitality of the nation. 106

 He urged people to imbibe spirit of liberty, equality & freethinking Wanted new social order based on freedom & equality. He was champion of emancipation of women & was of the view that no social progress is possible without improving condition of women, who were most important instrument of social change. He said, So long as millions live in hunger and ignorance I hold every man a traitor who, having been educated at their expense, pays not the least heed to them. Religious ideas Felt Hinduism needs reinterpretation He subscribed to Vedanta, which he declared to be a fully rational system & reinterpreted the vedant which led to Neo-Vedantism Condemned the caste system and the Hindu emphasis on rituals and superstitions Preached humanistic religion and was of the view that best form of worship was service to humanity. Nationalism Contributed to the rise of nationalism. His nationalism was based on 4 pillars of Awakening of masses Development of physical and moral strength Unity based on common spiritual ideas Pride in ancient Indian glory Wanted modernization of India through Science & Technology In 1807, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission to carry on humanitarian relief and social work. Belur became the head quarters of his mission and Matha. An Irish woman Margaret Noble popularized the teachings of the Mission. Vivekananda died in 1902. The Indian National Congress Political Associations Before 1885 Association of Landholders: Landholders Society (1837), Bengal British India Society (1843). In 1851, the two were merged to form the British Indian Association. Bombay Association and Madras Native Association Were established in 1852. They sent petitions suggesting changes in EICs charter to end companys monopoly of salt and indigo. Associations like Poona Sarvjanik Sabha were established to promote reform and political consciousness. 1876 Indian Association was founded in Calcutta by Surendranath Banerjee, & Anand mohan Bose Madras Mahajan Sabha and Bombay Presidency Association were established in 1884.

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 In December 1883, the Indian Association of Surendra Nath Bannerjee& Anand mohan Bose decided to invite prominent public men and associations to discuss questions of general concern. This was referred to as the National Conference (in 1883) and is described as the dress rehearsal for the IndianNational Congress (INC). National Conference & Indian National Union (by A.O Hume in 1884) merged to form the Indian National Congress in 1885 Aims and Objectives of Congress Promotion of friendship amongst the countrymen Development and consolidation of feeling of national unity irre- spective of race, caste, religion or provinces Formulation of popular demands and presentation before the Government through petitions. Training and organization of pub-lic opinion. Consolidation of sentiments of national unity Recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing problems Laying down lines for future course of action in public interest Indian National Congress The First meeting of the INC was organised by A 0 Hume at Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit College on 28th December 1885 (Bombay). Its first President was W C Bonnerjee. It was the first organised expression of the Indian National movement on an all-India scale. Humes main purpose in encouraging the foundation of the congress was probably to provide a safety valve to the growing discontent among the educated Indians The Methods of Work Early Congressmen had faith in peaceful and constitutional agitation. Prayers & petitions were the instruments. Congress sessions lasted only for three days a year. had no machinery to carry on the work in the interval. They helieved in the goodness of the British nation and believed that all would be well if the British could be acquainted with the true slate of affairs in India. Deputations of Indians were sent to inform the British public In 1889, a British Committee of INC was founded. Important Sessions of INC Year Presidents Vwnuee I. 1885 W.C. Bonnerjee Bombay 2. 1886 Dadabhai Naroji Calcutta 3. 1887 Badruddin Tyabji Madras 4. 1888 George Yule Allahabad 5. 1889 Sir William Wedderburn Bombay 108

6. 1890 Pherozshah Mehta Calcutta 7. 1891 P. Ananda Charlu Nagpur 8. 1892 W.C. Bonnerjee Allabad 9. 1893 Dadabhai Naroji Lahore 10. 1894 Alfred Webb Madras II I894 S. N. Banerjea Poona 12. 1896 Rahimtulla M Sayani Calcutta 13. 1897 C.Sankaran Nair. Amravati 14. 1898 Ananda Mohan Bose Madras 15. 1899 R.C. Dull Lucknow 16. 1900 N.G. Chandavarkar Lahore 17. 1901 D.E.Wacha Calcutta 18 1902 Hasan Imam Bombay S.N. Bonerjea Ahmedabad 19. 1903 LalMohanGhose Madras 20. 1904 Sir Henry Cotton Bombay 21. 1905 G.K. Gokhale Benaras 22. 1906 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta 23. 1907 Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh Surat (Suspended) 1908 Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh Madras 24. 1909 Pandit Madan Mohan Lahore Malaviya 25. 1910 Sir William Wedderburn Allahabad 26. 1911 Pandit B.N. Dhar. Calcutta 27 1912 R.N. Modholkar Bankipore 28. 1913 Nawab Syed Mohammad Karachi Bahadur. 29. 1914 Bhupendranuth Basu. Madras 30. 1915 Sir Satyendra Prasad Sinha. Bombay 31. 1916 Ambika Charan Majumdar Lucknow 32. 1917 Mrs. Annie Besant Calcutta Year Presidents Venue 1918 Hassan Imam (Special session) 33. 1918 Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya Delhi 34. 1919 Motilal Nehru Amritsar 35. 1920 Lala Lajpat Rai (Suspended) Calcutta C.Vijayraghavachariar (annual) Nagpur 36 1921 C.R. Das (in prison) Ahmedabad Hakim Ajmal Khan (Acting) 37. 1922 C.R. Das Gaya 38. 1923 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Delhi (suspended) Maulana Mahammad Ali Golconda (Annual) 39. 1924 Mahatma Gandhi Brlgaun 40. 1925 Mrs Sarojini Naidu. Cawnpore 41. 1926 S. Srinivasa Iyengar. Guwahati 42. 1927 Dr. M.A. Ansari Madras 43. 1928 Pandit Motilal Nehru. Calcutta 44. 1929 Jawaharlal Nehru. Lahore

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1930 (No session) but Independence Day Pledge was adopted on 26th Jan, 1930. 45. 1931 Vallabhabhai Patel Karachi 46. 1932 R. Amritlal (session was banned) 47. 1933 Mrs. J.M. Sen Gupta Calcutta (sesson was banned ) 48. 1934 Rajendra Prasad Bombay (Continued again for 1935) 49. 1936 Jawahar lal Nehru Lucknow 50. 1937 Jawahar lal Nehru Faizpur 51. 1938 S.C. Bose Haripura 52. 1939 S.C. Bose (Re elected for 1939) Tripuri 53. 1940 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Ramgarh 1941-45 (No sessions, caused by arrests and jailing). 54. 1946 Acharya J. B. Kripalani Meerut 55. 1948 B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya Jaipur Trivia 1st President of INCW C Bonnerjee Gandhiji became the President in l924(Belgaum) S C Bose became the President in 1938 ( Haripura )& 1939 (Tripuri) President during Quit India Movmt.1940 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (Ramgarh) and no sessions during 1941-45 due to arrests and jailing of all eminent leaders Jawahar Lal Nehru became President for the first time in 1929 (Lahore)

Swadeshi Movement It began as a anti-partition agitation in Bengal and boycott was first suggested by Krishnakumar Mitra in Sanjivni in 1905. The boycott of British products was followed by the advocacy of swadeshi and to buy indigenously produced goods as a patriotic duty. Stages of Swadeshi Movement 1905-1909 Movement confined lo Bengal & launched as a protest movement. 1909-1910Countrywide spread of movement & launching of anti colonial movement 1910-1911Swadeshi movement merged with revolutionary terrorist movement of 1 phase & led to foundation of numerous secret associations. To encourage indigenous industries, some Swadeshi Enterprises were setup viz. Calcutta Potteries, Bengal Chemicals and Bengal Lakshmi Cotton Mills. Swadeshi melas or lairs were held for selling handicrafts Charkha (spinning wheel) came to typify the popular concern for countrys economic self-sufficiency. The Carlyle Circular withdrew giants and scholarships to educational institutions. Hence, Nationalist educational institutes were founded, e.g.

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Bengal Technical Institute, Bengal National College and School with Aurobindo Ghosh as its Principal Rabindranath Tagore called for the observance of raksha-bandhan as a symbol of brotherhood A large number of volunteer bodies or Samitis were founded. Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisal founded by Ashwini Dint was the largest. Anushilan Society had two branches. Pulin Das led the Dacca branch. Birendra Ghosh and Jatin Banerjee led the Calcutta Branch. Moderate-led Anti-Partition Movement (1903-05) Under Surendranath Banerjee, K.K.Mitra. Prithwish Chandra Kay. Methods Public meeting, petitions, memoranda, propaganda through newspapers and pamphlets. Movement under Extremists (1905-08) Led by Tilak. Bipin Chandra Pal. Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh. The political extremists demanded self-government for India, not under British tutelage or British Paramountcy (as the Moderates wished), but by severing all British connections, and wiping off British influences. Methods included boycott of foreign cloth and other goods, public meeting and Processions, forming corps of volunteers or samitis. Use of traditional popular festivals and melas for propaganda. Emphasis on self-reliance or atma shakti. Launching programme of swadeshi or national education, swadeshi or indigenous enterprises. Initialing new trends in Indian painting, songs, poetry, pioneering research in science. Call for boycott of schools, colleges, councils, government service, etc. The students of Bengal played a prominent part. They practiced & propagated Swadeshi. Remarkable aspect was the involvement of women. Many prominent Muslims including Abdul Rasul, Liaquat Hussain. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad also joined the movemen Tilak played the leading role in spreading the movement lo the rest of the country. Impact of Swadeshi Movement Swadeshi movement was stepping stone of Nationalist movement. which led to beginning of organized political movement in India. Rise of Neo-Nationalistsmvt Surat split Revival of indigenous industries Boycott of foreign goods Cultural Revival & emergence of nationalist art & literature

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 Concept of national education Regional Variations Bihar and United Provinces were quiet B C Pal in Madras led Vande Mat ram Movement. Lala Lajpal Rai and Ajit Singh led the movement in Punjab Tilak began the Swadesh Vastra Pracharni Sabine Savarkar founded the Mitra Mela Tilak was imprisoned for 6 years in Mandalay jail and was released in 1914. Leaders Journals Bipin Pal New Indio B Upadhyaya Sandhya Barinder Ghosh Yugantar K K Mitra Sanjivini Ajit Singh Bharat Mata Most Important Achievement A leap forward because hitherto untouched sections participated, major trends of later movement emerged; richness of the movement extended to culture, science and literature; people educated in bolder form of politics; colonial hegemony undermined. Failure of Swadeshi Movement by 1908 Severe government repression. Lack of effective organization of all leaders Spin in nationalist ranks The Swadeshi leaders refrained from rallying the peasants. Narrow social base. Acts Passed by the Government to Suppress the Movement Seditious meetings Act (1907) Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (1008) Indian Newspapers (Incitement lo Offences) Act (1908) Explosive Substances Act (1908) Indian Press Act (1910) The Moderates and the Extremists The Moderates The Congress programme during the first phase of the Freedom Movement (1885-1905) was very moderate. It demanded mild constitutional reforms. economic relief, administrative reorganization and protection of civil rights. A strong point made by the nationalists during this phase was about the economic drain of India. Political methods of the moderates were constitutional agitations within four walls

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 Moderates believed that the british people & parliament wanted to be just lo India but did not know the true state of affairs. The other important demands were: Organisation of the provincial councils, Simultaneous holding of examinations for the I.C.S in India and England. Reconstitution of the Indian Council, 1892 The separation of (he judiciary from the executive, and the repeal of the Arms Act, The appointment of Indians to the . commissioned ranks in the Army, The reduction of military expenditure etc. Indianisation of higher grades of the administrative services on economic, political & moral grounds During the first twenty years (1885-1905) there was practically no change in the Congress programme. The leaders were cautious in their demands. They did not want to annoy the government and incur the risk of suppression. To pacify them, the government was forced to pass the Indian Councils Act, 1892 but the moderates raised the slogan No taxation without representation. However, during this period, a general impression grew (hat the Moderates were political mendicants. only petitioning and praying to the British Government for petty concessions. This was because early Congress leaders believed that the presence of the British administration was important for continued political progress in India The Extremists Ideological Basis of Extremism Attachment to rationalism and western ideals had almost alienated the Liberal (Moderate) school from the masses in India. Socio-religious reform also influenced the extremists ideology Movements like Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and his disciple, Swami Vivekananda Swami Dayananda, and the Arya Samaj founded by him with a strong emphasis in native pride, played a vital role in the birth o( extremist philosophy. They derived inspiration from their traditional cultural values wanted to have relations with other countries in terms of quality and selfrespect. They opposed the Moderates who were considered by them to be servile and respectful to the British. They gave a call for passive resistance in addition to Swadeshi & boycott Social Reform Movements like Arya Samaj and Theosophical Society gave impetus to political radicalism. The political radicals derived inspiration from their traditional cultural values. There were three groups of extremists The Maharashtra Group (headed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak), The Bengal Group (represented by B C Pal and Aurobindo) and the Punjab group (led by Lala Laipat Rai,) Aurobindo published New Lamps for Old in the indu Prakash in 1853-94. It was the first systematic critique of the Moderates

