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1
dEI;wVj dk fodkl ,oa ihf<;k
(Evolution and Generations of Computers)
dEI;wVj dk fodkl (Evolution of Computers)
foy{k.k {kerk rFkk Rofjr xfr okyk vk/kqfud dEI;wVj dksbZ ,slk vkfo"dkj ugha gS tks
fdlh vdsys O;fDr ds efLr"d dh mit gksA vkkqfud dEI;wVj dh ladYiuk dks lkdkj gksus esa
gtkjksa o"kZ yxs gSaA ;g fiNys dbZ gtkj o"kksZa esa vusd O;fDr;ksa }kjk fd, x, vufxur vkfo"dkjksa]
fopkjksa rFkk fodkl dk lefUor ifj.kke gSA
yxHkx 3000 o"kZ bZlk iwoZ esa ehlksiksVkfe;k ds yksxksa us vutkus esa gh dEI;wVj ;qx dh uhao
j[khA mUgksaus eudksa vkSj rkj ls fxurh fxuus dk lcls igyk midj.k cuk;kA yxHkx 600 o"kZ bZlk
iwoZ esa phfu;ksa us bl midj.k esa dqN lq/kkj fd, ftlls bl midj.k }kjk x.kuk djuk vkSj vklku
gks x;kA bl midj.k dks ,csdl (Abacus) dgk x;kA ml le; phu ds vykok tkiku esa Hkh bl
midj.k dk mi;ksx gqvk djrk FkkA tkikuh bls lkjkscku (Saroban) dgrs FksA ;g tkuuk #fpdj
gksxk fd cgqr ls phuh yksx vkt Hkh vius jkstkuk ds O;kikfjd vkSj ysu&nsu ds dkeksa esa ,csdl
dk gh mi;ksx djrs gSaA 1991 esa phu esa ,csdl dh tkudkjh j[kus okyksa dh ,d izfr;ksfxrk gqbZ
ftlesa 24 yk[k yksxksa us Hkkx fy;kA vusd phuh yksxksa dk dguk gS fd ,csdl dEI;wVj ls Hkh T;knk
rst gSA gekjs ns'k esa Hkh izkFkfed fo|ky;ksa dh izkjfEHkd d{kk esa cPpksa dks vad xf.kr ds fl)kUr
le>kus esa bldk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
dEI;wVj foKku /2
fp=
dEI;wVj foKku /3
lu 1801 esa tSdkMZ (Jacuard) us diM+s cquus dh e'khu dk vkfo"dkj fd;k ftls ywe
(Loom) dgk x;kA bl e'khu dh ;g fo'ks"krk Fkh fd blesa diM+s ds iSVuZ dks dkMZ&cksMZ ds fNnz
;qDr iap dkMksZa }kjk fu;fU=r fd;k tkrk FkkA bl fl)kUr dk mi;ksx ckn esa dEI;wVj esa lwpuk
dks iapdkMZ ij laxzfgr djus esa fd;k tkus yxkA
dEI;wVj foKku /4
dEI;wVj foKku /5
lu 1887 esa vesfjdk ds geZu gkWysfjFk (Herman Hollerith) us lcls igyh fo|qr
;kfU=d dkMZ iap lkj.kh e'khu (Electro Mechanical Card Punch Tabulating Machine)
cuk;hA bl e'khu esa cSVjh ls lapkfyr fLop vkSj fx;j Fks tks vR;f/kd vkokt fd;k djrs
FksA gkWysfjFk dh bl e'khu esa iap dkMZ dk mi;ksx gksrk FkkA mUgksaus dksM fodflr fd, Fks
ftUgsa gkWysfjFk dksM dgrs gSaA bu dksM ds }kjk iap dkMZ eas lwpuk dks laxzg djuk lEHko gks
x;kA iap dkMZ dks VkbijkbVj tSlh e'khu ls iap fd;k tkrk FkkA iap dkMZ dEI;wVj esa lwpuk
fuos'k (Input) dk lcls iqjkuk ek;e gSA
dEI;wVj foKku /6
dEI;wVj foKku /7
bysDVkfud
vc rd fodflr dEI;wVj fo|qr&;kfU=d FksA buesa dbZ xEHkhj dfe;ka FkhaA ,d rks budh
dk;Z xfr /kheh Fkh nwljs ;kfU=d dyiqtksZa ds dkj.k buesa lwpukvksa dk lapkj fo'oluh; ugha gksrk
FkkA buds vykok dksbZ Hkh fo'ks"k vfHkdyu djus ls iwoZ dEI;wVj dks ml dk;Z ls lEcfU/kr funsZ'k
nsus ds fy, cgqr lkjs fLopksa vkSj ;kaf=d fx;jksa dks gkFk ls lek;ksftr djuk iM+rk FkkA QyLo:i
dEI;wVj dh vis{kk vkijsVj dks dgha vf/kd dke djuk iM+rk FkkA vr% vc oSKkfudksa dk lkjk /
;ku ,d bysDVkfud dEI;wVj fodflr djus ij dsfUnzr gks x;k tks T;knk rst gksus ds lkFk&lkFk
vf/kd fo'oluh; Hkh gks vkSj mlls dke djus esa vf/kd Je Hkh u djuk iM+sA bysDVkfud dEI;wVj
esa xfr'khyrk ek= bysDVkUl dh gksrh gSA bysDVkUl dk lapj.k vR;f/kd fo'oluh; ,oa rhoz xfr
ls gksrk gS ftlls dEI;wVj dh xfr c<+us ds lkFk&lkFk mldh fo'oluh;rk Hkh c<+ tkrh gSA
bysDVkfud dEI;wVj ij dk;Z djuk Hkh vklku gksrk gSA
fiNys lkB o"kksZa esa bysDVkfud dEI;wVj dh ubZ&ubZ rduhdh dk fodkl cM+h rsth ls gqvk
gSA budk fodkl bruh rsth ds lkFk gqvk gS fd ikap lky iqjkuk ekWMy ,sfrgkfld oLrq cu dj
jg x;k gSA
dEI;wVj foKku /8
ts- izsLij ,dVZ (J. Presper Eckert) rFkk tkWu epyh (John Mauchly) us cuk;kA bldk iwjk uke
Eletronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator FkkA ;g 50 QqV yEck rFkk 30 QqV pkSM+k FkkA
bldk otu 30 Vu Fkk vkSj blesa 18]000 oSD;we V~;wcksa dk mi;ksx gqvk FkkA bls lapkfyr djus
ds fy, 1]50]000 okV fctyh dh vko';drk gksrh FkhA
dEI;wVj foKku /9
ekbksizkslslj vk/kkfjr bl ih<+h ds dEI;wVjksa dh dk;Z djus dh xfr vdYiuh; <ax ls c<+h
gSA budh {kerk] eSeksjh vkSj fo'oluh;rk esa Hkh vk'p;Ztud o`f) gqbZ gSA cgq vk;keh gksus ds dkj.k
mi;qDr izksxzkfeax ds }kjk budk dk;Z {ks= vR;f/kd foLr`r gks x;k gSA ;s lgh vFkksZa esa iw.kZ tujy
ijit dEI;wVj (Totally General Purpose Computer) gaSA thou dk 'kk;n gh ,slk dksbZ {ks= cpk
gS tgka fd budk mi;ksx ugha gks jgk gksA vkt budh dher Hkh bruh de gks xbZ gS fd ,d lk/
kkj.k O;fDr Hkh ,d ?kjsyw dEI;wVj dk [kpZ ogu dj ldrk gSA
vkdkj ds vk/kkj ij bl ih<+h ds dEI;wVj ekbks dEI;wVj MsLdVkWi] ySi VkWi] ike VkWi]
feuh dEI;wVj] esu se dEI;wVj rFkk lqij dEI;wVj esa oxhZd`r fd;s tkrs gaSA