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 Tilak resented any interference by an alien government into the domestic and private life of the people. He quarreled with the reformers over the Age of Consent Bill in 1891. Tilak asserted, Swaraj is My Birth Right and I will have it. He was also the editor of the Maratta (English) and the Kesari (Marathi) Reasons for the Emergence of Extremists 1. Realization that the true nature of British rule was exploitative 2. International influences and events, which demolished the myth of while/European supremacy. These included Abyssinias (Ethiopia) victory over Italy. Boer Wars (1899-1802) in which the British faced reverses. Japans victory over Russia (I905). Nationalist movements worldwide. 3. Dissatisfaction with the achievements of Moderates. 4. Reactionary policies of Curzon such as the Calcutta Corporation Act (1899). the Official Secrets Act (1904), the Indian Universities Act (1904) and partition of Bengal (1905). 5. Existence of a militant school of thought and the emergence of a trained leadership. Differences between the Moderates & the Extremists Moderates. Constituted of zamindars and upper middle classes in towns. Believed that the movement should be limited to middle class intelligentsia and that the masses were not yet ready for participation in political work. Inspired by western liberal thought and European history. Professed loyalty to the British Crown, believed in Englands providential mission in India believed and that political connections with Britain to be in Indias social. political and cultural interests. Demanded constitutional reforms and share for Indians in services and insisted Oil the use of constitutional methods only. Extremists. Constituted of educated middle and lower middle classes in towns and had immense faith in the capacity of masses to participate and to make sacrifices. Inspired by Indian history, cultural heritage and Hindu traditional symbols. Believed that political connections with Britain would perpetuate British exploitation of India and rejected providential mission theory as an illusion. Demanded swaraj as the panacea for India ills.Did not hesitate to use extra constitutional methods like boycott and passive resistance to achieve their objectives. Conflict and Surat Split Tilak was unpopular with the Moderate group of Bombay. At the Calcutta Congress 11906) Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo wanted Tilak to become the President of the Congress. But the Moderates were in no mood to accept him. P Mehta. MM Malaviya and Gokhale were heckled and booed. Ultimately a 114

compromise was hurriedly made and the agreeable resolutions on the partition of Bengal. Swadeshi and Boycott were phrased and they secured a smooth passage in the open session. With the foundation of the Deccan Sabha. the division between the Extremists and the Moderates in Maharashtra was complete. The Congress split in 1907 at Surat under the presidentship of Rash Behari Ghosh. Morley-Minto Reforms Numbers of elected members in Imperial and Provincial Legislate Councils increasedelected non-officials still in minority. Separate electorates introduced for Muslims. Elected non-officials to be elected indirectlythus elections introduce for the lust time. Legislatures could pass resolutions, ask questions an supplementaries. vote separate items of the budget. No responsibility entrusted to the legislators One Indian to be on viceroys executive council. Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderate and the Muslims to the Governments side. Home Rule Movement After Tilaks return, having served sentence of six years in Mandalay, he tried securing the readmission of himself and other Extremists into the Indian National Congress. With the need being felt for popular pressure to attain concessions, disillusionment with Morley-Minto Reforms and wartime miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to assume leadership. The Home Rule League was pioneered on lines of a similar movement in Ireland. Objective The objective of Home Rule League was Self Government for India in British Empire Work for National Education. Social & Political reforms. Tilak linked up the question of swaraj with the demand for the formation of linguistic states and education in vernacular. He also used Home Rule lo put an end to caste feeling among the common people and advocated abolition of untouchability. Tilak (April) and Annie Besant & S. Subramaniam Iyer (September) established Home Rule Leagues in 1916. Tilaks League was lo work in Maharashtra. Karnataka. Central Provinces and Berar and Annie Besants in the rest of India Annie Besant set up the newspapers New India. Commonweal and Young India (1916) Tilak published Mahratta & Kesari Jamnadas Dwatkadas. Shankarlal Banker. Indulal Yagnik. George Arundale. B P Wadia and L P Ramaswamy Iyer were in Besants League.

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 Home Rule Movement declined after Besant accepted the proposed Montford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain lo light the Libel suit against Valentine Chirol's Indian Unrest. Methods Create public opinion in favour of Home Rule through public meeting, also organising discussions, reading rooms propaganda through public meetings, newspapers. pamphlets, posters, etc. Positive Gains Emphasis shifted to the masses permanently organizational link established between town and country prepared a generation of ardent nationalists, influenced Moderate-Extremist reunion at Lucknow (1916) Lucknow Session-1916 (Presided by Ambika Charan Mazumdar ) Lucknow Pact 119(6) was signed between the INC and the Muslim League. The mam provisions (a) Principle of separate electorates was accepted, (b) Demand for a representative government and Dominion Status for India. Results The movement marks the beginning for attainment of Swaraj It discredited moderates of INC and created condition for readmission of Neo-Nationalists in 1916 Montague Declaration of 1917Greatest political achievement Education Programme Anti-Rowlatt Satyagrah The 1919 sedition Committee headed by Justice Rowlatt, led to the Rowlatt Act (18 March 1919) whereby war timecrestrictions of civil rights were to he made permanent by a) System of special courts b) Detention without trial for 2 years maximum c) Greater police powers. This Act authorized the Government to imprison any person without trial and conviction of the court of law. This law also enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain. Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha intended to mobilize public opinion against the Act. It was first countrywide agitation by Gandhi & marked the foundation of Non Cooperation Movement. During March & April 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India. There were hartals, strikes, processions & demonstrations. On April 13-1919 (Baisakhi Day). Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal were addressing a peaceful rally in Jallianwala Bagh when General Dyer ordered for the infamous massacre

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 The Hunter Commissions report on the Punjab disturbances was described by Gandhi as a white wash. Tagore returned his knighthood in protest. Sardar Udham Singh who took the name of Ram Mohammed Singh murdered Dowyer in England Mahatma Gandhi The Earlier Phase South Africa: (a) 1907 Satyagraha against compulsory registration and passes for Indians (b) 1910 Satyagraha against immigration restrictions, derecognition of non- christian Indian marriages while deciding the cases of new entrants and 3% tax on ex-indentured labourers. Literary Influences on Gandhi: John Ruskin's Unto the Last,, Emerson, Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, the Bible and the Bhagvad Gita. Appeal of Gandhi: I) He was already a leader of action who had achieved results in South Africa 2) The social composition of Indians in S. Africa made him an all India figure while the Lal-Bal- Pal, trio were essentially regional leaders 3) The doctrine of a hi ms a mediated internal differences contributing to a joint nationalist struggle. 4) Gandhis social Utopia was a critique of Industrialism appealed to those alienated by it. 5) The use of the Indian idiom (eg Ram Rajya) helped in communication 6) Rumours greatly enhanced his stature. Gandhi in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda The story of Champaran (Bihar) begins in the early 19th century when European planters had involved the cultivators in agreements that forced them to cultivate indigo in 3/20th of their holdings (Tin-Kathia). Bui when indigo became unremunerative, the European planters imposed higher taxes to compensate their losses in the international trade at that lime. Gandhi (in July 1917) was successful in abolishing the Tin-Kathia system and refund was made to the cultivators in wages. In Ahmedabad (March 19/18) the dispute was between the null owners and workers over the plague bonus which the former wanted to withdraw once the epidemic was over. The workers troubled by inflation wanted adequate compensation. Gandhi initially persuaded the mill owners and workers to agree to arbitration by a tribunal but the mill owners withdraw alter commitment. Gandhi then advised the worker to go on strike &he under look hunger strike after which the mill owners were pressurised into accepting the tribunal award of 35 percent increase in wages The peasants of Kheda district (1917-1918) were in extreme distress due to a failure of crops and the government ignored their appeals for the remission of land revenue. The peasants of Kheda were already hard pressed because of plague, high prices and drought. Appeals and petition having tailed Gandhi advised the withholding of revenue and asked the peasants to fight unto death.

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After the Government directed that revenue should be recovered only from those peasants who could pay. the movement was withdrawn. Gandhi undertook his first hunger strike Ahmedabad (1918) for the mill wage hike of workers His first Civil Disobedience movement was the Champaran Satyagraha His first all-India .Satyagraha was the Rowlatt Satyagraha His first Non-Cooperation Movement was the Kheda Satyagraha Khilafat and the NCM During the First World War, Turkey was allied with Germany and Austria against the British. The Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa, so naturally they sympathized with Turkey, After the War, the British removed the Khalifa from power and fragmented Turkey. Hence, the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India for the restoration of the Khalifas position. The demands wereKhalifas control should be retained over the Muslim sacred places. After the post-war territorial adjustments, the Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories. Khilafat Movement in India The Khilafat issue was not directly linked with politics in India but the Khilafat leaders (Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad. Hakim Ajmal Khan & Hasrat Mohani) were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus. Gandhi saw in this, an opportunity to bring about Hindu-Muslim unity against the British. The publication of the terms of the Treaty with Turkey, which were very harsh, and also the publication of the Hunter Committee Report on Punjab disturbances in May 1920 infuriated the Indians. Thus at one level Indian political situation also merged with the issue of Khilafat. Initially the Khilafat Leaders limited their actions to meetings, petitions, and deputations in favour of the Khilafat. Later a militant trend emerged, demanding an active agitation such as slopping all cooperation with the British. The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad. The meeting was attended by a number of Congress and Khilafat leaders. In this meeting a programme of non-cooperation towards the government was declared. This was to include boycott of titles conferred by the Government, boycott of civil services, army and police, i.e. all government jobs. non-payment of taxes to the Government. August I, 1920 was fixed as the dale to start the movement. The Non-Cooperation Movement It was the 1st Mass based political movement under Gandhi. The Movement was launched as per resolution of Calcutta session & ratified in Nagpur session Dec 1920. Anti-Rowlatt Agitation. Jalianwala Bagh tragedy, Khilafat. Movement, General economic, distress during & after the war were the reasons of Non-Cooperation Movement

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 The Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the Non-Cooperation Movement The main emphasis of the movement was on boycott of schools, colleges, law courts and advocacy of the use of Charkha. There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C R Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their legal practice. Thereafter, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth and boycott of the forthcoming visit of the Prince of Wales in November, 1921; popularization of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress volunteers. Swaraj or self-rule, Redressal of Punjab wrongs & Khilafat issue were demanded through Non-Cooperation Movement Non-Cooperation Movement progressed powerfully from January 1920 to Early February 1922. From November 192 I, a shift towards radicalism was visible. Gandhi decided to launch a no-revenue campaign at Bardoli, and also a mass civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech, press and association. The attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of UP, on February 5, 1922. changed the whole situation. Gandhi, shocked by this incident, withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement. Spread of NCM United Provinces Became a strong base of the Gandhian Non-Cooperation Movement. Organised non-cooperation was an affair of cities and small towns In the countryside the movement got entangled with the kisan movement. The peasants rose in revolt not only against Talukdars but also, against merchants with widespread agrarian-riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra In late 1 921, Eka movement under Mac/an Pan started. Demand was conversion of produce rents into cash Punjab Akali movement for reform and control of the Gurudwaras got closely identified with non-cooperation. Udasi Sikh Mahants, who managed Gurudwaras, had issued Hukumnamas against Ghadrites & honoured Dyer. Akalis were led by Kartar Singh Jhabbar, Master Tara Singh and Baba kharak Singh (head of SGPC). The Shrromani Gurudwara Prabandha Committee was founded by the Shiromam Akali Dal Maharashtra Non-cooperation remained relatively weak because the Tilakites were unenthusiastic about Gandhi. Non-Brahmins too felt that the Congress was a Chitpavan-led affair Andhra The Non-Cooperation Movement attained great success in the Andhra delta area Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and combined 119

their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Temple Entry for Ezhavas and Pulayas was led by Sri Narayan Guru, NK Asan and TK Madhavan. In 1 924, Vaikom Satyagraha in Travancore was led by KP Kesava Menon Revolutionary Terrorism The youth had participated actively in the Swadeshi movement in the hope and belief that Extremist methods of agitation such as boycott and passive resistance would take the national movement out of its elitist groove. The inability of the Extremist leadership to adequately analyse the weaknesses of the movement and their failure to suggest new ways out of the impasse further strengthened revolutionary ideas of assassination and dacoities. Brutal repression of the Swadeshi movement by the Government too added to the trend of revolutionary terrorism. The youth drew inspiration from Irish nationalists and the Russian Nihilists. Ideology Assassinate unpopular officials, thus strike terror in hearts of rulers and arouse people lo expel the British physically, based on individual heroic and not by mass-based countrywide struggle. Bengal 1902 First revolutionary groups in Midnapore and Calcutta (The Amushilan Samiti) 1906 Yugantar & Sandhya in Bengal, and Kal in Maharastra. 1908 Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempt to murder Muza-ffarpur Judge. Kingsford. Alipore conspiracy ease involving Aurobindo Ghosh. Barindra Kumar Ghosh and others. 1912 Bomb thrown at Viceroy Hardinge by Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal. Anushilan Committee (a secret society) whose Dhaka section had 500 branches. Sandhya, Yugantar newspapers advocating revolutionary activity.

Punjab Revolutionary activity by Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh, Aga Haidar Syed Haidar Raza. Bhai Parmanand. Lalchand Falak.Sufi Ambaprassad. Abroad 1905 Shyamji Krishnavarma set up Indian Home Rule Society and India House and brought out journal The Sociologist in London. 1909 Madan Lai Dhingra murdered Curzon-Wyllie; Madame Bhikaji Cama operated from Paris and Geneva and brought out journal Bande Mataram Maharashtra 1879 Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke.

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1890 Tilaks attempts to propagate militancy among the youth through Shivaji and Ganapati festivals, and journals Kesri and Maharatta. 1897 Chapeker brothers assassinated two unpopular British Officials Rand, the plague commissioner of Poona and Ll. Ayerst. 1899 V.D Savarkarand his brother Ganesh organized a secret society Mura Mela. They were co-accused in Nasik and Gwalior Conspiracy cases) 1904 Mitramela and Abhinav Bharat were merged. 1909 Jackson. District Magistrate of Nasik was assasinated. The 2nd Phase of Revolutionary Terrorism Influences on Revolutionary Terrorism Upsurge of working class trade unionism after the war: the revolutionaries wanted to harness the revolutionary potential of the new emergent class for nationalist revolution Russian revolution 1917 Newly sprouting communist groups with their emphasis on Marxism. socialism & proleterial Journals extolling the self sacrifice of revolutionaries Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) It was founded in September 1928 at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi under the leadership of Chandrashekhar Azad. They were also influenced by socialist ideas. Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) Sachin Sanyal. Jogesh Chatterjee and Ramprasad Bismil founded Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) at Kanpur in October 1924. ilk. aimed at organising an armed revolution and establishing ,; Federal Republic of the LISA with a government elected on the basis of adult franchise. Sachin Sanyal wrote Bandi .Jivan. Hindustan Republican Army was later renamed Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Important action of Hindustan Republican Army was Kakori Robbery (August 1925) Miscellaneous Bhagat Singh, Azad & Rajguru shot dead Saunders, the police official responsible for the lathicharge in Lahore. Bhagat Singh and B K Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 to protest against the passage of the Public Safely Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill, The objective was not to kill but to make the deal hear. Bhagat Singh wrote: Why I Am An Atheist. Jatin Das (Sept, 1929) died alter a prolonged fast in jail Alter raiding Chittagong Armoury Surya Sen proclaimed the formation of Provisional Revolutionary Government and the Indian Republican Army, which fought at Jalalabad.

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 Bina Das fired point blank at the governor whle receiving her degree at the convocation. Kalpana Datta was arrested and tried along with Surya Sen. Udham Singh assassinated General Dowyer Famous Conspiracy Cases Muzzafarpur Conspiracy Attempt on Kingsford, Judge of Muzaffarpur by Prafful Chaki & Khudi Ram Bose in 1908 Alipore Conspiracy Case Aurobindo Ghosh arrested Delhi Conspiracy Case (1911) Sanchin Sanyal and Rash Behari Bose were accused of attempting to assassinate Lord Hardinge Kanpur Conspiracy Case (1924) British government started the case against four communists-Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A.Dange, Shaukat Usmani and Nalni Gupta. The government alleged that the Communists wanted to deprive the British King of the sovereignty of British India. Kakori Conspiracy Case On August 9, 1925, ten revolutionaries held up the 8-Down train from Saharanpur to Lucknow ai Kakori and looted its official railway cash. Asfaqullah Khan. Rumprasad Bismil and Roshan Lehri were hanged. Lahore Conspiracy Case Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Raj Guru assassinated Saunders, a police official, al Lahore to avenge Lala Lajpat Rais death. (December 1928) Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) Bhagat Singh & Batukeswar Dutt were asked to throw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8th 1929 against the passage of Public Safety Bill & Trade Disputes Bill Swaraj Politics and Towards COM After the debacle of Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, a group of leaders (No-changers: Ansari, Rajapogalachari, Kasturiranga Iyengar, Rajendra Prasad and Vallabha bhai Patel) who still believed in Gandhian methods advocated on continuing Gandhian constructive rural work while another group, the Pro-changers with such stalwarts like, Motilal Nehru. C R Das demanded Congress participation in council politics. The Gaya session (1922) rejected council entry. A compromise was struck by which Prochangers were allowed to stand for elections even as their faith in the constructive programme was reiterated. Their immediate objective was speedy attainment of full Dominion StatusSwaraj, including the right to frame a constitution with provincial autonomy. In the elections of 1923 the Das-Nehru group under the banner of the Swaraj Parry emerged the single largest party in the Central Assembly, Bombay and Bengal Councils. The Swarajists pursued an obstructionist strategy to defeat all proposals for legislative enactments.

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 C R Das died in 1925 and a section of Swarajists (NC Kelkar, MR Jayakar, Lajpat Rai and Malaviya) mined responsivists. Madan Mohan Malviya and Lala Lajpat Rai founded the independent Congress Party and rallied the Hindus. In 1933. u was reorganised as Congress Nationalist Party. In 1930 the Swarajists walked out of theAssemblies in accordance to the Lahore resolution. The Swaraj Party now merged with the Congress as the country began to prepare for the second round of direct mass action to achieve complete independence. Towards Civil Disobedient Movement Simon Commission In 1927 the British (Lord Birkenhead was the Secy. Of Slate) decided to appoint a commission to recommend further constitutional reforms. The Indian protest was on the grounds that the commission headed by Sir John Simon was an all white commission. Lord Birkenhead constantly talked of the inability of Indians to arrive at any consensus and that the British did not find any one from among the Indians fit enough to serve in a body that would make recommendation about Indias political future. The commissions arrival in India led to a powerful protest movement in which nationalist enthusiasm & unity reached new heights. On 3rd February, the commissions was greeted with hartals and black flag demonstrations. They could not carry with on will) their coalition partners because of conflicting ideas Nehru Report To measure up to the challenge of the British the Report was tabled in 1928. It remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India complete with lists of central and provincial subjects and fundamental rights. It demanded responsible government both in the center and in the provinces. But it advocated Dominion Status and not complete independence. It demanded universal adult suffrage. It rejected separate communal electorates. Ii proposed reservation for the Muslims at the center and in provinces in which they were in minority. The report recommended equal rights for women, freedom to from unions. and dissociation of the state from religion in any form. Calcutta Session of INC in 1928 approved the report. INC now wanted the English government to either accept or reject the recommendations of the suggested constitution based on Dominion status. By Swaraj the Congress leaders had so far meant the Dominion Status for India within the ambit of British Empire. Irwin Offer of 1929 Dominion Status (DS) was a natural issue of Indian constitutional progess

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 A proposed Round Table Conference (RTC) alter the publication of the Simon Report. Lahore Session (Dec 1929) Irwin talks broke down on the issue of Dominion Status, which the British were reluctant to concede immediately. Jawaharlal Nehru replaced Motilal Nehru as the INC President at Lahore and the major decisions taken at Lahore session Round Table Conference to be boycotted Puma-Swaraj or complete independence as the main aim of Congress Launch a programme of civil disobedience including non payment of taxes January 26 1930 fixed as the I Independence day to be celebrated everywhere. On December 31. 1929 the tricolour was hoisted on the banks of Ravi. Civil Disobedience Movement After the INC authorized Gandhiji to start CDM, he placed Eleven Point Ultimatum to Irwin (31 Jan 1930) for administrative reforms and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation. Civil Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March on 12th March. Salt production had geographical limitations. in other parts of the country the movement included a) Picketing of liquor shops and auctions (b) No revenue campaign in Bardoli Forest Satyagrahas (d) Large scale resignation of rural officials (e) Refusal of chaukidari lax (f) Prabhat Pheris-singing of national songs (g) Patrikas-distribution of illegal pamphlets 11-Point Ultimatum 1. Reduce expenditure on Army & civil services by 50/f 2. Introduce total prohibition. 3. Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D) 4. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of licences. 5 . Release political prisoners 6. Accept Postal Reservation Bill 7. Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio 8. Introduce textile protection 9. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians. 10. Reduce land revenue by 50/r 11. Abolish salt tax First Round Table Conference (1931) First ever conference arranged between the British & Indians as equals Congress and most business leaders kept away. Muslim League represented by Mohammed Ali, Agha Khan. Fazlul Haq and Jinnah. Hindu Mahasabha represented by Moonje and Jayakar.

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 Liberals represented by Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Sastri. Princesrepresented by Akbar Hydari and Mirza Ismail, the Dewans of Hyderabad and Mysorerespectively. With Incidents of rising violence and with majority of leading Congress leaders behind bars Gandhiji called for rather sudden retreat. He initiated a talk with Irwin. which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5th March popularly called Gandhi- Irwin pact. Chronology of Events in CDM 12 Mar, 1930Dandi March was undertaken from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi. Apr, 1930Chittagong Armoury was raided by Surya Sen Jan 1931 First Round fable Conference 5 Mar, 1931 Delhi Pact signed between Viceroy Irwin and Gandhi 23 Mar 1931 Bhagat Singh. Rujguru and Sukhdev were executed. Mar 1931 (Karachi Congress) It accepted Delhi Pact. Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn. The session also passed the resolution for Fundamental Rights and the Economic Policy. Sept-Dec 1931Gandhi participated in Second Session of the Round Table Conference Dec 1931Gandhi returned and launched CDM but the movement was brutally suppressed by force Apr 1934The movement was withdrawn formally Delhi Pact (Gandhi-Irwin Pact) Irwin agreed to release all political prisoners except those who were engaged in violence. Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption. Gandhi agreed to suspend CDM and participate in 2nd of RTC. econd Round Table Conference Gandhi agreed to attend the second Round Table Conference scheduled to be held m September 1931. He demanded control over defence & foreign affairs. Hindu Mahasabha demanded federal responsibility which was opposed by Muslim League & the Princes. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits which was opposed by Gandhi. The Government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand of freedom on the basis of immediate grant of dominion status. Communal Award And Poona Pact On August 16. 1932 McDonald announced the proposal on minority representation, known as the Communal Award which recommended: to double the existing seals in provincial legislatures. to retain the system of separate electorate for the minorities. to grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in minority. to reserve 3% seats for women in all provincial legislatures except in N WFP

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 to recognize depressed classes as minority community and make them entitled to the right of separate electrode,and to allocate seats to labour, landlords, and traders and industrialists. Gandhis objections Gandhi reacted strongly to the proposal of granting the right of separate electorates to the Depressed Classes. He regarded the Depressed Classes as an integral part of Hindu society. He thought what was required was not protection of the depressed classes but root & branch eradication of untouchability. He had pinned his hopes for their welfare in the firm belief that the Hindus would do full social justice to fully integrate them within their fold. He demanded that the depressed classes be elected through a joint & if possible a wider electorate through universal franchise. To persuade the recalcitrant Ambedkar to accept his viewpoint, Gandhi, then in the Yarvada Jail, resorted to fast unto death. In an anxiety to save his life,the Poona Pact with the following main terms was concluded between him and Ambedkar on 25 September 1932. seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial legislatures as against 71 promised by the Communal Award & 18 % of the total in central legislature. Adequate representation for the depressed classes in the civil services. Ambedkar also accepted the principle of joint electorate. Third RTC Third Round Table Conference was scheduled to be held in London (1932). The congress did not participate in it. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act. 1935. CDM compared to NCM Launched to attain Puma Swaraj and not merely to remedy wrongs.. It involved deliberate violation of law and not merely non-cooperation In the initial phase urban people participated but it spread to rural areas where it gained its maximum strength. Little Muslim and labour participation Women participated on a large scale to picket shops Regional Spread Chittagong: 1 8 th April, armoury raid by Surya Sen. Peshawar: 2 3 April. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khans Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading to rioting where the Hindu Gharwal rifles refused to fire on Muslim masses. Sholapur. news of Gandhis arrest (4th May) led to working class strike form 7 th to 17 th May. Darshana salt works (21 May) satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Maniklal Gandhi.