egRoiw.kZ fcUnq%
1- vk/kqfud dEI;wVj dh ladYiuk dks lkdkj gksus esa gtkjksa o"kZ yxs gSaA ;g fiNys dbZ gtkj o"kksZa
esa vusd O;fDr;ksa }kjk fd, x, vufxur vkfo"dkjksa] fopkjksa rFkk fodkl dk lefUor ifj.kke
gSA
2- x.kuk ds fy, loZizFke mi;ksx esa vkus okyk midj.k ,csdl (Abacus) Fkk ftldk vfo"dkj
phu esa gqvkA
3- 17oha 'krkCnh ds izkjEHk esa LdkVyS.M ds xf.krK tkWu usfi;j us ykqx.kd (Logarithm) cuk;k
rFkk ckn esa usfi;lZ cksUl uked x.kuk djus okyh ,d ,slh ;qfDr cukbZ tks cM+h&cM+h rFkk
n'keyo okyh la[;kvksa dk vklkuh ls xq.kk dj ldrh FkhA
4- 1642 esa Cyst ikLdy us fo'o dk igyk ;kfU=d dsydqysVj cuk;k tks n'keyo iz.kkyh dh tksM+
ckdh dj ldrk FkkA bls ikLdykbu uke fn;k x;kA
5- vk/kqfud dEI;wVj dh ladYiuk dks izfrikfnr djus okys pkYlZ cScst FksA bUgs dEI;wVj ds tud
(Father of Computer) dgk tkrk gSA
6- pkYlZ cScst us 1821 eas fMQjsal baftu rFkk 1833 esa ,usysfVdy baftu cuk, ftUgsa vk/kqfud
dEI;wVjksa ds iwoZt dgk tk ldrk gSA
7- 1887 esa geZu gkWysfjFk us fo|qr ;kfU=d dkMZ iap VscqysfVax e'khu cukbZ ftldk mi;ksx 1890
esa vesfjdk ds tu x.kuk foHkkx }kjk tux.kuk lEcUkh vkadM+ksa dks ladfyr djus ds fy, fd;k
x;kA
8- 1943 esa vesfjdk ds gkoZMZ fo'ofo|ky; ds HkkSfrd foKkuh gkoMZ vkbdu us IBM ds lg;ksx
ls Mark-I uke fo|qr ;kaf=dh dEI;wVj cuk;kA
9- bysDVkfud dEI;wVjksa dk vkfo"dkj yxHkx lkB o"kZ iwoZ vkjEHk gqvkA bysDVkfud dEI;wVjksa dk
cM+h rsth ls fodkl gqvkA
10- bysDVkfud dEI;wVj ds fodkl e dks ikap ihf<+;ksa (Generations) esa foHkDr fd;k x;k gSA
vH;kl iz'u%
cgqp;ukRed iz'u%
1- x.kuk djus dk lcls izkphu midj.k gS&
v y/kqx.kd
c usfi;lZ cksUl
l ,csdl
n ikLdykbu
2- loZizFke ;kfU=d x.kd Fkk&
v ikLdykbu
c ,csdl
l fMQjsal baftu n ,usysfVdy baftu
3- dEI;wVj ds tud (Father of Computer) gS&
v tSdkMZ
c pkYlZ cScst
l Cyst ikLdy
n geZu gkWysfjFk
4- vk/kqfud dEI;wVj dk iwoZt gS&
v ,csdl
c ,usysfVdy baftu
l ikLdykbu
n dkMZ iap VscqysfVax e'khu
iz'u%
y?kqkjkRed iz'u%
1- vk/kqfud dEI;wVj dk tud fdls rFkk D;ksa dgk tkrk gS\
2- ,csdl D;k gS\
3- fuEu dk iwjk vFkZ fyf[k,&
IBM, ENIAC, EDVAC, IC, VLSI
2
dEI;wVj rU=
(Computer System)
2-1
iz L rkouk (Introduction)
fdlh ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd y{;ksa dks izkIr djus ds fy, dk;Zjr bdkb;ksa ds lewg dks
rU= (System) dgrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds :i esa fo|ky; ,d rU= gS] ftldh bdkb;k gSa& fo|kFkhZ]
f'k{kd] iz/kkukpk;Z] d{kk&d{k] iqLrdky;] iz;ksx'kkyk vkfnA bldk y{; gS f'k{kk iznku djukA
blh izdkj dEI;wVj Hkh ,d rU= (System) ds :i esa dk;Z djrk gSA dEI;wVj rU=
(Computer System) ls vfHkizk; dEI;wVj ds HkkSfrd Hkkxksa (Physical Units) ls gSA
flLVe ;wfuV (System Unit) %& ;g dEI;wVj dk eq[; Hkkx gS] ftlesa dsUnzh; lalk/
ku bdkbZ (Central Processing Unit) vFkok lh-ih-;w- gksrk gSA flLVe ;wfuV ,d ckWDl gksrk
gS] ftlesa lh-ih-;w- ds vykok dEI;wVj dh dbZ vU; ;qfDr;k (devices) rFkk ifjiFk (Circuit)
yxs gksrs gSa] tks ,d eq[; ifjiFk cksMZ ;k enj cksMZ (Mother Board) ij la;ksftr jgrs gSA
bl izdkj dEI;wVj dk vf/kdrj ifjiFk flLVe ;wfuV esa gh gksrk gSA
2-
buiqV ;wfuV (Input Unit) %& dEI;wVj flLVe ;wfuV esa MkVk rFkk izksxzke fooj.kksa dh
izfof"V ds fy, iz;qDr dh tkus okyh ;qfDr;k (Devices) buiqV ;wfuV vkxe bdkbZ
dgykrh gSaA dh&cksMZ] ekml] ykWih fMLd vkfn buiqV fMokbl ds dqN mnkgj.k gSaA budh
vkxs foLr`r ppkZ dh tk,xhA
3-
fuxZe bdkbZ (Output Unit) %& dEI;wVj flLVe ;wfuV ls izkIr fu"d"kksaZ dks fy[kus
rFkk mu fu"d"kksaZ dks ekuoh; Hkk"kk esa izLrqr djus okyh ;qfDr;k vkmViqV ;wfuV fuxZe bdkbZ
dgykrh gSaA ekWuhVj] fizUVj vkfn dqN lkekU; fuxZe ;qfDr;k (Output Devices) gSaA budh
ppkZ Hkh vkxs dh tk,xhA
2-3
;g dEI;wVj dk fnekx gksrk gSA ;g funsZ'kksa dk f;kUo;u (Execution) djus ds fy, mUgsa
i<+rk gS] O;k[;k djrk gS] fu;U=.k (Control) djrk gS vkSj lax.kuk (Calculation) djrk gSA okLro
esa ge dEI;wVj dks tks Hkh funsZ'k nsrs gSa oks igys lh-ih-;w- esa tkrs gSa vkSj lh-ih-;w- gekjs funsZ'kkuqlkj
fu"d"kZ ekWuhVj ij fn[kkrk gSA ;g dguk xyr ugha gksxk fd dEI;wVj esa ;fn lh-ih-;w- ugha gS rks
dEI;wVj dqN Hkh ugha dj ldrkA
ftl rjg gekjk fnekx gekjs leLr 'kjhj ij fu;U=.k j[krk gS] Bhd mlh izdkj lh-ih;w- dEI;wVj ds 'ks"k lHkh Hkkxksa tSls& eSeksjh] buiqV o vkmViqV fMokblst vkfn ds dk;ksZa ij fu;U=.k
j[krk gS vkSj muls dk;Z djokrk gSA izksxzke vkSj MkVk] blds fu;U=.k esa eSeksjh esa laxzfgr gksrs gSaA
blh ds fu;U=.k esa vkmViqV ekWuhVj ds Lhu (Screen) ij fn[kkbZ nsrk gS vFkok fizUVj ds }kjk
dkxt ij Nirk gSA lh-ih-;w- yk[kksa&djksM+ksa x.kuk, o fu.kZ; lSd.Mksa esa dj ldrk gSA
lh-ih-;w- dks rhu Hkkxksa esa ckVk tk ldrk gS %&
12-3.
rkfdZd
bdkbZ (Arithmetic
Logic
Unit)
vFkok
ekbksdEI;wVj esa lh-ih-;w- (C.P.U.) ,d NksVk lk ekbksizkslslj gksrk gSA vU; cM+s dEI;wVjksa esa ,d
ls vf/kd ekbksizkslslj gks ldrs gSA ekbksizkslslj ls gh dEI;wVj ds dbZ dk;Z lapkfyr gksrs
gekbksizkslslj dh vkUrfjd lajpuk esa fuEu eq[; Hkkx gksrs gS %&
lh-;w- (C.U.), ,-,y-;w- (A.L.U.), jftLVj (Register)] vkUrfjd cl (Internal Bus)A
ekbksizkslslj ds vkfo"dkj ls igys dEI;wVj dk ifjiFk
dbZ VkaftLVjksa (Transistors) dks la;ksftr dj cuk;k tkrk FkkA
dEI;wVj dks vf/kd n{k] dk;Z&dq'ky ,oa mi;ksxh cukus ds fy,
blds izkslslj ds ifjiFk esa VkaftLVjksa dh la[;k esa vR;f/kd o`f)
gksrh xbZA blls VkaftLVjksa dk ifjiFk tfVy gksrk x;k vkSj
ifjiFk esa vf/kd rki mRiUu gksus ls buds [kjkc gksus dh leL;k
mRiUu gksus yxhA vr% ,d ,sls iqtsZ dh vko';drk gqbZ ftlesa
vusd VkaftLVjksa ds rqY; ifjiFk gksA ,slk iqtkZ gh ekbksizkslslj
dgykrk gSA
fSa p= 2-2 ekbksizkslslj
lcls igyk ekbksizkslslj lu~ 1970 esa baVsy dkiksZjs'ku (Intel Corporation) us Intel 4004
ds uke ls rS;kj fd;k] ftlesa yxHkx 2300 VkaftLVjksa ds cjkcj {kerk FkhA ekbksizkslslj yxHkx
vk/ks bap dk flfydkWu /kkrq ls fufeZr vk;rkdkj VqdM+k gksrk gS] tks ,d [kksy esa NksVs&NksVs duSDVlZ
(Connectors) ds lkFk O;ofLFkr jgrk gSA piVk gksus ds dkj.k bls fpi (Chip) Hkh dgrs gSaA baVsy
4004 fpi ds ckn ekbksizkslslj dh rduhd fujUrj fodflr gksrh xbZ vkSj budh {kerk o xfr
c<+rh xbZA orZeku esa fofHkUu xfr ,oa x.ku {kerk okys ekbksizkslslj miyC/k gSa] ftuesa bUVsy
isfUV;e&4] ,-,e-Mh- (AMD), lkbfjDl vkfn ekbksizkslsljksa ds uke mYys[kuh; gSA
2-3-1
lh-ih-;w- esa dUVksy ;wfuV dh cgqr vge~ Hkwfedk gSA uke ds vuq:i ;g dEI;wVj dh
lwpukvksa ds vknku&iznku ij o dEI;wVj ds vU; midj.kksa ij iwjk fu;U=.k j[krh gSA dUVksy ;wfuV
ds izeq[k dk;Z fuEufyf[kr gSa %&
(I)
;g
dEI;wVj
dh
leLr
vkUrfjd
f;kvksa
(II)
dk
lapkyu
djrh
gSA
(III)
;g eSeksjh ls izksxzke i<+rh gS] mudh O;k[;k djrh gS rFkk ,-,y-;w- o eSeksjh esa okafNr f;k
lEiUu djus ds fy, rnkuqlkj funsZ'k nsrh gSA
(IV)
;g ,-,y-;w- dks ;g crkrh gS fd MkVk eSeksjh esa dgk fLFkr gS] D;k f;k djuh gS rFkk
izf;k ds i'pkr fu"d"kZ@ifj.kke (Result) dgk laxzfgr gksuk gSA
;s lHkh funsZ'k fo/kqr ladsrksa ds :i esa flLVe cl (System Bus) dh fu;U=d cl
(Control Bus) ds ek/;e ls dEI;wVj ds fofHkUu Hkkxks rd lapfjr gksrs gSaA vusd rkjks dk
lewg cl dgykrh gSA
ekbksizkslslj (Microprocessors)
nqfu;k dk lcls igyk ekbksizkslslj Intel Corp. U.S.A. }kjk lu~ 1971 esa fodflr fd;k
x;k FkkA ;g ,d 4 fcV ekbksizkslslj Fkk ftls 2250 VkfUtLVjksa ds ifjiFk dks esVy vkWDlkbM
flfydkWu (Metal Oxide Sillicon) fpi ij cukdj rS;kj fd;k x;k FkkA bldk vkdkj 117159
FkkA lu 1972 esa baVsy us igyk 8 bit ekbks izkslslj Intel 8008 cuk;kA nksuksa ekbksizkslslj Intel
4004 o Intel 8008 PMOS rduhd ij vk/kkfjr FksA
muds ckn 1973 esa ,d vkSj 'kfDr'kkyh rFkk rst 8&bit ekbksizkslslj cuk;k x;k ftls
Intel 8080 dgk tkrk gSA baVsy dEiuh ds vykok vkt nks vU; dEifu;k Hkh ftuds uke AMD
(Advanced Micro Devices) o Cyrix gS] ekbks izkslslj mRiknu esa dk;Zjr gSA baVsy dEiuh
ds vkt lokZf/kd izpyu esa tks ekbks izkslslj gS og isfUV;e Js.kh ds gSaA isfUV;e&I,
isfUVe&II, isfUV;e&III rFkk lcls vk/kqfud isfUV;e&IV vkfn dqN izkslslj gSa tks dEI;wVj ds
enjcksMZ esa lokZf/kd iz;qDr fd;s tkrs gSaA buds MkVk izkslsflax dh xfr 100 Mhz esxk gVZt
ls ysdj 800 Mhz rd gSA
AMD dEiuh us Hkh baVsy ds isfUV;e izkslsljksa dh izfrLi/kkZ esa viuk ekbks izkslslj cktkj
esa AMD-K5, AMD-K6 bR;kfn ekWMy cktkj esa miyC/k djk;sA bu izkslsljksa dh xfr baVsy ds
ekbks izkslslj dh rqyuk esa dqN de Fkh ijUrq dher essa Hkh ;s rqyukRed lLrs FksA blh izdkj Cyrix
Js.kh ds ekbksizkslslj Hkh ekbks dEI;wVj esa bLrseky fd;s tkrs gSaA ;s vis{kkd`r Intel o AMD ds
dkQh lLrs gksrs gSa rFkk budh izkslsflax dh xfr isfUV;e ds lerqY; gSA Cyrix 686 o Cyrix-m2
vkfn dqN yksdfiz; lk;jsDl izkslslj gSaA
2-5 ?kM+h xfr (Clock Speed)
CPU ds dk;Z djus dh xfr ekius dh ,d dlkSVh ?kM+h xfr gSA dEI;wVj dh MkVk izkslsl
djus dh xfr bruh rhoz gksrh gS fd mls fdlh Hkh lk/kkj.k ?kM+h ls ekiuk vlEHko gS vr%
dEI;wVj esa bysDVkfud ?kM+h yxkbZ tkrh gSA tks mlds mlds dk;Z djus dh xfr dks ekirh
gSA ;g ?kM+h lhih;w }kjk fdlh ,d dke dks djus esa yxk le; ekius dh ctk; ;g ekirh
gS fd lhih;w ,d lSd.M esa fdrus dk;Z dj ldrk gSA bl xfr dks ekius dh bdkbZ esxk gVZt
(Mhz) gSA eSxkgVZt ls gekjk rkRi;Z nl yk[k funsZ'k izfr lSd.M gSA vr% 800 Mhz xfr okyk
lhih;w izfr lSd.M 80 djksM+ funsZ'k f;kfUor dj ldrk gSA blh izdkj Ghz ls rkRi;Z ;g
gS fd lkS yk[k funsZ'k izfr lSd.MA lu 2000 esa ,sls izkslsljksa dk fuekZ.k gks pqdk gS ftudh
xfr 1Ghz fxxkgVZt esa gSA
2-6 16 fcV] 32 fcV] 64 fcV ds izkslslj (16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit Processors)
lcls igys ilZuy dEi;wVj esa ,sls jftLVj iz;ksx esa fy;s x;s Fks tks fd flQZ 2 ckbVl
(bytes) ds FksA ijUrq vktdy tks dEI;wVlZ cktkj esa miyC/k gS muesa 32 bit, 64-bit ;k 128bit okys jftLVlZ gksrs gSaA jftLVj dk vkdkj tks fd 'kCn dk vkdkj (Word size) dgykrk gS]
ds }kjk gh irk pyrk gS fd fdlh Hkh fn;s x;s le; esa dEI;wVj fdrus MkVk dks izkslsl dj
ldrk gSA ftruk cM+k 'kCn dk vkdkj (Word Size) gksxk mruh gh tYnh dEI;wVj MkVk dks
izkslsl dj ldrk gSA ;fn dEI;wVj dk izkslslj 16 bit dk gS rks ;g ekuk tk;s fd izkslslj esa
iz;qDr gksus okys jftLVlZ Hkh 16 bit ds gh gksaxsA ;fn jftLVlZ 16 bit ds gSa rks fuf'pr :i ls