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 Madras: Rajagopala Chari led the March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam. Kerala K Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur. Central Provinces had forest satyagrahas Gandhis Harijan Campaign Gandhiji withdrew from the Civil Disobedience Movement to focus on Harijan welfare. After the Poona Pact Gandhi started an All India AntiUntouchability League and the weekly newspaper, Harijan. Harijan welfare work by Gandhians indirectly helped to spread the message of nationalism down to the most oppressed sections of rural society. Gandhi confined the Harijan Campaign to limited social reform (opening of wells, roads, and particularly temples plus humanitarian work) delinking it from any economic demands (though many Harijans were agricultural labourers), and also refusing to attack caste as a whole. The Harijan Movement was formally withdrawn in April 1934 Impact of CDM The Congress swept the polls in most provinces in 1937 The Left alternative emerged, for the Movement had aroused expectations, which Gandhian strategy could not fulfill At the level of leadership, Nehru and Bose voiced the new mood, emphasising the need to combine nationalism with radical social and economic programmes. Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in 1 934. Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programmes developed rapidly in provinces like Bihar and Andhra. Towards Quit India Movement Following the withdrawal of the CDM, Gandhi wanted to focus upon his village reconstruction programme and Harijan Campaign while many other party members wanted to fight the elections. In October 1934, Gandhi resigned from the Indian National Congress. In the Elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in November 1934, the Congress won 45 seats out of the 75. The government announced the holding of elections to the provincial legislatures in February 1937 under the Government of India Act 1935 which promised provincial autonomy. At the Lucknow session (April 1936), the Congress decided to contest them. The Congress framed a detailed political and economic programme at the Faizpur session (December 1936) under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru. Provincial Elections under the GoI Act 1935 The Congress won a massive mandate. It formed ministries in 8 provinces Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar, UP, NWFP and Assam. Haripura Session (Feb 1938) declared Puma Swaraj ideal to cover Princely States.

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 Tripuri Congress (Mar 1939) favoured active participation in the Princely States because of the federal structure of the 1935 Act and due to assumption of office by the Congress after the 1937 elections. The Tripuri Session witnessed Bose vs. Sitaramyya (Gandhis nominee) conflict. Bose resigned to form the Forward Bloc. Individual Satyagraha With the failure of the British govt. to measure up to the demands, there were two opinions in Congress about the launching of civil disobedience. Gandhi fell that the atmosphere was not in favour of civil disobedience as there were differences and indiscipline within the Congress. However, the Congress Socialists and the All India Kisan Sabha were in favour of immediate struggle. Convinced that the British would not modify their policy in India, (the Congress having rejected the August Offer), Gandhi decided to start the Individual Satyagraha. The very reason for confining the movement to individual participation was that neither Gandhi nor the Congress wished to hamper the War effort and this was not possible in a mass movement. Even the aim of the Satyagraha was a limited one i.e. to disprove the British claim of India supporting the War effort whole-heartedly. On 17 October 1940 Vinoba Bhave became the first satyagrahi followed by Nehru. August Offer, 1940 The Viceroy (Linlithgow) put forward a proposal that included: Dominion Status in the unspecified future A post-war body to enact the constitution Expansion of Governor-Generals Council with representation of the Indians, Establishing a War Advisory Council.In this offer he promised the Muslim League and other minorities that the British Government would never agree to a constitution or government in India, which did not enjoy their support (the Muslim League had demanded Pakistan in its Lahore session of 1940). The Congress rejected this offer because: There was no suggestion for a national government and because the demand for Dominion Status was already discarded in favour of Puma Swaraj It encouraged anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League. The Cripps Mission: March-April 1942 Under the pressure of Allies and the need for gestures to win over Indian public opinion, the British were forced to offer reconciliatory measures. After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British decided to send the Cripps Mission to India for constitutional proposals, which included:

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 Dominion status to be granted after the war with the right to secede (Any province could, if it so desired, remain outside the Indian Union and negotiate directly with Britain) Consitution making body to be elected from Provincial Assemblies and Princes nominees alter theWar Individual princes could sign a separate agreement with the British which in effect accommodated the Pakistan Demand British would however, control the defence for war period. The Congress did not want to rely upon future promises. It wanted a responsible government with full powers and also a control over the countrys defence. Gandhi termed the proposals as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank. Cripps Mission failed to satisfy Indian nationalists & turned out to be merely a propaganda device for US & Chinese consumption. Bui above all the Cripps Proposals brought in Pakistan through the backdoor via the local option clause. Though the Cripps Mission failed, Cripps proposals provided legitimacy to the Pakistan demand by accommodating it in their provision for provincial autonomy. Quit India Movement In the backdrop of the failure of Cripps Mission, imminent Japanese threat, the British attitude towards Indians who were left behind in Burma and the prevailing anger and hostility to an alien and meaningless war, Quit India resolution was passed on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia Tank, Bombay. Gandhi told the British to quit and leave India in Gods hand. His message was Do or Die. In the initial stages, the Movement was based on nonviolent lines. Repressive policy of the government and Indiscriminate arrests of the leaders provoked people to violence. (Nehru was lodged in Almoru jail, Maulana Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in Agha Khan & palace, Poona). Further, it was the only all-India movement, which was leader less. In many areas, the government lost all control and the people established Swaraj. Public Participation Parallel governments were established in Satara (Prati Sarkar under Nana Patil), Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P and Bihar. In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned in Midnapore district. This national government had various departments like Law and Order, Health, Education. Agriculture, etc. along with a postal system of its own and arbitration courts. The Movement had initially been strong in the urban areas but soon it was the populace of rural areas, which kept the banner of revolt aloft-for a longer time. The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started during this phase. Jaya Prakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organised an underground movement.

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 In Bombay, the Socialist leaders continued their underground activities under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali. The most daring act of the underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio with Usha Mehta as its announcer. The participation was on many levels. School & College students remained in the forefront. women actively participated and workers went on strikes. Though, peasants concentrated their offence on symbols of authority, there was complete absence of anti zamindar violence. There were no communal clashes during the movement. Repression was severe. The Movement did not evoke much response from the merchant community. In fact, most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War. The Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement. The Communist Party of India due to its Peoples War line did not support the movement. The Indian Princes and the landlords were supporting the War effort and therefore did not sympathize with the movement. Some Congress leaders like Rajagopalachari also did not participate. Towards Freedom Rajagopalachari Formula (1945) In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed that after the termination of the war, a Commission could be appointed for demarcating contiguous districts in the north-west and east where Muslims were in absolute majority. In the areas thus demarcated, a plebiscite would be held on the basis of adult suffrage that would ultimately decide the issue of separation from Hindustan. If the majority decided in favour of forming a separate Sovereign State, such decision could be accepted.In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, communications etc. The above terms would to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India. Muslim League was expected to endorse the Congress demand for independence and co-operate with it in the formation of provisional government for the intrerim period. Jinnah objected, as he wanted congress to accept two-nation theory & wanted only Muslims of the northwest and east of India to vote in the plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V.D Savarkar condemned the plan. Shim la Conference (June-July 1945) Proposed by Wavell. Talks suggested setting up of a new Executive council with only Indian members. The Viceroy and the Commander in chief would be the only nonIndian members of the council Caste Hindus and- Muslims would have equal representation the executive would work within the existing constitution (i.e. not responsible to the central Assembly) but the door was kept open for discussions on a new constitution. The Congress, headed by Maulana Azad, resented being characterized as a caste Hindu organization. Talks broke down due to Jinnahs demand for the Muslim League to have absolute choice in choosing all Muslim members and a demand for communal veto, though it had ministries only in Assam and Sind. 130

The dissolution of the conference gave Jinnah the Communal Veto in effect. Thereafter, the satisfaction of the League became a pre-requisite to any major settlement.

Cabinet Mission (March-June 1946) MembersPethwick Lawrence (secretary of Stale), Stafford Cripps and Alexander. The Mission rejected the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan (Comprising the whole of all the Muslim majority areas). The Mission reasoned that the right of communal self-determination, if conceded to Muslims, also had to be granted to non-Muslims who formed majorities in West Bengal and Eastern Punjab, as well as in Assam proper. The truncated or smaller Pakistan was unacceptable to the League. The Plan proposed Rejection of the demand for a full fledged Pakistan. For a very loose union of all the Indian territories under a centre that would control merely the defence, the Foreign Affairs and the Communications, leaving all other subjects to the existing provincial legislatures. Provincial legislatures would elect a Constituent Assembly. The members would divide up into three sections A,B & C while electing the constitutes Assembly. All these sections would have the authority to draw up provincial constitutions and even group constitutions. Section A- Non Muslim Majority provinces (Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, Madras) Section B - Muslim majority provinces in the north-west (Sind, NWFP & Punjab) Section C - Muslim majority provinces in North east (Bengal, Assam) Communal questions in Central legislature were to be decided by a simple majority in both communities Provinces were to have full autonomy & residual powers Princely stales were no longer to be under paramountcy of British Government. After the first general elections, a province could come out of a group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution Each group had powers to set up intermediate level legislature and executive on their own. The plan failed on the issue of the nature of grouping Jinnah was for compulsory while Nehru was for grouping only till the formation of a constituent assembly. On 29th July 1946 Jinnah withdrew his earlier acceptance of the plan and fixed 16 August 1946 as Diner Action Day. Calcutta, Noakhali, Garmukteshwar were the storm centres. Communal massacre weakened the Congress position in the NWFP.