ml jftLVj esa ,d lkFk 16 bit dk MkVk izkslsl fd;k tk ldrk gSA vFkkZr~ ;fn izkslslj 32
bit dk gS rks fuf'pr :i ls og izkslslj ,d lkFk fdlh Hkh fn;s x;s le; esa 32 bit dk MkVk
izkslsl dj ldrk gSA eryc ;g gS fd tks MkVk 16 bit dk izkslslj ;fn 1 lSfd.M esa izkslsl
djrk gS rks ogh MkVk 32 bit dk izkslslj vk/kk lSfd.M esa gh izkslsl dj nsxkA
= 1 Byte
= 1 KB
= 1 MB
= 1 GB
= 1 TB
= 1 PB
dEI;wVj esa nks izdkj dh Le`fr;k ikbZ tkrh gSaA ftUgsa iz/kku (Main) rFkk f}rh;d (Secondary) Le`fr
dgrs gSaA
dEI;wVj Le`fr
iz/kku (Main) Le`fr
;k
vkUrfjd (Internal) Le`fr
;k
ck (External) Le`fr
;k
;k
ROM
bldk iwjk uke bjslcy izksxzkescy jhM vkWuyh eSeksjh (Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory) gSA blesa lafpr lwpukvksa dks cnyk tk ldrk gS vkSj igys ls lafpr izksxzke dks u;s izksxzke
ds }kjk cnyk tk ldrk gSA blesa lafpr lwpukvksa dh fpi dks lw;Z ds izdk'k esa ys tkus ls gVk;k
tk ldrk gSA vkSj tc bls i<+k tkrk gS rks ;g jkse dh rjg gh dk;Z djrk gSA blesa lafpr lwpuk,sa
rc rd jg ldrh gS tc rd bUgsa gVk;k ugha tk;sA
2.10 L1, L2 dS'k ( L1, L2 Cache) eSeksjhA
1980 ls dS'k eSeksjh ilZuy dEI;wVj ds lh-ih-;w- ds lkFk gh cukbZ tkrh gSA tks dS'k eSeksjh lh-ih;w- esa gksrh gSA mls Level-1 (L 1) dS'k eSeksjh dgrs gSaA lcls igyk lh-ih-;w- dS'k ds lkFk 0-5KB
dk cuk;k x;k FkkA ijUrq vktdy 8KB, 16KB, o 32KB dS'k eSeksjh ds lkFk lh-ih-;w- cktkj esa
miyC/k gSA
izkFkfed laxzg.k ek/;e esa MkVk vkSj izksxzke dsoy rkRdkfyd :i ls laxzfgr fd, tk ldrs
gSaA dEI;wVj dh eseksjh (Memory) izkFkfed laxzg.k ek/;e dk mnkgj.k gS] ftldk v/;;u ge iwoZ
v/;k; esa dj pqds gSaA f}rh;d laxzg.k ek/;e ds vUrxZr os ;qfDr;ka lfEefyr dh tkrh gSa] ftuesa
MkVk] izksxzke vkSj izf;k ifj.kkeksa dks rkRdkfyd rFkk Hkfo"; esa ckj&ckj mi;ksx gsrq LFkkbZ :i ls
laxzfgr dj lqjf{kr j[ks tkrs gSaA ;gka ge ,slh gh dqN izeq[k ;qfDr;ksa ds ckjs esa v/;;u djsaxsA
2-12-1 pqEcdh; Vsi (Magnetic Tape) %& pqEcdh; Vsi ekW;yj (Mylar) IykfLVd dh cuh
gksrh gS ftldh lrg ij vk;ju&vkWDlkbM (Iron-Oxide) dh pqEcdh; ijr dk ysiu p<+k gksrk
gSA pqEcdh; Vsi 1/2 bap] 1/4 bap] 8mm, 3mm vkfn fofHkUu pkSM+kbZ dh gksrh gSaA pqEcdh; Vsi
250MB, 500MB, 2GB, 10GB vkfn fofHkUu laxzg.k {kerkvksa esa miyC/k gSaA
pqEcdh; Vsi dk mi;ksx izk;% cSdvi (Backup) MkVk ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gSA ;|fi orZeku esa
cgqr vf/kd laxzg.k {kerk dh rduhdh dk fodkl gks pqdk gS] fdUrq pqEcdh; Vsi ds NksVs vkdkj
rFkk de dher gksus dss dkj.k budk mi;ksx vkt Hkh MkVk laxzg.k gsrq fd;k tkrk gSA pqEcdh;
Vsi ,slk MkVk] ftldk mi;ksx ckj&ckj ugha gksrk gS] ds laxzg.k gsrq vf/kd mi;qDr gksrh gSA
pqEcdh; Vsi esa MkVk dks ec) :i ls gh vfHkxe (Access) fd;k tk ldrk gS] blfy, bldk
vfHkxe le; (Access Time) dkQh vf/kd gksrk gSA blh izdkj bl ij MkVk fy[kus esa Hkh vU;
;qfDr;ksa dh rqyuk esa vf/kd le; yxrk gSA
2-12-2 pqEcdh; fMLd (Magnetic Disk) %& pqEcdh; fMLd ,d mi;ksxh ,oa vR;f/kd
izpfyr laxzg ;qfDr gSA blesa lh/kh vfHkxe (Direct Access) fof/k ls MkVk dks rhoz xfr ls izkIr
,oa laxzg fd;k tk ldrk gSA lh/kh vfHkxe fof/k esa fdlh vfHkys[k dks iwoZorhZ vfHkys[kksa dks i<+s
fcuk] izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
pqEcdh; fMLd eq[; :i ls nks izdkj dh gksrh gSa& 1- gkMZ fMLd (Hard Disk) vkSj 2fMLdsV~l (Diskettes)
gkMZ fMLd (Hard Disk) esa ,Y;wehfu;e ;k vU; /kkrq ls fufeZr pdfr;ka ;k IysVlZ
(Platters) gksrh gaS ftudh nksuksa lrgsa pqEcdh; vk;ju vkWDlkbM ls ysfir jgrh gSaA gkMZ fMLd dh
laxzg.k {kerk cgqr vf/kd gksrh gS rFkk blls MkVk izkIr djus dh xfr Hkh rhoz gksrh gSA gkMZ fMLd
dk mi;ksx ekbks dEI;wVj] feuh dEI;wVj vkSj esuse dEI;wVj rhuksa esa gh MkVk laxzg.k ds fy,
fd;k tkrk gSA orZeku esa vusd izdkj dh gkMZ fMLd miyC/k gSaAsa
fMLdsV~l (Diskettes) IykfLVd dh pdfr;ka (Disks) gksrh gSa tks IykfLVd ds [kksy esa
lqjf{kr jgrh gSaA budh laxzg.k {kerk gkMZ fMLd dh rqyuk esa cgqr de gksrh gSA bUgsa lkekU;r%
ykWih fMLd (Floppy Disk) ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA ;s LFkkukUrj.kh; gksrh gSa rFkk dEI;wVj ls
fudkydj ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku ij vklkuh ls yk;h o ys tk;h ldrh gSaA budk mi;ksx izk;%
ekbks dEI;wVjksa esa gksrk gSA
2-12-2.1 gkMZ fMLd (Hard Disk) %& gkMZ fMLd NksVs dEI;wVj tSls ekbks dEI;wVj ,oa feuh
dEI;wVj esa MkVk laxzg.k ds fy, dke esa yh tkrh gSA ;g flLVe ;wfuV ds vUnj yxh gksrh gSA bldh
vR;f/kd laxzg.k {kerk ds dkj.k bls ekl LVksjst fMokbl (Mass Storage Device) rFkk flLVe
;wfuV ds vUnj yxh gksus ds dkj.k vkWu ykbu LVksjst fMokbl (Online Storage Device) Hkh dgrs
gSaA orZeku esa 80GB, 160GB vkSj 240GB laxzg.k {kerk dh gkMZ fMLd vf/kd izpfyr gSA
gkMZ fMLd ij cgqr&lh lwpuk,a LFkkbZ :i ls laxzfgr gksrh gSaA vkijsfVax flLVe] dEikbyj]
,lsEcyj] MkVkcsl] ,Iyhds'ku izksxzke vkfn Hkh gkMZ fMLd ij gh laxzfgr gksrs gSaA vr% gkMZ fMLd
lokZf/kd izpfyr vko';d ,oa LFkkbZ laxzg.k ;qfDr gSA
gkMZ fMLd esa ,Y;wehfu;e ;k vU; /kkrq ls fufeZr pdfr;ksa ;k fMLd IysVj (Disk Platters)
dk lewg gksrk gSA izR;sd IysVj ij pqEcdh; vk;ju vkWDlkbM dk ysiu gksrk gSA IysVlZ dh nksuksa
lrgksa ij ladsUnzh; VSDl (Tracks) vkSj lSDVj (Sectors) gksrs gSaA MkVk bUgh VSDl ,oa lSDVj esa
laxzfgr jgrk gSA lHkh fMLd IysVj ,d fLi.My (Spindle) esa fijksbZ gksrh gSA
izR;sd IysVj dk vyx ls jhM@jkbV gSM gksrk gSA lHkh jhM@jkbV gSM~l ,d gh Hkqtk ;k
vkeZ (Arm) ij da/ksuqek lajpuk esa yxs jgrs gSaA bl Hkqtk dks ,Dlsl vkeZ (Access Arm) dgrs gSA
izR;sd gSM ?kwerh gqbZ fMLd dh lrg ij mi;qDr VSd ij igaqp tkrk gSA bl izdkj MkVk jhM@jkbV
djus dh f;k lh/kh gksrh gSA izR;sd MkVk dh fLFkfr dk ,d irk ;k fMLd ,Msl (Disk Address)
gksrk gS ftlesa lrg la[;k] VSd la[;k vkSj lSDVj la[;k gksrh gSA blh dh lgk;rk ls ,Dlsl vkeZ
MkVk dks [kkstrk gSA
gkMZ fMLd ,oa jhM@jkbV gSM ;s lHkh ,d gok cUn pSEcj esa lhy gksrs gSa ftlls ogka rd
/kwy ugha tk ikrh gSA ;g pSEcj ckgj ls ns[kus esa yap ckDl tSlk yxrk gSA
2-12-2.2
ykWih fMLd (Floppy Disk) %& ykWih fMLd ek;yj IykfLVd (Mylar
Plastic) ls fufeZr ,d o`rkdkj pdrh gksrh gS] ftldh lrg ij vk;ju vkWDlkbM pqEcdh; inkFkZ
dk ysiu gksrk gSA bldh nksuksa lrgksa ij Hkh gkMZ fMLd ds leku ladsUnzh; VSDl (Tracks) vkSj lSDVlZ
ykWih fMLd dh lqj{kk gsrq bls IykfLVd ds vkoj.k esa j[kk tkrk gS tks bls [kajksp vkfn
ls cpkrk gSA blds vkoj.k esa ,d Hkkx [kqyk gksrk gS] ftlls jhM@jkbV gSM MkVk dks fMLd ij
laxzfgr ;k izkIr dj ldsA bl [kqys Hkkx dks ,Dlsl foUMks (Access Window) dgrs gSaA
ykWih fMLd vkSj mlds vkoj.k esa ,d fNnz gksrk gS ftls bUMsDl gksy (Index Hole) dgrss
gSaA bUMsDl gksy tc Hkh QksVks lsUlj (Photo Sensor) ds uhps vkrk gS rks bldk vFkZ gksrk gS fd
jhM@jkbV gSM vc orZeku VSd ds izFke lsDVj ij fLFkr gks x;k gSA
ykWih ds ,d vksj dqN Hkkx dVk gqvk gkssrk gS] ftls jkbV izksVsDV ukWp (Write Protect
Notch) dgrss gSaA bldk mi;ksx fMLd ij MkVk dks jkbV (Write) ;k laxzg.k ls cpkus esa fd;k tkrk
gSA tc ;g ukWp [kqyk gksrk gS rks ge MkVk dks i<+ Hkh ldrs gSa vkSj fy[k Hkh ldrs gSa fdUrq tc
bls fdlh fLVdj ;k Vsi ls cUn dj fn;k tkrk gS rks fMLd ij MkVk dks dsoy i<+k tk ldrk gS]
fy[kk ugha tk ldrk gSA
ykWih fMLd izk;% nks vkdkjksa esa miyC/k gksrh gSa& 1- ekbks ykWih (Micro Floppy)
rFkk 2- feuh ykWih (Mini Floppy)
ekbks ykWih dk O;kl 3-5 bap gksrk gSA ;g ykWih IykfLVd ds dBksj vkoj.k esa cUn jgrh
gSA blfy, vf/kd lqjf{kr gSA blesa 1.44MB MkVk laxzfgr fd;k tk ldrk gSA vktdy 2.8MB
MkVk laxzg djus okyh 3-5 bap O;kl dh ykWih Hkh vk x;h gSA
feuh ykWih dk O;kl 5-25 bap gksrk gSA ;g yphys vkoj.k esa vkrh gS] blfy, lqjf{kr ugha
gSAbldh laxzg.k {kerk Hkh de gSA blesa dsoy 1-2 MB MkVk
laxzfgr
fd;k tk ldrk gSA vr% feuh ykWih dk izpyu cgqr de gSA
ykWih ikuh] vf/kd rki ,oa pqEcdh; {ks= esa j[kus ls [kjkc gks tkrh gSA tksj ls iVdus]
esXusfVd inkFkZ ds gkFk yxkus ls Hkh bldk MkVk [kjkc gks tkrk gSA vr% buds mi;ksx esa dkQh
lko/kkuh cjrus dh vko;drk jgrh gSA
dh izf;k esa lh-Mh- jkse dh ijkorZd lrg ij mPp rhozrk 25 esxkokV okyh yslj fdj.k Mkyh
tkrh gS ftlls ogka ,d vfr lw{e xM~<k ;k fiV (Pit) cu tkrk gSA ;g fiV ^1 fcV* dk lwpd gSA
lrg ij tgka fiV ugha gS] og ^0 fcV* dk lwpd gSA ,sls fiV jfgr LFky dks ys.M (Land) dgrs
gSaA
lh-Mh- jkse esa MkVk dks fMLd ls i<+us ds fy, de rhozrk 5 esxkokV okyh yslj fdj.ksa Mkyh tkrh
gSaA ijkofrZr yslj fdj.kksa dks QksVks fMVsDVj (Photodetector) }kjk tkapk tkrk gSA ys.M ls ijkofrZr
fdj.k dh rhozrk esa dksbZ vUrj ugha vkrk fdUrq fiV ls ijkofrZr fdj.k vusd fn'kkvksa esa QSy tkrh
gS ftlls fiV dh mifLFkfr dk irk py tkrk gSA ijkofrZr izdk'k ds bl vUrj dks fo/kqr ladsrksa
0 vkSj 1 fcV esa ifjofrZr dj fy;k tkrk gS ftlls MkVk dh tkudkjh gks tkrh gSA
lh-Mh- jkse esa Hkh MkVk laxzg.k ds fy, VSDl dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;s VSDl lsDVj
(Sector) esa caVs jgrs gSaA fdUrq CD-ROM ds VSDl ykWih fMLd ;k gkMZ fMLd dh rjg cUn u gksdj
fujUrjrk fy, gksrs gSa ftudh yEckbZ yxHkx iakp fdyksehVj gksrh gSA ;s lfiZykdkj :i esa O;ofLFkr
gksrs gSaA lh-Mh- jkse dh laxzg.k {kerk vf/kd gksrh gSA ,d lh-Mh- jkse esa 650MB rd MkVk laxzfgr
fd;k tk ldrk gSA bldh MkVk LFkkukUrj.k nj Hkh vf/kd gksrh gSA lh-Mh- jkse dk mi;ksx
eYVhfefM;k] dEI;wVj xsEl vkfn esa fd;k tkrk gSA vktdy lh-Mh- jkse dk mi;ksx fofHkUu 'kS{kf.kd
tkudkfj;ka] fp= vkfn ds laxzg.k gsrq Hkh cgqr vf/kd gks jgk gSA
2-12-4 fMftVy ohfM;ks fMLd (Digital Video Disk )
fMftVy ohfM;ks fMLd (DVD) ns[kus esa fcYdqy lh-Mh- tSlh gh yxrh gS ysfdu nksuksa esa
dbZ fHkUurk,a gSaA DVD esa CD dh vis{kk 7-5 xquk vf/kd MkVk laxzfgr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ,d
lk/kkj.k DVD dh laxzg.k {kerk yxHkx 4.7GB gksrh gSA dqN DVD esa rks 17GB rd MkVk laxzg
fd;k tk ldrk gSA DVD dk O;kl 4.7 bap gksrk gSA
CD dh rjg DVD ij Hkh MkVk VSDl ds :i esa laxzfgr fd;k tkrk gS tks dbZ lSDVjksa esa caVs
gksrs gaSA fdUrq DVD esa CD dh rqyuk esa fiV~l (Pits) dk vkdkj cgqr vf/kd lw{e rFkk VSDl ds e/
; dh nwjh Hkh cgqr de gksrh gSA QyLo:i DVD dh {kerk CD dh rqyuk esa cgqr vfkd c<+ tkrh
gSA DVD dh ,d vkSj fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd ;g jhM ys;j ds Qksdl dks cny dj ,d ls vf/kd rF;ksa
dks jhM dj ldrk gSA DVD esa MkVk nks irksZ esa fy[kk tkrk gS blls bldh laxzg.k {kerk esa vkSj o`f)
gqbZ gSA
bldh mez Hkh CD dh
Hkkfr de ls de nl o"kZ gSA DVD
jhM ,oa jkbV djus ds fy, MhohMh
M k bo (DVD
Drive) dh
vko';drk gksrh gSA MhohMh Mkbo
lhMh dks Hkh jhM ,oa jkbV dj
ldrh gSaA ueh] rkieku tSls
i;kZoj.kh; dkjd CD dh rjg
fp= 2-14 MhohMh Mkbo
DVD dks Hkh izHkkfor ugha djrs gaS
fdUrq bls [kajksp ls cpkuk vko';d
gSA [kajksp ls DVD iw.kZr% csdkj gks ldrh gSA /kwy Hkh DVD dks jhM djus esa ck/kk mRiUu djrh
gSA vr% bls ges'kk doj esa j[kuk pkfg,A
2-12-5 fti Mkbo (Zip Drive)
fti Mkbo] ykWih fMLd ds
i'pkr pqEcdh; ek/;e (Magnetic
Media) dh nqfu;k dk nwljk vk'p;Z gSA