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Interim government Came into existence on 2nd September 1946, in accordance with Cabinet Missions proposal and was headed by J L Nehru. Muslim League refused to join it initially. Wavell persuaded the League leaders to join on 26 October 1946. 8th December 1946 Constituent Assembly begins its session with Liaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League as the Finance Minister The Interim government, obstructed by its League members and bureaucracy was reduced to a figurehead and was unable to control the communal carnage. Attlees Announcement Prime Minister Atlee on 20 February 1947 announced that the British would withdraw from India by 30 June, 1948 and that Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell. British powers & obligations vis-a-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer of power but these would not be transferred to any successor Government in British India. Partition of the country was implicit in the provision that if the constituent assembly was not fully representative then power would be transferred to more than one central govt. Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan) His earlier Plan Balkan was abandoned for the 3rd June Plan. The Plan declared that power would be handed over by 15 August 1947 on the basis of dominion status to India and Pakistan. Mountbatten supported the Congress stand that the princely states must not be given the option of independence. They would either join India or Pakistan Boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the award was to be announced after Republic day (which was a major cause of massacres) Punjab & Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindus & Muslims, to vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be partitioned. In case of partition, two dominions & two constituent assemblies would be created Indian Independence Act, 1947 Implemented on 15th August 1947 and Sovereignty of British Parliament was abolished. Dominions of India and Pakistan were created. Each dominion to have a Governor - General. Pakistan was to comprise Sind, British Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab and East Bengal The Muslim League The partition scheme and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement were followed by the formation of the All India Muslim League towards the end of 1 906 by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsinul Mulk It

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consisted of a group of big Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats and other upper class Muslims. The factors that the helped the growth of Muslim separatism, were the surfacing of Hindu revivalist tendencies during the Swadeshi movement, The British propaganda that the partition of Bengal would benefit the Muslims and the spurt in communal violence. Later, Muslim League came to be dominated by Young Turks who nursed anti-British feelings. Britain had refused to aid Turkey in the Balkan Wars (191 1 - 1 2) and had rejected University Status to the Aligarh College. In 1928, the Muslim League rejected the Nehru Report, as it did not incorporate all their demands. This led to the estrangement of Jinnah, who called it a Parting of the Ways with the Congress and formulated his infamous fourteen points (including separate-electorates, reservation of seats in the center and provinces, reservation of jobs for Muslims, creation of new Muslim majority provinces, etc.) which became the text of the communal demands. 1939, Dec 22The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as Deliverance Day. 1940, MarchLahore session of the Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution. On Dec 1 943 the Karachi session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan Divide and Quit. Integration of States By 1 5 August all except Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh had signed the Instrument of Accession with India, and Bhawalpur with Pakistan. Goa was with the Portugese and Pondicherry with the French. SOME IMPORTANT FACTS; Development of Education Warren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 for the study of Arabic and Persian. The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Jones iii Calcutta in 1784. Jonathan Duncan, the resident at Benares started the Sanskrit College in 1791. Lord Welleslley started the Fort William College m 1800 for the training of Civil Servants, which the court of Directors closed in 1802. William Carey, a Baptist missionary, set up schools and published Bengali translations of the Bible, thereby laying the foundations of English Education and Bengali prose literature. The Charter Act of 1813, was the first to provide an annual expenditure of one lakh rupees for the revival and promotion of literature. David Hare and Raja Rammohan Roy were instrumental in selling up the Calcutta Hindu College in 1817. Which later developed into the Presidency College. 133

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy and Macualays Minutes The Orientalists led by HT Princep who favoured encouragement of Oriental literature and The Anglicist who favoured the advancement of Western Science and literature. Macualay, a member of the Executive Council wrote his Minute on Educational Policy (2. February 1833) which favoured the Anglicist viewpoint. The Macualayan system was based as the idea that limited means negated mass education, hence a minority would be educated in English, who would act as class of interpreters, thereby enriching the vernaculars such that the knowledge nf Western Sciences and literature would reach the masses. Lord William Bentick, in the Resolution of 7 March 1835, accepted Macualays viewpoint which led to the promotion of European science and literature.

Sir Charles Wood Despatch (1854) The President of the Board of Control, his scheme became the Magna Carta of English education in India. The universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were set up in 1857. It was Bethunes contribution, which helped a setting up of a number of girls schools. The Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) Its main recommendations were basically for secondary education. Secondary Education should be in two sectorsliterary Education leading to the university entrance examination and commercial and vocational training. The Raleigh Commission (1902) The only Indian member of the commission Gurudas Banerji appointed by Lord Curzon, strongly disagreed with its recommendations, which were adopted in the Indian Universities Act ^i 1904. The Indian Universities Act (1904) It was enacted to ensure greater government controls over the Universities It transferred the power of ultimate decision in matters of college affiliation and schools recognition to government officials and sought to fix minimum colleges fees. Sadler Commission (1917-19) The two Indian members were Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr Ziauddin Ahmed. It was mainly for higher education.

134

 It recommended a twelve year course of Matriculation, then intermediate followed by University University course was limited to three years and divided into Pass Course and Honours Each University should be a Centralized system. A Board of womens education was also suggessted. Wardha Scheme Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee alter Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in the Harijan. It centred around manual productive work which would cover the remuneration of teachers. There was to be a seven year course through the mother tongue of the students. It was to be centred around crafts. Sargeant Plan of Education (1944) It envisaged The establishment elementary schools and high schools Universal and compulsory education for all children between the age of six and eleven A school course of six years was to be provided for children between age eleven and seventeen. High schools were to be of two types (a) academic and (d) technical and vocational. Governor Generals and Viceroys The Governors of Bengal Roger Drake (1757) Robert Clive( 1757-60) Holwell (officiating) 1760 Vansittart (1760-1765) Robert Clive (Second Administration) (1765-67) Henry Verelst (1767-69) Cartierf 1769-72) Robert Clive : (Governor of Bengal from 1857-60 and again during 1765-67), Established Dual Government in Bengal from 1765-72 Vannistart (1767-69) Carder (1769-72) Governor-Generals (1772-1857) Warren Hastings (1772-1785)

135

 Became governor of Bengal in 1772 and Governor-General in 1773 through the Regulating Act. Abolished Dual system of administration) Wrote introduction to the first English translation of lire Gila by Charles Wilkins. Founded the Asiatic society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784. Revenue reforms Auctioned the right to collect land revenue to the highest bidder. Divided Bengal into districts and appointed collectors and other revenue officials. Judicial reforms Started Diwani and faujdari adalats at the district level and Sadar diwani and Nizmat adalats (appellate courts) at Calcutta. Redefined Hindu and Muslim laws. A translation of the code in Sanskrit appeared in 1776 under the title of Code of Gentoo laws. Wars Rohilla wart 1774) 1st Anglo Maratha War (177682) 2ndAnglo-Mysore-War( 1780-84). Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) First person lo codify laws (in 1793). The code separated the revenue administration from the administration of justice. Created post of district judge. Introduced Permanent Settlement in Bengal Cornwallis is called the father of civil service in India. Wars: 3rd Anglo-Mysore (defeat of Tipu and the Treaty ofSeringapatanam, 1972) Sir John Shore (1793-1798) Introduced the 1st Charter Act Planned the permanent settlement and later succeeded Cornwallis as Governor- General Wars: Battle of Kharda between Nizam the Marathas(1795) Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) Started Subsidiary Alliance system to achieve British paramountcy in India. Madras Presidency was formed during his tenure War 4th Anglo-Mysore (1799)defeat and the death of Tipu Sultan . 2nd Anglo Maratha war( 1803-05) defeat of the Sindhia. the Bhonsale and the Holkar. Treaty of Bassein (1802) George Barlow (1805-1807). Vellore Mutiny (1806) Lord Minto I (1807-1813)

136

 Concluded Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809). Charter Act of 1813 was passed. Lord Hastings (1813-1823) Adopted the policy of intervention and war. Wars Anglo-Napelese war (1813-23 3rd Anglo-Maratha war (1817-18). Hastings forced humiliating treaties on Peshwa and the Sindhia. Introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras by Thomas Munro, the Governor. Lord Amherst (1823-28) Wars: 1st Burmese War (1824-26), Acquisition of territories in Malay Peninsula. Capture of Bharatpur (1826). Lord W Bentick (1828-35) Most liberal and enlightened Governor-General of India Regarded as the Father of Modern Western Education in India. Abolition of sad and other cruel riles (1829) Suppression of Thuggee (1830). Curbed by Colonel Sleeman. Passed the Charter Act of 1833. which provided that no Indian subject of Company was to be debarred from holding an office on account of his religion, place of birth, descent and colour. Macaulays minutes in education were accepted declaring that English should be the official language of India. Abolition of provincial courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallis, appointment of commissioners of revenue and circuit Wars. Annexed Mysore (1831) Coorg (1834), Central Cachar (1834) on the plea of misgovernment. Concluded a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh. Sir Charles Metcalfe (1834-1836). Passed the famous Press Law, which liberated the Press in India. Lord Auckland (1836-42) 1st Afghan War (1836-421 great blow to the prestige of the British in India. Lord Ellenborough (1842-44) Brought an end to the Afghan War. Annexation of Sindh.( 1843) War with Gwalior (1843) Lord Hardinge (1844-48) 1st Anglo-Sikh war and the Treaty of Lahore. I S46.I Marked the end ofSikh Sovereignty in India)

137

 Gave preference to English educated in employment. Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) Abolished of Title and Pensions Widow Remarriage Act (1856) Wars Introduced Doctrine of Lapse (Captured Satra (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852) Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854) Fought the Anglo Sikh War and annexed the whole of the Punjab 2nd Burmese War (1852) and annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu Annexation of Berar in 1853. Annexation of Oudh in 1856. Administrative Reforms Introduced the system of Centralized control in the newly acquired territories known as Bon-Regulation system. Raised Gurkha regiments. Educational Reforms Recommended the Thomsonian system of Vernacular education for whole of (he Northwestern Provinces (1853). Woods Educational Despatch of 1884 & opening of Anglo-Vernacular Schools and Government Colleges. Universities were to be set up at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. An Engineering college was established at Roorkee. Public Works Started the first railway line in 1853 (connecting Bombay with Thana was laid down) Started electric telegraph service. Laid the basis of the modern postal system Established a separate public works department was set up for the first time Started work on the Grand Trunk Road and developed the harbours of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta Lord Canning (1856-62) The last Governor General and the first Viceroy. Revolt of 1857 Passed the Act of 1858, which ended the rule of the East India Company. Withdrew Doctrine of lapse. The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was passed, which proved to be a landmark in the constitutional history of India. The Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn. The Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure (1859) was passed. The Indian High Court Act (1861) was enacted. Income Tax was introduced for the first time in 1858. 138

 The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras founded in 1857. The Indigo riots in Bengal Lord Elgin I (1862-63) Wahabi Movement (Pan-Islamic Movement) Sir John Lawrence (1864-69) Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe. High courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865. Expanded Canal works, railways. Bhutan War (1865) Advocated State-managed railways. Created the Indian Forests Department and reorganized the native judicial service Lord Mayo (1869-72) Introduced financial decentralization of in India and made the first Provincial settlement in 1870 He established the Rajkot College at Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes He organised the Statistical Survey of India He established the Department of Agriculture and Commerce He was the only viceroy to be murdered in office by a convict in the Andamans in 1872 Introduction of Slate Railways Lord Northbrook (1872-76) Kuka Movement of Punjab look rebellious turn during his period Lord Lytton (1878-80) (The viceroy of reverse character) Most unpopular Governor-General Pursued free trade and abolished duties on 29 British manufactured goods which accelerated drain of India . Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi (in 1877) when the country was suffering from a severe famine. Passed the Royal Title Act (1876) and Queen Victoria was declared as the Kaiser- a- Hind. Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms. Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878) Proposed the plan of Statutory Civil Service in 1878-79 and lowered the maximum age limit from 21 to 19 years. The 2nd Afgan war which proved a failure. Lord Rippon (1880-84) He was appointed by the Liberal Party under Gladstone. Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882.