lh-Mh- jkbVj ls iwoZ fti Mkbo gh lcls
vf/kd izpfyr cSdvi midj.k FkhA fti
Mkbo lh-Mh- jkbVj ls dkQh fdQk;rh
gSA blesa MkVk laxzg.k ds fy, tks midj.k
dke esa fy;k tkrk gS mls fti dkWfVZt
(Zip Cartridge) dgrs gSaA fti dkWfVZt
ykus ys tkus esa lqfo/kk tud rFkk vf/kd
fo'oluh; gSA fti dkWfVZt esa yxHkx
fp= 2-15 fti Mkbo ,oa fti dkWfVZt
100 MB MkVk laxzfgr fd;k tk ldrk
gSA bldk vkdkj 4 oxZ bap gksrk gS rFkk eksVkbZ ykWih ls yxHkx nqxuh gksrh gSA blh vklkuh ls
tsc esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA fti Mkbo izk;% dEI;wVjksa esa ugha gksrs blfy, fti Mkbo ds }kjk MkVk
LFkkukUrj.k djrs le; fti Mkbo ,oa Mkboj dh Hkh lkFk esa vko';drk gksrh gSA fti Mkbo dks
bULVky djuk cgqr vklku gksrk gSA
fti fMLd dkWfVZt dk pqEcdh; ysi ykWih fMLd dh rqyuk esa dgha vf/kd csgrj ,oa mPp
xq.kokk dk gksrk gSA blfy, fti Mkbo ds jhM@jkbV gSM dk vkdkj dkQh NksVk gksrk gS ftlls
bleas VSDl dh la[;k dgha vf/kd gksrh gS rFkk izfr VSd lSDVjksa dh la[;k Hkh T;knk gksrh gSA
jhM@jkbV gSM ds nks vksj ia[k (Wings) yxs gksrs gSaA ;s ia[k gSM dh xfr dks fu;fU=r djrs gaSA
fti fMLd esa MkVk ykWih fMLd dh Hkkfr o`rkdkj VSDl ij laxzfgr gksrk gS] fdUrq izfr VSd
lSDVjksa dh la[;k fHkUu&fHkUu gksrh gSA fti Mkbo ds lkFk ,d leL;k ;g gS fd orZeku esa
miyC/k vkWijsfVax flLVe fti Mkbo dks liksVZ ugha djrs gaSA vr% vyx ls Mkboj baLVky djuk
iM+rk gSA
2-12-6 is u / QyS'k Mkbo / bUVsfytsUV fLVd (Pen/Flash Drive /Intelligent Stick)
;g MkVk LFkkukUrj.k ,oa laxzg.k
ds fy, ,d vk'p;Z pfdr djus okyh
fo'ks"krkvksa ;qDr uohure ;qfDr gSA MkVk
LFkkukUrj.k ,oa laxzg.k ds fy, vc rd
izpfyr ;qfDr;ksa tSls ykWih] fti fMLd]
lhMh vkfn izR;sd ds lkFk viuh leL;k,a
gS fo'ks"kdj fHkUu ifj/kh; midj.kksa ;qDr
dEI;wVjksa esa budk mi;ksx ugha fd;k tk
ldrkA tcfd bUVsfytsUV fLVd dk
mi;ksx fdlh Hkh dEI;wVj ds lkFk fd;k
tk ldrk gSA
fp= 2-16 bUVsfytsUV fLVd
bls dEI;wVj ds USB iksVZ esa yxk;k tkrk gS bldk vkdkj bruk NksVk gksrk gS fd bls tsc
,oa ilZ esa vklkuh esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA budk vkdkj fHkUu&fHkUu gksrk gS fdUrq lkekU;r% ;s 167 bap yEch] 0-7 bap pkSM+h vkSj 0-1 bap eksVh gksrh gaSA vktdy buls Hkh NksVh bUVsfytsUV fLVd
miyC/k gaSA vkdkj es NksVh gksus ds lkFk&lkFk budh fo'oluh;rk] dk;Z{kerk] laxzg.k {kerk vkfn
Hkh deky dh gksrh gSA budh laxzg.k {kerk fHkUu&fHkUu gksrh gSA lkekU;r% 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB ;k
8 G B {kerk dh fLVd miyC/k gSA
2.12.7 Cyw&js&fMLd (Blue-Ray-Disc)
Cyw&js&fMLd] CD rFkk DVD dh Hkkafr ,d vkfIVdy fMLd ek/;e gS A bldh HkkSfrd
foek,a ekud DVD rFkk CD ds leku gksrh gSA Cyw&js&fMLd dh laxzg.k {kerk 25 GB izfr flaxy
ys;j rFkk 50 GB M~;wy ys;j gksrh gSA Cyw&js&fMLd dks i<+us ds fy, Cyw&ok;ksysV ystj dk mi;ksx
fd;k tkrk gSA blh dkj.k bldk uke Cyw&js&fMLd iM+k gSA bldk eq[; mi;ksx gkbZ MsfQusku
ohfM;ks] Iys LVsku- 3 fofM;ks xse rFkk vU; MkVk dks laxzfgr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
2.12.8 eSeksjh fLVd (Memory Stick)
eSeksjh fLVd ,d gVk;h tk ldus okyh ySk eSeksjh gS A eSeksjh fLVd dk mi;ksx oguh;
;qfDr (Portable Device) tSls ysiVksi] fofM;ks dSejk] QksVksxzkfQd dSejk] eksckby esa laxzg.k ek/
;e ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gSA izkajfEHkd eSeksjh fLVd dh laxzg.k {kerk 128 MB Fkh A vkt cktkj
esa vf/kdre 32 GB laxzg.k {kerk dh eSeksjh fLVd miyC/k gSA
Hkh /kjsyq midj.kks ds fjeksV daVksy esa bl iksVZ mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
2 - 13.6 Cyw VqFk (Bluetooth)
Cyw VqFk de nqjh ij fLFkr fLFkj ;qfDr ls pyk;eku ;qfDr
ds e/; ,d izksijkbVjh vksiu ok;jySl rduhd (Properietory
open wireless) dk ,d ekud gSA ;g pyk;eku ,oe~ fLFkj
;qfDr ds e/; mPp lqj{kk dk ilZuy ,fj;k usVodZ (Personal
Area Network) (PAN) cukrk gSA Cyw VqFk dh [kkst lu~
1994 esa ,jhdlu (Ericssion) daiuh }kjk dh xbZ FkhA
Cyw VqFk ds }kjk ,d ;qfDr ,dlkFk lkr vU; ;qfDr;ksa ds
lkFk tqM+ ldrk gS rFkk lqjf{kr MkVk lapkj dh ldrk gSA
egRoiw.kZ fcUnq %
1234567891011121314-
dEI;wVj rU= ds eq[; Hkkx % (1) flLVe ;wfuV (2) buiqV ;wfuV (3) vkmViqV ;wfuV
lsUVy izkslsflax ;wfuV (CPUC % ;g dEI;wVj dk fnekx gksrk gSA bldk eq[; dk;Z izksxzkeksa
dks f;kfUor djuk gSA
,-,y-;w- % ;g ;wfuV vadxf.krh; ,oa rkfdZd f;k, djus dk dk;Z djrh gSA
dEI;wVj dk lcls egRoiw.kZ Hkkx ekbksizkslslj gSA dEI;wVj esa ,d eq[; izkslslj o vU; dbZ
lgk;d izkslslj yxs gksrs gSaA
dEI;wVj ds dk;Z djus dh xfr dks ekius ds fy;s dEI;wVj esa ,d fo'ks"k izdkj dh ?kM+h gksrh
gSA
izkslslj eq[;r% nks izdkj dh rduhdksa ls cuk;s tkrs gSA
dEI;wVj esa iz;qDr gksus okyh clsa fuEu gSA
v MkVk cl c ,Msl cl
l daVksy cl
dEI;wVj ds }kjk tc vuqns'kksa dk f;kUou fd;k tkrk gS rks lh-ih-;w- ds }kjk vuqns'kksa dks eSeksjh
ls lh-ih-;w- esa fLFkr fofHkUUk jftLVjksa esa yk;k tkrk gSA
Le`fr izkFkfed laxzg.k ;qfDr gSA
Le`fr % dEI;wVj dk dk;Zdkjh laxzg gS tgk MkVk] lwpuk vkSj izksxzke laxzfgr jgrs gSa vkSj
vko';drk ds le; rRdky miyC/k gks tkrs gSaA
Le`fr dks eq[;r% nks Hkkxksa esa ckVk tkrk gS& (1) eq[; Le`fr (2) ck Le`frA
fcV % Le`fr dh lcls NksVh bdkbZ gSA ckbujh vad iz.kkyh esa bldk eku 0 vFkok 1 gksrk gSA
ckbV % vkB fcV ds lewg dks ckbV dgrss gSaA lkekU;r% ,d djsDVj vad ;k v{kj dks ,d
ckbV ls O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA
dEI;wVj esa eq[;r% nks izdkj dh Le`fr;k ikbZ tkrh gSaA
1516171819.
2021.
22.
23.
24.
25.