139

 The first Factory Act, 1881 to improve labour condition. Resolution on Local sell Government in 1882. Resolution on Land revenue policy. Appointed Hunter Commission (for education reforms) in 1882. The Ilbert Bill controversy erupted during his time Lord Dufferin (1884-88) 3rd Burmese War (Annexation of upper & lower Burma; 1885). Establishment of the Indian National Congress; 1885. Lord Lansdowne (1888-94) The Factory Act of 1891 Catagorization of Civil Services into imperial, Provincial & subordinate Indian Council Act of 1892 (introduced elections which was indirect) Appointment of the Durand Commission lo define the line between British India and Afghanistan. Lord Elgin II (1894-1899) The Santhal Uprising of 1899 Convention delimiting the frontier between China and India was ratified Great famine of 1896-97 Lyll Commission appointed after famine Assassination of two British officials by the Chapekar brothers in 1897 Lord Curzon 1899-1905) Appointed a Police Commission in 1902 under Andrew Frazer Set up the Universities Commission and accordingly the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed Set up the Department of commerce and Industry Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper currency Act (in 1899) and put India on a gold standard. Partition of Bengal took place in 1905 (It was cardinal blunder of Curzon) In 1890, a Sino British convention was organised to demarcate the boundary of the two nations He created the new North West Frontier Province between the ministrative frontier and the Durand line Lord Minto II (1905-1910) Swadeshi Movement Surat session and split in the Congress (1907) Newspapers Act. 190S Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909 Foundation of the Muslim League. 1906

Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916) Annulment of the partition of Bengal 140

 Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi Durbar in Delhi and Coronation of George V and Queen Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya, 1915 Lord Chelmsford (1916-21) Home Rule Movement launched by Tilak and Annie Besant Lucknow Pact, 1916 between Congress and Muslim League Arrival of Gandhi. And Champaran Satyagraha : 1916 Montagues August Declaration (1917) 1918 Kheda Satyagraha and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad Government of India Act (1919) Constitutional Reform of 1919 Repressive Rowlatt Acts (1919) Massacre at Jalianwala Bagh (1919) Saddler Commission of Education in 1917 Khilafat Movement Non-Cooperation Movement

Lord Reading (1921-1926) Criminal Law Amendment Act and Abolition of cotton excise Repeal of Press Act (1910) &Rowlatt Act of 1919 Chauri-chaura incident Violent Mooplah rebellion in Kerala (1921) C.P.I founded in 1921 R.S.S founded in 1925 Nagpur Kakori robbery in 1925 Holding of the simultaneous examination for the ICS in England and India from 1923 Murder of Swami Sraddhanand Lord Irwin (1926-1931) Simon Commission (announced) 1927 Butler Commission in 1927 All India Youth Congress. 1928 Nehru Report, 1928 Lahore session of the congress and Poorna Swarj declaration Civil Disobedience Movement 1930 Dandi March (March 12th, 1930) 1st round Table Conference, 1930 Gandhi-Irwin Pact March 5, 1931

Lord Willingdon (1931-1936) Civil Disobedience Movement

141

 Lord Lord

Second Round Table Conference in September 1931 Announcement of Communal Award (1932) Third Round Table Conference, 1932 Foundation of Congress Socialist Party, 1934. Government of India Act ,1935 Burma separated from India, 1935 All India Kishan Sabha 1936 Linlithgow (1936-1944) 1st General Election (1936-37) Congress ministries, 1937 & Resignation of Congress Ministries 1939 Forward Block founded in 1939 Deliverance day by Muslim League 1939 Lahore Resolution, 1940 August offer, 1940 Cripps mission, 1942 Quit India Movement, 1942 Wavell (1943-1947) C.R. Formula 1944. Wavell plan and Shimla Conference m 1945 End of 2nd World War; 1945 INA Trails and the Naval mutiny. 1946 Cabinet Mission, 1946 and acceptance of its proposals by Congress. Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on the 16th August, 1946

Lord Mountbatten (Mar-Aug 1947) Announced the 3 June, 1947 plan. June 3rd Plan announced (3rd June 1947) Introduction of Indian Indepedence Bill in the House of Commons Appointment of 2 boundary commissions under Sir Cryil Radcliffe C Raj Gopalchari The last Governor General of free India The only Indian Governor General remained in office from 21st June, 1948 to 25th January, 1950. Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th-20th Socio-ReCleingtiuoruise sReform Movements and Organizations
Movement/Or ganisation Swaminarayan Sampradaya Year Place Gujarat Founder Swami Sahjananda Objectives Protest against epicurean and luxurious practices of Vaishnavism

142

(original name Atmiy aSabh 18151828 Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareilly R aja Ram M oha n R oy, Keshab Chandra Sen. Debendranath
Tagore

Calcutta

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

To propagate monotheism & reforms in the Hindu society Popularized the teachings of Waliullah; stressed role of individual conscience in religion. Emphasized on human dignity, opposed idolatry and criticized social evils as Sati

Wahabi

1820 Rohi 1828 lkha

Young Bengal Dharma Sabha Namdhari/ Kuka Movement Rahanumai Mazdayasan Sabha Radha Soami Satsang Prarthana Samaj Indian Reform Association Arya Samaj Theosophica l Society Deccan Education Seva Sadan Ramakrishna Mission

(18261832) 1830 18411871 1851

Calcutta

Derozio. Rasikkrishna Radha Kanta Deva

Opposed vices in the society; believed in truth, freedom, & reason; social reform Movement Found ed to counter Brahm o Sam aj .

Calcutta NWF Profince & Bhaini Bombay

Opposed to liberal and radical reforms, B h a i B a lak S in g h and Spread the true spirit of Sikhism . opposed to Baba Ram Singh all caste distinctions. S.S.Bangal i. Naoroji Fundonji, J.B.Nacha, A socio-religious organization of the Parsis founded for the restoration of Zoroastrian religion to its pristine glory and social regeneration of the Parsi community through Belief in one Supreme Being, religious unity, emphasis on simplicity of social life Reforming Hindu religious thought and practice in the light of modem knowledge Create public opinion against child marriages & for legalizing the Brahmo form of (Civil) marriage. Promote the intellectual and social

1861 1867

Agra Bombay

Tulsi ram also know n as S hiv Dayal Dr. Atmaram Pandurang Keshab Chandra Sen

1870

Calcutta

1875 1875 1884 1885 I887

Bombay New York Pune Bombay

Swami Dayananda

To reform Hindu religion in North India

Madam HP Blavatsky Advocated the revival & strengthening of & Col. H.S Olcott ancient religions of Hinduism, M.G.Ranade To contribute to the cause of education and . culture in Western India. The Society Behramji Campaign against child marriages and enforced M.Malabari widowhood and care for socially exploited Swami Vivekananda To carry on humanitarian relief and social work

Movement/ Orga nisation

Year Place

Founder

Objectives

143

Indian National Social Deva Samaj

1887

Bombay, M.G.Ranade and To focus attention on matters relating to Raghunath Rao social reforms. The social reform cell of the

1887 Lahore

Shiva Narain Agnihotri

ideas closer to Brahmo Samaj Asked his followers to follow social code of conduct and ethics, as not to accept bribe, indulge in gambling, and consume Movement concerned with the plight of widows and combat Devadasi System. Organization of the orthodox Hindus, also known as Sanatandharmis, to counter the teachings of the Arya To work for social reforms, & train "national missionaries for the service of India" establish institutions for the economic uplift and useful employment of women. w ork for social reform , selfless service to m ankind and educational progress of women. Founded India's first Women's University in Pune, 1916, first women's organization on all-India basis to further the cause of women's education and Social service and im prove the cond itions of th e com m on masses by opening schools, libraries dispensaries. Organize social service, promote education and reform criminal and fallen elements in society

Madras Hindu 1892 Madras Association Bharat Dharma1902 Mahamandala Varanasi

Viresalingam Pantalu

Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya Gopal Krishna Gokhale

The Servants 1905 of India Poona Seva Sadan 1909

Bombay

Pune

G.K. Devadharand Ramabai Ranade Dhondo Keshav Karve

1910 Pune Nisk am karm The Bharat Stri Mandal

1910 Calcutta

Saralabala Deve Choudharani Narayan Malhar Joshi

Social Service League Seva Samiti

1911

Bombay

1914

Pandit Allahaba Hridayanath d Kunzru Mrs Annie Besant

The Indian Women's

1917

Madras

Work for uplift of Indian women and ''to secure a larger a free and fuller life for them".

144

Association
Khudai Khidmatgar movement 1929 Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan Upliftment of people of Frontier & prepare them for attainment of independence.

Muslim Socio-Religious Movements and Organizations

Movement/ Year Organizatio n Faraizi or Faraidi Movement 1804 Place Founder Objectives

Faridpur, Bengal

Haji Shariatullah and Dudhi Miyan

Taayuni Movememt Deoband movement (A school of Islamic Thcology at Deoband Sharanpur,

UP)

1839

Dacca

Karamati Ali Jaunpur

Emphasis on strict monotheism and to rid the Muslim society of non-Islamic social customs, rituals and practices. Anti-landlord & antiBritish movement. O pposed to the Faraizi m ovem ent and supported the British rule.

IS67

Deoban d

Muhamman Qasim Nanautavi and Rashid Ahm ad Gangohi

Improve the spiritual and moral conditions of India Muslim. It supported the INC and was opposed to the pro-British Aligarh movement.

Movem ent/O rgani Aliga rh Movem ent

Ye ar 187 5

Place

Founder

Objectives

Aliga rh

Libe ra lizatio n of In d ian Islam an d m od ernization of In d ia n M u slim s SirSyed th rou g h re lig reinterpretation, social reform and modem education. Ahmad Khan U niversa l religion of all hum anity, op pos ed to Islam ic orthod oxy and Mirza spread ghulam of western liberal education among Indian Muslims. Ahmad of To reform the trad itional Islam ic syste m of ed uca tion, to stre ng the n Maulan H in d u-M uslim aShibli Numani Riza Khan & Ali to arouse nationalism among Indian Muslims.

Ahama diya Movem ent Nadwa tal Ulama Ahrar Movem ent

1889- Farid 1890 kot

1894 1895

Luck now

Against Aligarh Movement

Lower Caste/Caste Movements and Organizations

145

Movem e nt/Org Satya Shodha k Aravip puram Moveme nt

Year 1873

Place

Founde r

Objectives Opposed to untouchability, priestly or Brahmin domination, belief in social equality and uplift of the lower castes by educating them. O pposed to religio us disa bilities aga inst low er castes, believed in social eq uality, attacked Brahm in dom ination and w orked for the uplift of low er caste s b y ed uca ting the m . D e m a n d ed free entry of th e pe op le of low er cas temples. Sam e as above. In 1920. TK.M adhavan launched the tem ple entry m ovem ent. Lau nch ed by the Prarthana Sam a j as an Indep en dent association to organize education facilities for lower castes. O pposed to exploitation of the low er castes by the upp er caste Brahm ins, landlords, merchants and moneylenders Opposed to Brahmin predominance in education, services and polities To propagate the gospel of social equality among caste Hindus and untouchables. Demanded constitutional safeguards for the depressed classe Anti-Brahmin and Hindu Orthodoxy radical movement, advocated ,Weddings without priests, forcible tem ple entry, total defiance of Hindu social laws and also theism

Mahara Jyotiba shtra

1888

Phule Aravipp Shri uram Kerala Narayan Guru (18561928)

Shri Narayan The Depre Bahujan

1902-

Kerala

S h

1906

Bombay V.R.Sh inde Satar a, Mukund rao C .

1910

Justice

191516

Madr as,

Depr essed

1924

Bambay Dr.B.R . Ambedk

SelfRespect Moveme Harija nSevak Sangh Dravida Munetra

1925

Madr as (Tam ilna

E.V.Ra Maswam i Naicke Mahat ma Gandhi

1932

Pune

O rganiza tion for rem oval of untouchability & social discrim inations a gainst untouchables and other lower castes. Provide medical, educational and technical facilities to untouchables.

1944

C.N Annadu rai & Ramasw

Social equality.

Peasant Movements
Movement Titu Mir's Region West Bengal Year 17821731 Leader Objective Against Hindu landlords who im posed M ir Nathar Ali or Titu bea

146

Movement Pagal Panthis movement Moplah Uprisings 1825Hajong & Garo tribes 1835 Mymensingh district, Malabar

Mir Karam Shah & Tipu Shah

lax on the Farazis. Ag ainst hike in rents; the m ovem ent w as violently suppressed. Against rise in revenue demand and reduction of field size.

18361854 18591869 Degambar and Bishnu Biswas

Indigo Revolt

Nadia district

Against terms imposed by European indigoplanters; Indigo Commission (I860) set up to view the situation.

Deccan Peasants' Kardeh village and Uprising Poona in Phadke's Ramosi Uprising Pabna Agrarian Uprising Pabna district, East Bengal (now in Bangladesh) Maharashtra Ramosi,Maharashtra

1875

Against corrupt moneylenders (Gujarati &Marwari); Agriculturists' Relief Act

18771887 1873

( 1879) passed Wasudeo Balwanl Phadke Against the British failure to take up anti-famine measures.

Shah Chandra Roy, , Against policies of zam indars to pre Shambhu Pa Khoodi occupants from acquiring occupancy Mollah and supported b rights, Bengal tenancy Act (1885) passe

Newspapers and Journals Name of the Paper/Journal Name of Founder/Editor Bengal Gazette 1780 James Augustus Hicky (Irishman) India Gazette 1787 Henry Louis Vivian Derozio associated with it. Madras Courier 1784 (First paper from Madras) Bombay Herald 1789 -- (First paper from Bombay) Indian Herald 1795 R. Williams (Englishman) and published by Humphreys Digdarshna 1818 (First Bengali monthly) Calcutta Journal 1818 J.S. Buckingham Bengal Gazette 1818 Harishchandra Ray (First Bengali newspaper) Sambad Kaumudi 1821 Raja Rammohan Roy Marat-ul-Akbar 1822 Raja Rammohan Roy (First journal in Persian) Jam-I-Jahan Numah 1822 An English firm (First paper in Urdu) Banga-Duta 1822 Rammohan Roy, (a weekly in 4 languages Dwarkanath Tagorc and others English, Bengali, Persian, Hindi) Bombay Samochar 1822 (First paper in Gujarati) East Indian 19th century Henry Vivian Derozio Bombay Times 1838 Foundation laid by Robert Knight, (The Times of India after 1861) stated by Thomas Bennett. Rast Goftar 1851 Dadabhai Naoroji

147

Hindu Patriot 1853 Girishchandra Ghosh (later, Harishchandra Mukerji became owner cum-editor) Spmaprakasha 1858 Dwarkanath Vidyabhushan (First Bengali political paper) Indian Mirror Early 1862 Devendranalh Tagore (first Indian daily paper in English) Bengalee 1862 Girishchandra Ghosh (taken over By S.N.Banerjeain 1879) Madras Mail1868 (First evening paper in India) Anirila Bazar Patrika 1868 Sisirkumar Ghosh & (In Bengali and later, an English daily) Molilal Ghosh Bangadarshana 1873 Bankimchandra Chatterji Indian Statesman 1875 Robert Knight (later, The Statesman) The Hindu 1878 G.S Aiyar, Viraraghavachari and Subba Rao Pandit Tribune 1881 Dayal Singh Majeetia Name of the Paper/Journal Name of Founder/Editor Kesari and Maharatta 1881 Tilak, Chiplunkar, Agarkar (before Tilak, Agarkar and Prof Kelkar were the editors respectively) Swadeshamitram G.S. Aiyar Paridasak 1886 Bipin Chandra Pal (publisher) Yugantar 1906 Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta Sandhya 1906 Brahamabandhab Upadhyay Kal 1906 -Indian Sociologist London Shyamji Krishnavarama Bantle Mataram Paris Madam Bhikaji Cama Talvar Berlin Verendranath Chattopadhyay Free Hindustan Vancouver Tarakanth Das Ghadr San Francisco Ghadr Party Bombay Chronicle 1913 Phcrozeshah Mehta. EditorB.G. Horniman(Englishman) The Hindustan Times 1920 K.M. Panikkar as part of the Akali Dal Movement The Milap 1923 M.K.Chand Leader... Madan Mohan Malaviya Kirti 1926 Santosh Singh Bahishkrit Bharat 1927B.R. Ambcdkar Kudi Arasu 1910 E.V.Ramaswamy Naicfcer (Periyar) Kranti 1927 S.S. Mirajkar, K.N.Joglekar, S.VGhatc Langal and Ganabani 1927 Gopu Chakravarli and Dharani Goswami Bandi Jivan Sachmdranath Sanyal National Herald 1938 Jawaharal Nehru Al-hilal Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Comrade Mohammed Ali Young India, Harijan Mahatma Gandhi Nation Gopalakrishna Gokhlc Bengali Surendernath Banerjee Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

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Karmyogi Arvindo Ghosh Free Hindustan Taraknath Das Zamindar, Lahore Zafar Ali Khan New India, Commonweal Annie Besant Satpatra Series Gopal Hari Deshmukh Din Mitra Mukundrao Patil Kudi Arasu Periyar Ghulamgiri (Slavery) Jotirao Phule Marathu, Din Bandhu Bhaskar Rao Jadhav Darpan Bal Shaslri Jambekar Prabhudha Bharat, Udbodhava Vivekananda Important Acts The Regulating Act, 1773 First attempt by the British Parliament to regulate the affairs of the Company. End of Dual Government. Provided for centralization of Administration of Companys territories in Indian. Governor of Bengal became Governor-general for all British territories in India. Governor General and council of 4 members appointed for Bengal. Bombay and Madras Presidency subordinated to Bengal presidency. Supreme court to be set up at Calcutta. The Pitts India Act, 1784 This Act gave the British government the supreme control over Companys affairs and its administration in India. Established dual system of governance. Court of directors consisting of 24 members to look after commercial functions. Board of control consisting of 6 parliamentary Commissioners appointed to control civil, military and revenue affairs of India. Strength of Governor general-in council reduced to 3. Subordinated the Bombay and Madras presidency to Bengal in all questions of war, diplomacy & revenues. First effective substitution of Parliamentary Control over East India Company. The Charter Act of 1793 Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years. Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian Revenue. Governor-General could override his Council. The Charter Act of 1813

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 Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China. All Englishmen could trade with India subject to few restrictions. Rules and procedures made for use of Indian revenue. A sum of Rs 1 lakh earmarked annually for education. The Charter Act of 1833 End of companys trade monopoly even in tea and with China. Company was asked to close its business at the earliest. Governor-General of Bengal to be Governor-General of India. (1st Governor-General of India-Lord William Benick). Govt. of Madras and Bombay deprived of legislative powers. A fourth member, law member added to council of Governor-General. Government Service was thrown open to the people of India. All laws made by Governor General-in-council henceforth to be known as Acts and not regulations. The Charter Act of 1853 Extended life of the Company for an unspecified period. First time separate legislative machinery consisting of 12 member legislative council was created. Law member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor-General Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competitive examination. (excluding Indians) The Govt of India Act, 1858 Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began. System of double Government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished. Secretary of Stale (a member of the British Cabinet) for India was created. He was assisted by a 15-member council (India Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown. Secretary of State governed India through the Governor-General. Governor-General was to be called the Viceroy and was the direct representative of the Crown in India. A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created. The Indian Council Act, 1861 Policy of Association of Indians in legislation started. A filth member who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroys executive council. For legislation, executive Council ol Viceroy was enlarged by 6 to 12 members composed of half non-official members. Thus foundations of Indian legislature were laid down.

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 Legislative powers of the Presidency Government deprived in 1833 were restored. Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency. The Indian Council Act, 1892 Though the majority of official members were retained, the non-official members of the Indian Legislative Council were Bengal Chamber of Commerce and the Provincial Legislative Councils. While the non-official members of the provincial council were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities, district boards, municipalities. Beginning of representative system in India Council to have the power to discuss budget and of addressing questions to the Executive. Indian Council Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Act) Morley was the secretary of state, while Minto was the Indian Victory. Additional members in central legislative assembly were increased to 60 Introduced for the first time indirect elections to the Legislative Councils. Separate electorates was introduced for the muslims. non-official seats were to be filled in by elections. They were distributed as follows By non-official members of the Provincial Legislative councils. By landholders of 6 provinces By Muslims of 5 provinces Alternately by Muslim landholders of Up/Bengal Chambers of commerce of Calcutta and Bombay. Muslim were to be elected by Separate electorates. Resoultions could be moved before the budget was taken in its final form. Supplementary questions could be asked. The Govt. of India Act, 1919 Popularly known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. The idea of Responsible Government was emphasised upon. Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided into two categories-Central and Provincial. Subjects of all India importance (like railways & finance) were brought under the category of Central, while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as provincial. Dyarchy system introduced in the Provinces. The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories Transferred and Reserved subjects. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of Ministers responsible to the Legislative Council. The Governor and his Executive Council were to administer the reserved

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subjects (Rail, Post, Telegraph, Finance, Law & Order, etc.) without any responsibility to the legislature. An office of the High commissioner of India was created in London. Indian legislature became bicameral for the first lime. Communal representation extended to Sikhs. Secretary of State for India now to be paid from British revenue. Indian Independence Act, 1947 This Act did not lay down any provision for the administration of India Partition of India and the establishment of two dominions of India and Pakistan. Constituent Assembly of each Dominion would have unlimited powers to frame and adopt any constitution The Suzerainty of the crown over Indian stales was terminated. The office of the Secretary of Slate for India was to be abolished and his work was to be taken over by the Secretary of Stale for Commonwealth Affairs. The Govt. of India Act, 1935 The Act was based on 2 basic principles, federation and parliamentary system. Provided for the establishment of an All India federation consisting of the British Provinces and the Princely States. The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come into existence. Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g. department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for the Governor General). Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces. They were granted separate legal identity. It made a three-fold division of powers - Federal, Provincial and concurrent lists. Residuary powers were to be with the Governor General. The Indian Council of Secretary of State for India was abolished. Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans. A Federal Court was to be constituted with a chief Justice and 10 other judges. This was set up in 1937. Sind and Orissa were created. Franchise was based on property qualifications. HISTORY AT A GLANCE India's Freedom Struggle 1905 Partition of Bengal announced to come in force from Oct. 15. 1906. 1906, Dec 31 Muslim League founded at Decca 1908, Apr JO Khudiram Bose executed. 1908, Jul 22 Tilak sentenced to six years on charges of sedition. 1909, Max 21 Minto-Morely Reforms or Indian councils Act, 1909.

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1911 The coronation or Delhi durbar held at Delhi in which the partition of Bengal was cancelled. 1912 Delhi becomes the new capital of India. 1912,Dec 23 Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge on his state entry into Delhi. 1913, Nov 1 Ghadar party formed at San Francisco 1914, Jan 16 B.G.Tilak released from jail 1914, Aug 4 Outbreak of the 1st World War. 1914, Sept 29 Komagata Marti ship reaches Budge Budge. 1915, Jan Gandhiji arrives in India. 1915, Feb 19 Death of Gopal Krishna Gokhale. 1916, Apr 28 B.G. Tilak founds Indian Home Rule League with its headquarters at Poona. 1916. Sept 25 Another Home Rule League started by Annie Besant. 1917. Apr Mahatma Gandhi launches the Champaran campaign in Bihar to focus attention on the grievances of indigo planters. 1917, Aug 20 The Secretary of State for India Montagu, declares that the goal of the British government in India is the introduction of Responsible Government. 1918 Beginning of trade union movement in India. 1918, Apr Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report. Rowlatt Bill introduces on February 16, 1919. 1919, Apr 6 All India hartal over Rowlatl Bills. 1919, Apr 3 Jallianwalas Bagh tragedy 1919, Dec 5 The House of Commons passes the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms or the Government of India Act, 1919. The new reforms under this Act came into operation in 1921. 1920 First meeting of the All India Trade Union congress. (Narain Malhar Joshi) 1920. Dec The Indian national Congress (INC) adopts (he Non-Cooperation Resolution. (Started in Aug 31, 1920) 1920-22 Non-Cooperation Movement, suspended on February 11-12, 1922 after the violent incidents at Chauri Chaura on February 5,1922/y22, Aug Moplah rebellion on the Malabar coast. 1923 Jan 1 Swarajist Party formed by Motilal Nehru and

NATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Part 1 The Indian National Congress: Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant. First session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it). In the first two decades (1885 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity. But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal). 153

Partition of Bengal: By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal. The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims. A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905. Swadeshi Movement (1905): Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role. INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale. Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places. Formation of Muslim League (1906): Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special safeguards to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims. Demand for Swaraj: In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted Swaraj (Self-govt) as the goal of Indian people. Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907): The INC split into two groups The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale. Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909): Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims. Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Governments side. Ghadar Party (1913): Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.