v iz/kku
c viz/kku
iz/kku Le`fr Hkh nks izdkj dh gksrh gaSA
v RAM jSe
c ROM jkse
iz/kku Le`fr RAM vLFkkbZ o ROM LFkkbZ izd`fr dh gksrh gSA ;s Le`fr;k v/kZ lqpkyd inkFkZ
dh cuh gksrh gSA
pqEcdh; Vsi] pqEcdh; fMLd] gkMZ fMLd] ykWih fMLd] lh-Mh- jkse f}rh;d laxzg.k ;qfDr;ka
gSaA
dkWEiSDV fMLd (CD) MkVk laxzg.k dh ,d izdk'kh; ;qfDr gSA
fMftVy ohfM;ks fMLd (DVD) Hkh MkVk laxzg.k dh ,d izdk'kh; ;qfDr gS fdUrq bldh {kerk
CD dh rqyuk esa cgqr vf/kd gksrh gSA
fti Mkbo MkVk laxzg.k ,oa LFkkukUrj.k dh ,d mke pqEcdh; ;qfDr gSA
bUVsfytsUV fLVd MkVk LFkkukUrj.k ,oa laxzg.k dh vusd foy{k.k xq.kksa okyh uohure ;qfDr
gSA
lhfj;y iksVZ (Serial port) Js.kh lapkj (Serial Communication) dk ,d HkkSfrd lEidZ
(Physical Interface) gS] tks dEI;wVj ra= ls ;qfDr dks ;k ;qfDr ls dEI;wVj dks ,d le; esa
,d fcV lwpuk vUnj ;k ckgj Hkstrk gSA
iSjYy iksVZ (Parallel Port) lekarj lapkj (Parallel Communication) dk ,d HkkSfrd lEidZ
(Physical Interface) gSA bls fizaVj iksVZ ;k flUVksfuDl iksVZ (Centronics Port) Hkh dgrs gSA
iSjYy iksVZ (Parallel Port)s dEI;wVj ra= ls ;qfDr dks ;k ;qfDr ls dEI;wVj dks ,d le; esa
fuf'pr ek=k esa fcV~l dk lekarj lapj.k djrk gSaA
,d ;w,lch dscy 5 ehVj rd yEch gks ldrh gSA
26. ;w,lch dscy es ikoj ds fy, nks rkj gksrs gS rFkk MkVk ds fy, rkj dk ,d fVoLVsM ;qXe gksrk
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
gSA
;w,lch dscy ds ikoj ds rkj ij dEI;wVj 5 oksYV ij 500 feyh,Eih;j ikoj iznku dj ldrk
gSA
ih,l@2 iksVZ la;ksft= (PS/2 Port Connector) dk mi;ksx dhcksMZ rFkk ekml dks dEI;wVj
ra= ls tksMus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
baQzkjSM iksVZ (Infrared Port) ,d ,slk iksVZ gS tks baQzkjSM izdk'k (Infrared Light) dk mi;ksx
dj ,d ;qfDr ls nqljh ;qfDr MkVk dks Hkst ;k izkIr dj ldrk gSA
baQzkjSM iksVZ (Infrared Port) izk;% IrDA izksVksdky dk mi;ksx djrk gSA
Cyw VqFk de nqjh ij fLFkr fLFkj ;qfDr ls pyk;eku ;qfDr ds e/; ,d izksijkbVjh vksiu
ok;jySl rduhd (Properietory open wireless) dk ,d ekud gSA
;g pyk;eku ,oe~ fLFkj ;qfDr ds e/; mPp lqj{kk dk ilZuy ,fj;k usVodZ (Personal Area
Network) (PAN) cukrk gSA
Cyw VqFk ds }kjk ,d ;qfDr ,dlkFk lkr vU; ;qfDr;ksa ds lkFk tqM+ ldrk gS rFkk lqjf{kr MkVk
lapkj dj ldrk gSA
vH;klkFkZ iz'u
cgqp;ukRed iz'u %
1dEI;wVj esa MkVk Lohdkj djus okyh ;qfDr gS&
v lh-ih-;wc lh-;wl buiqV ;wfuV
n vkmViqV ;wfuV
2,d ckbV esa gksrs gSa&
v 4 fcV
c 8 fcV
l 16 fcV
n 32 fcV
3izkFkfed laxzg.k ek/;e gS&
v gkMZ fMLd
c eSeksjh
l lh-Mh- jkse
n pqEcdh; Vsi
4dEI;wVj dh xfr ekih tkrh gS%&
v ekbkslSds.M esa
c fefy lSds.M
l ihdks lSds.M esa
n uSuks lSds.M
5,d ckbV esa fcVl gksrh gSa%&
v 4
c 6
l 8
n 10
6dEI;wVj dh eSeksjh fdrus izdkj dh gksrh gS%&
v 2
c 4
l 6
n 5
7RAM fdldk y?kq:i gS&
v jhM ,Dlst eSeksjh
c jSUMe ,Dlst ekfuVj
l jSUMe ,Dlst eSeksjh
n buesa ls dksbZ ugha
8fuEu esa ls dkSulh dEI;wVj Le`fr dh ekid bdkbZ ugha gSA
v KB
c MB
l GB
n CB
9bizkse (EPROM) gS&
v u feVk;s tkuk okyk c vLFkkbZ
l izksxzkescy o bjslscy n bjslscy ijUrq izksxzkescy ugha
10lh-ih-;w- ds lkFk yxh eSeksjh dks dgrs gSA
v L1 dS'k
c L2 dS'k
l dS'k
n mijksDr esa ls dksbZ ugha
11izdk'kh; rduhd dk iz;ksx gksrk gS&
v gkMZ fMLd esa
c ykWih fMLd esa
l bad tSV fizUVj esa n lh-Mh- jkse esa
12ekbks ykWih dh lkekU;r% laxzg.k {kerk gksrh gS&
v 1.2 MB
c 650 MB
l 1.44 MB
n 2.8 MB
13-
og iksVZ (Port), tks dEI;wVj ra= ls ;qfDr dks ;k ;qfDr ls dEI;wVj dks ,d le; esa ,d fcV
lwpuk vUnj ;k ckgj Hkstrk gS&
v lhfj;y iksVZ
c iSjYy iksVZ
l ih,l@2 iksVZ
n ;q,lch iksVZ
14- ,d ;w,lch dscy dh yEckbZ gks ldrh gS&
v 25 ehVj
c 20 ehVj
l 5 ehVj
n 2 ehVj
15- OyWVqFk] pyk;eku ,oe~ fLFkj ;qfDr ds e/; mPp lqj{kk tks usVodZ cukrk gS] mls dgrs gS&
v LAN
c MAN
l WAN
n PAN
vfry?kqkjkRed iz'u %
1234567891011121314151617-
345678-
fucU/kkRed iz'u %
1- dEI;wVj ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa dk o.kZu dhft, rFkk bldk CykWd js[kkfp= cukb,A
2- dEI;wVj esa eSeksjh dh vko';drk D;ksa gksrh gS\ dEI;wVj eSeksjh ds fofHkUu izdkjksa dk o.kZu
dhft,A
3- iz/kku eSeksjh ds fofHkUu izdkjksa dks le>kb;sA
4- dEI;wVj esa bLrseky fd;s tkus okys eq[;r% izkslslj dkSu&dkSu ls gS \
5- dEI;wVj esa iz;qDr gksus okyh fofHkUu clksa ds dk;ksZa dk o.kZu dfj;sA
6- gkMZ fMLd dh lajpuk o dk;Z iz.kkyh lfp= le>kb,A
7- lh-Mh-jkse D;k gS\ bldh dk;Z iz.kkyh rFkk blds mi;ksx fyf[k,A
8- MhohMh D;k gS bldh fo'ks"krk,a crkb,A MhohMh lhMh jkse dh rqyuk esa fdl izdkj csgrj gS\
9- dEI;wVj esa iz;qDr gksus okyh fofHkUu izdkj ds iksVZ@la;ksft=ksa dks le>kb;sA
mkjekyk %
cgqp;ukRed iz'u %
1- l
2- c
3- c
4- n
5- l
6- v
10- l
11- n
15- n
7- l
8- n
9- l
3
dEI;wVj lkWVos;j
(Computer Software)
3-1
iz L rkouk (Introduction)
foxr o"kksaZ es O;kolkf;d izksxzkfeax us fofHkUu mUur fdLe ds lkWVos;j ,oa izksxzke dh lgk;rk
ls gekjs MsLdVkWi dEI;wVjksa dks fdlh Hkh izdkj dk dk;Z djus dh l{kerk iznku dh gSA ;g ikB
lEkfiZr gS lkWVos;j dks ftlus dEI;wVj dks ,d /kjsyw uke nsus dk mRd`"V dk;Z fd;k gSA
dEI;wVj dk dk;Z nks Hkkxks ls lapkfyr gksrk gSA
1 gkMZos;j (Hardware)
2 lkWVos;j (Software)
3-2
gkMZos;j rFkk lkWVos;j feydj ,d lEiw.kZ rU= dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA dEI;wVj rU= ds
vUrxZr tks Hkh midj.k] oLrq,] izksxzke vkfn vkrs gS] os lHkh ;k rks gkMZos;j ds vUrxZr vkrs gSa ;k
fQj lkWVos;j ds vUrxZrA vr% bu nksuksa dk Kku gksuk vko';d gSA
gkMZ o s ; j (Hardware) %& dEI;wVj flLVe ds os lHkh HkkSfrd (Physical) ,oa ewrZ (Tangible) Hkkx
ftUgsa ge ns[k ldrs gSa rFkk Nw Hkh ldrs gSa] gkMZos;j dgykrs gSaA lh-ih-;w-] dh&cksMZ] ekml] fizUVj]
Lihdj vkfn gkMZos;j ds mnkgj.k gSaA bu lHkh Hkkxksa dks ge ns[kus ds lkFk&lkFk Nw Hkh ldrs gSaA
lkWVos;j (Software) %& dEI;wVj ls dk;Z djokus ds fy, gesa dEI;wVj dks crkuk gksxk fd mls
D;k djuk gSA bl dk;Z ds fy, gesa dEI;wVj dks funsZ'k nsus iM+rs gSaA bu funsZ'kksa dks gh lkWVos;j
dgk tkrk gSA bu funsZ'kksa ds lewg dks izksxzke Hkh dgk tkrk gSA
lkWVos;j gh gkMZos;j dks f;k'khy cukrk gSA dksbZ Hkh gkMZos;j rHkh dk;Z djrk gS] tc
mls mlls lEcfU/kr lkWVos;j ls funsZ'k feyrs gSaA lkWVos;j bysDVkWfud :i esa gksrs gSa ftUgsa ns[kk
;k Nqvk ugha tk ldrkA
3.3
lkWVos;j dk mi;ksx dEI;wVj rFkk mi;ksxdrkZ ds e/; dh f;kvksa dks lapkfyr djus ds fy;s fd;k