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 HQ was at San Francisco. Home Rule Movement (1916): Started by B.G.Tilak(April, 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916). Objective: Self government for India in the British Empire. Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of Linguistic States and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it. Lucknow Pact (1916): Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings among Muslims. Both INC and Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted the separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government and dominion status for the country). Part 2 August Declaration (1917): After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire. This came to be called the August Declaration. Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919): This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain. Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919): People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919. General O Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar. As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured. Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroys Executive Council after this. Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it. On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed ODyer when the later was 155

addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London. Khilafat Movement (1920): Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the treaty that followed the First World War. Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement. Non-cooperation Movement (1920): It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji. Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920. Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): A mob of people at Chauri Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922. This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922. Simon Commission (1927): Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy. Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it. The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathicharge. He succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928. Lahore Session (1929): On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal. On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an.26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year. Revolutionary Activities: The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot. In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second international). In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of kingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case). 156

 In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of India Office in London. In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case). In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur. They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA). They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the SaharanpurLucknow railway line on Aug. 9, 1925. Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928. Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 at Lahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur. In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail. Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933. In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.

Part - 3 Dandi March (1930): Also called the Salt Satyagraha. Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law. He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930. He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement. First Round Table conference (1930): It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission. Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there. Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931): Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government. The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact 157

on March 5, 1931. In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference. The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast. Second Round Table Conference (1931): Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald. However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates was demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo Indians. The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932): Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British. Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, women and even Backward classes. Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it. Poona Pact (September 25, 1932): After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meeting took place almost everywhere. Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became active. Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932). In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased. Third Round Table Conference (1932): Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935. Demand For Pakistan: In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation. Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1923. Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.

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 Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940. The Cripps Mission 1942: In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S E Asia. The British govt. with a view to getting co-operation from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders. He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted after the war. Rejected by the Congress as it didnt want to rely upon future promises. Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank. Part - 4 The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement: Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt. The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan Do or Die. On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were arrested. The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout the country. The movement was however crushed. The Indian National Army: Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh. S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him. The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia. Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore). INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force. The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir 159

Stafford Cripps and A.V.Alexander) will visit India. The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals. On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested. Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it. Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946): Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L.Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President. Jinnahs Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946): Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly. Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946. It passed a Direct action resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communal riots. Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946): The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president. Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of Indias political problem. The outlines of the Plan were: India to be divided into India and Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held. There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution. The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent. Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.

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 The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan. Partition and Independence (Aug 1947): All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan. At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely States in India. Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French. Constitutional Development Regulating Act, 1773: End of Dual govt. Governor of Bengal to be the Governor General of British territories of India. Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta. Pitts Act of 1784: This Act gave the British Government a measure of control over the companys affairs. In fact, the company became a subordinate department of the State. Act of 1786: Governor General given the power to over-ride the Council and was made the Commander-in-chief also. Charter Act of 1793: Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years. It laid the foundation of govt. by written laws, interpreted by courts. Charter Act of 1813: Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China. Charter Act of 1833: End of Companys monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company was asked to close its business at the earliest. Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India (1st Governor General of India was Lord William Bentinck). Charter Act of 1853: 161

 The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories in trust of the British crown. Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians). Government of India Act, 1858: Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began. A post of Secretary of State (a member of the British cabinet) for India created. He was to exercise the powers of the Crown. Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General. Governor General received the title of Viceroy. He represented Secretary of State and was assisted by an Executive Council, which consisted of high officials of the Govt. Indian Council Act, 1861: The Executive Council was now to be called Central Legislative Council. Indian Council Act, 1892: Indians found their way in the Provincial Legislative Councils. Indian Council Act, 1909 or Morley-Minto Act: It envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims. Government of India Act, 1919 Or Montague-Chelmsford Reforms: Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into 2 categories: Transferred and Reserved. The Transferred subjects were to be administrated by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects without any responsibility to the legislature. Indian legislature became bicameral for the first time, it actually happened after 1935 Act. Government of India Act, 1935: Provided for the establishment of All-India Federation consisting of the British Provinces and the Princely States. The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come into existence. Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (Eg, Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for the Governor General). Provincial autonomy 162

replaced Dyarchy in provinces. They were granted separate legal identify. Burma (now Myanmar) separated from India. Viceroys Of India Lord Canning (1856 1862): The last Governor General and the first Viceroy. Mutiny took place in his time. On Nov, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown. Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857. Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861. Lord Elgin (1862 1863) Lord Lawrence (1864 1869): Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe. High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865. Expanded canal works and railways. Created the Indian Forest department. Lord Mayo (1869 1872): Started the process of financial decentralization in India. Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes. For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871. Organised the Statistical Survey of India. Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872. Lord Northbrook (1872 1876): Lord Lytton (1876 1880): Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters. Organised the Grand Delhi Durbar in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of Kaiser I Hind. Arms Act(1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms. Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878). Lord Ripon (1880 1884): Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians. Repeated the Vernacular Press Act (1882) Passed the local self government Act (1882) 163

 Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter Commissions recommendations). The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour. Passed the libert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals. But this was withdrawn later. Lord Dufferin (1884 1888): Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure. Lord Lansdowne (1888 1894): II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men. Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate. Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed. Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan. Lord Elgin II (1894 1899): Great famine of 1896 1897. Lyall Commission was appointed. Lord Curzon (1899 1905): Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control over the Universities was increased. Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces 1, Bengal (proper), 2.East Bengal & Assam. Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every province. The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897 98 led him to create the North Western Frontier Province(NWFP). Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904), to restore Indias cultural heritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was established. Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put India on a gold standard. Extended railways to a great extent. Lord Minto (1905 1910): There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Laipat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay jail in

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Burma. The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley Minto Reforms was passed. Lord Hardinge (1910 1916): Held a durbar in dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V. Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911), capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). A bomb was thrown at him; but he escaped unhurt (Dec 23, 1912). Gandhiji came back to India from S.Africa (1915). Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement. Lord Chelmsford (1916 1921): August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people. The government of India Act in 1919 (Montague Chelmsford reforms) was passed. Rowlatt Act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919). Non Cooperation Movement. An Indian Sir S.P.Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal. A Womens university was founded at Poona in 1916. Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy. Lord Reading (1921 1926): Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of 1910. Suppressed non-cooperation movement. Prince of Wales visited India in Nov.1921. Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala. Ahmedabad session of 1921. Formation of Swaraj Party. Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922. Communist part was founded in 1921 by M.N.Roy. Kakory Train Robbery on Aug 9, 1925. Communal riots of 1923 25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc. Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy. Lord Irwin (1926 1931): Simon Commission visited India in 1928. Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929. Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930). 165

 Civil Disobedience Movement (1930). First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930. Gandhi Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobediance Movement was withdrawn. Martydorm of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929). Lord Willington (1931 1936): Second Round Table conference in London in 1931. On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in Jan 1932. Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against this division. Third Round Table conference in 1932. Poona Pact was signed. Government of India Act (1935) was passed. Lord Linlithgow (1936 1944): Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League observed the days as Deliverance Say (22 December) Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India. Outbreak of World War II in 1939. Cripps Mission in 1942. Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942). Lord Wavell (1944 1947): Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League; failed. Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946). Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Govt. was appointed under Nehru. First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946. Lord Mountbatten (Mar.1947 Aug.1947): Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India. Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan. Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947. 166

 Retried in June 1948 and was succeeded by C.Rajagopalachari (the first and the last Indian Governor General of free India). Study Material : General Studies On Indian History About Governor Generals of India Lord William Bentinck (1828 1835): Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and elimination of thugs (1830). Made English the Medium of higher education in the country (After the recommendations of Macaulay). Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice. Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India. Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal. Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835 1836): Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the Press). Lord Auckland (1836 1842): The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English. Lord Ellenborough (1842 1844) Lord Hardinge I (1844 1848) Lord Dalhousie (1848 1856): Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane). Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra). Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854). Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which made communication easier. Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed. Made Shimla the summer capital. 167

 Started Engineering College at Roorkee. Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry. In 1854, Woods Dispatch was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the primary school to the university. Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagars efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856). Social and Cultural Uprising Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Criticized Sati Pratha, casteism and advocated widow remarriage. He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education, because he thought it would keep the country in darkness. Other important leaders were Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Keshap Chandra Sen. Arya Samaj: Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, Moolshankar) in 1875. His motto was Go back to the vedas & India for the Indians. He disregarded Puranas, idol worship, casteism and untouchability. He advocated widow remarriage. Dayanands views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya. Ramakrishna Mission: Founded by Vivekanand (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863 1902) in 1897, 11 years after the death of his guru Ram Krishna Paramhans. Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893. Irish woman Margaret Nobel (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized it. Young Bengal Movement: Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31). He was a teacher in Hindu College in Calcutta. He urged the students to live and die for truth. He also supported womens education and their rights. Veda Samaj:

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 Veda Samaj called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by Sridharalu Naidu. He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu. Dharma Sabha: Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830. Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy, but played an active role in promoting western education even to girls. Lokahitawadi: Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He advocated female education for the upliftment of women. As a votary of national self-reliance, he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth. Servants of India Society: Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915. It did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribal. Radhaswami Movement: Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj. The sect preached belief in one supreme being, the Gurus supreme position and a simple social life for the believers (the Satsangis). Theosophical Society: Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture. Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col.M.S. Olcott of the US Army joined her. In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar (Tamil Nadu). Annie Besant was elected its president in 1907. She founded the Central Hindu College in 1898, which became Banaras Hindu University in 1916. Study Material : General Studies On Indian History About Jainism Jainism founded by Rishabha. There were 24 Tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all Kshatriyas. First was Rishabhnath (Emblem: Bull). The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras.

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The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion). He was born in kundagram (Distt Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC. His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali. Mahavira was related to Bimbisara. Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple. At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic. In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (kaivalya). From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy. At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC. Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it. Buddhism

The Buddha: The Buddha also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata. Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal. His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler. His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynastry) died after 7 days of his birth. Brought up by stepmother Gautami. Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13years and had a son named Rahula. After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer. Left his palace at 29 in search of truth (also called Mahabhinishkramana or The Great Renunication) and wandered for 6 years. Attained Enlightenment at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree. Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called Dharmachakrapracartan or Turning of the Wheel of Law. Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80 in the Malla republic. Buddhist Councils: First Council: At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under the Chairmanship of Mehakassaapa (king was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas-Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. 170

Second Council: At Vaishali, in 383 BC under Sabakami (King was Kalasoka).Followers divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas. Third Council: At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Mogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka) In this, the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language. Fourth council: At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka, Vice-Chairman was Ashwaghosha). Divided Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects. Buddist Literature: In Pali language. Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of discipline in the Buddhist monasteries. Sutta Pitaka: Largest, contains collection of Buddhas sermons. Abhidhamma Pitaka: Explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion

Year 1885, 1882 1886 1893 1906 1887 1888 1889 1890 1895, 1902

HISTROY OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS Venue President Bombay , Allahaba W.C.Bannerji d Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji Lahore " Calcutta " Madras Badruddin Tyyabji (fist Muslim President) Allahabad George Yule (first English President) Bombay Sir William Wedderburn Calcutta Sir Feroze S.Mehta Poona , S.N.Banerjee Ahmedabad 171

1905 1907, 1908 1909 1916 1917 1919 1920 1921,19 22 1923 1924 1925 1928 1929 1931 1932, 1933 1934 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1946 1948

Banaras Surat , Madras Lahore Lucknow Calcutta Amritsar Calcutta (sp.sessio n) Ahmedabad, Gaya Delhi (sp.session) Belgaon Kanpur Calcutta Lahore Karachi Delhi , Calcutta Bombay Lucknow Faizpur Haripura Tripuri Ramgarh Meerut Jaipur

G.K.Gokhale Rasbehari Ghosh M.M.Malviya A.C.Majumdar (Re-union of the Congress) Annie Besant (first woman President) Motilal Nehru Lala Lajpat Rai C.R.Das Abdul Kalam Azad (youngest President) M.K.Gandhi Sarojini Naidu (first Indian woman President) Motilal Nehru (first All India Youth Congress Formed) J.L.Nehru (Poorna Swaraj resolution was passed) Vallabhbhai Patel (Here, resolution on Fundamental rightsand the National Economic Program was passed) (Session Banned) Rajendra Prasad J.L.Nehru J.L.Nehru (first session in a village) S.C.Bose (a National Planning Committed set-up underJ.L.Nehru). S.C.Bose was re-elected but had to resign due to protestby Gandhiji (as Gandhiji supported Dr.Pattabhi Sitaramayya). Rajendra Prasadwas appointed in his place. Abdul Kalam Azad Acharya J.B.Kriplani Dr.Pattabhi Sitaramayya.

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