tkrk gS rFkk budk mi;ksx fdlh dk;Z dks dEI;wVjkbTM djus ds fy;s Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA ;s rhu izdkj
ds gksrs gaS%&
3.4
dEI;wVj dks lapkfyr djus okys lkWVos;j] tks dEI;wVj ij fdlh izksxzke ds f;kUou ds
fy, vko';d gksrs gSa] flLVe lkWVos;j dgykrs gSaA ;s dEI;wVj dks vf/kd izHkko'kkyh ,oa mi;ksxh
cukrs gSaAflLVe lkWVos;j izksxzkeks dk og lewg gS tks fd dEI;wVj ds HkkSfrd Hkkxksa rFkk lkWVos;j dks
fu;fU=r djrk gSA flLVe lkWVos;j ds vHkko esa dEI;wVj ij ,Iyhds'ku lkWVos;j dk mi;ksx ugha
fd;k tk ldrk gSA flLVe lkWVos;j dEI;wVj fo'ks"kKksa }kjk rS;kj fd;s tkrs gSaA ;s dEI;wVj rU=
dk ,d vR;ko';d Hkkx gSaA;g dEI;wVj mi;kssxdrkZ rFkk dEI;wVj gkMZos;j ds e/; dh f;kvksa dks
fu;fU=r djrk gS rFkk ;g ,Iyhdsku lkWVos;j dks Hkh f;kfUor djrk gS blfy;s bls ,Iyhdsku
lkWVos;j dk vk/kkj Hkh dgk tkrk gSA
flLVe lkWVos;j ds dk;Z%&
1 flLVe lkWVos;j vU; lHkh lkWVos;jks dk fu"iknu djrk gSA
2 ;g mi;ksxdrkZ rFkk dEI;wVj gkMZos;j ds e/; lEcU/k LFkkfir djrk gSSA
3 bldk mi;ksx fofHkUu lkWVos;jksa ds fuekZ.k ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA
4 dEI;wVj L=ksrks tSls eSeksjh] izkslslj] buiqV vkmViqV fMokbl dks fu;fU=r djrk gSA
flLVe lkWVos;j esa vxzfyf[kr izksxzke lfEefyr gksrs gSa %&
1 vkWijsfVax flLVe (Operating System)
2 ;wfVfyVh izksxzke (Utility Program)
3 izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk,a (Programming Languages)
4 Hkk"kk lalk/kd (Language Translator)
3.4.1
,sls izksxzkeksa dk lewg tks dEI;wVj ds leLr dk;ksZa dk lapkyu djrk gS] vkWijsfVax flLVe
dgykrk gSA ;g dEI;wVj vkSj mi;ksxdkkZ (User) ds chp ;kstd dM+h Hkh gksrk gSA tSls gh ;wtj
dEI;wVj vkWu djrk gS] vkWijsfVax flLVe dEI;wVj dh eSeksjh esa laxzfgr gks tkrk gS vkSj fQj dEI;wVj
dh leLr f;kvksa dk lapkyu djrk gSA MS-DOS, WINDOWS, UNIX, LINUX, SOLARIS,
BhartiOO vkfn dqN izpfyr vkWijsfVax flLVe gSaA
dEI;wVj esa miyC/k lalk/kuks ds mfpr ,ao dq'kyrk iqoZd mi;ksx ds fy, rFkk mi;ksxdrkZ
dh lqfo/kk ds fy, ,sls lkWVos;jksa dh vko';drk gksrh gS tks lalk/kuks dk izca/ku ,ao fu;a=.k dj
ldsAvkWijsfVax flLVe ;s lHkh dk;Z djrk gS rFkk blds vfrfjDr fuEu lsok, iznku djrk gS &
1 buiqV&vkmViqV vkWijs'ku (Input Output Operation)
2 Qkby flLVe esuhiqys'ku (File System Manipulation)
3 ,jj~ fMVsd'ku (Error Detection)
4 dE;quhds'ku (Communication)
5 izksxzke ,XthD;w'ku (Program Execution)
6 fjlkslZ vyksds'ku ,aM eSustesaV (Resource Allocation and Management)
7 fMLdLisl@eSeksjh@izkslsl vdkmfVax
(Disk Space/Memory/Process Accounting)
baVj,fDVo
bl izdkj ds vkWijsfVax flLVe] dEI;wVj esa mifLFkr nks ;k nks ls vf/kd CPU ij
,d eSeksjh rFkk vU; lalk/kuks dk mi;ksx dj ],d gh le; esa fn;s x;s ,d ls vf/kd dk;ksZ
dk ,d le; esa izkslsflax djrk gSA
6.
eYVh
Vklfdax vkW i js f Va x
eYVh Vklfdax vkWijsfVax flLVe esa jSe (RAM) eSeksjh esa mifLFkr ,d ls vf/kd
dk;ksZ dks bl izdkj lalkf/kr fd;k tkrk gS fd dEI;wVj ds lalk/kuksa dk vf/kdre mi;ksx
fd;k tk ldsA
7. jh;y Vkbe vkW i js f Va x
jh;y Vkbe vkWijsfVax flLVe dk;Z fo'ks"k dh le; dh ck/;rk dks /;ku esa j[k
cuk;s tkrs gSAbl izdkj ds vkWijsfVax flLVe dk ,d viuk le; ca/ku gksrk gSAjh;y Vkbe
vkWijsfVax flLVe dk mi;ksx m|ksxksa tSls & ikoj IYkakV, dsfedy baMLVh vkfn esa fofHkUu
izfdz;kvks ds Lor% lapkyu (Auotomation) dh izfdz;k ds fu;a=.k ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
8.
MhlVhC;qVsM vkW i js f Va x
bl izdkj ds vkWijsfVax flLVe esa fdlh x.kuk ds dk;Z dks] HkkSfrd #i ls vyxvyx LFkku ij fLFkr dEI;wVjks ij ckWV fn;k tkrk gSA ;s dEI;wVj eYVh izkslslj flLVe dh
rjg eSeksjh rFkk DykWd Vkbe 'ks;j ugh djrs gSA fofHkUu LFkkuks ij fLFkr ;s dEI;wVj MkVk
dk vknku iznku mPp rhozrk dh lapkj ykbu ;k cl ds }kjk djrs gSA
;s izksxzke dEI;wVj ds fofHkUu Hkkxkssa ds j[k&j[kko rFkk ejEer dk dk;Z djrs gSaA mnkgj.k&fMLd
fjdojh izksxzke] MkVk cSdvi izksxzke vkfnA
3.4.3
izksxzkfeax
dEI;wVj dks fn, tkus okys funsZ'k dEI;wVj dh Hkk"kk esa gh fn, tkrs gSa] D;ksafd dEI;wVj viuh
Hkk"kk gh le>rk gS] euq"; dh Hkk"kk ughaA vkt fofHkUu fo'ks"krkvksa okyh fofo/k dEI;wVj izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk,a
miyC/k gSaA izR;sd Hkk"kk ds vius ekud vkSj fof'k"V fu;e gSaA csfld] dkscksy] QksjVku] ikLdy] lh]
tkok] vkWjsdy vkfn izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa ds dqN mnkgj.k gSA
3.4.4
Hkk"kk
;s ,sls izksxzke gSa tks ,d Hkk"kk esa funsZ'k Lohdkj dj vU; Hkk"kk esa mlds lerqY; funsZ'k rS;kj
djrs gSaAdEikbyj (Compiler), bUVjizsVj (Interpreter), vlsEcyj (Assembler) Hkk"kk
lalk/kd ds dqN mnkgj.k gSA
dEikbyj &;g ,d flLVe lkWVos;j gS ftldk mi;ksx mPp Lrjh; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk dks
ekhuh Hkk"kk es ifjofrZr djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gS dEikbyj iwjs izksxke dks ,d lkFk dEikby djrk
gS rFkk fofHkUu =qfV;ksa dks muds ykbu uEcj ds lkFk iznfkZr djrk gS dEikbyj }kjk izksxzke fu"iknu
ds le; izksxzke dk eSeksjh es gksuk t#jh ugha gSA
bUVjizsVj &os Hkk"kk izkslslj tks mPp Lrjh; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk dks iafDr nj iafDr ekhuh Hkk"kk
es ifjofrZr djrs gSa bUVjizsVj dgykrs gSaA fdlh Hkh iafDr es =qfV gksus ij og rRdky iznfkZZr
dj nsrk gSA bUVizsVj }kjk izksxzke fu"iknu ds le; izksxzke dk eSeksjh es gksuk vko;d gSA
vlsEcyj &;g vlsEcyh Hkk"kk es fy[ks izksxzke dks ekhuh Hkk"kk es ifjofrZr djrk gSA
3.3.2
,Iyhdsku lkWVos;j izksxzkeksa dk og lewg gS tks fdlh fo'ks"k rFkk fuf'pr dk;ksZa dks djus ds
ms'; ls cuk, x, gks A dk;Z ds vk/kkj ij budk fuekZ.k fdlh Hkh Hkk"kk esa fd;k tk ldrk gSA
MkWDVj] bUthfu;j] fMtkbuj] ,MoksdsV vkfn dks viuh fHkUu vko';drkvksa gsrq fHkUu&fHkUu izdkj
ds izksxzkeksa dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ;s is'ksoj O;fDr ,Iyhds'ku lkWVos;j ds iz;ksx ls vius dk;ksZa
dk fu"iknu cgqr gh csgrj <ax ls dj ldrs gSaA vkt cSafdax] chek] QSDVjh] vLirky] bathfu;fjax
vkfn esa budk dkQh mi;ksx gksus yxk gSA f'k{kk cksMZ ,oa fo'ofo|ky;ksa }kjk ijh{kk ifj.kke rS;kj
djus] dk;kZy;ksa esa osru fcy cukus ds fy, Hkh fofHkUu ,Iyhds'ku lkWVos;j dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA ;s izksxzke dEI;wVj dks fofk"V dk;Z djus dh l{kerk iznku djrs gS tSls oMZ izkslsflax] bUosUVh dUVksy]
is&jksy] jsYos vkj{k.k vkfn ;s lHkh lkWVos;j bl Js.kh ds vUrxZr vkrs gSA
3.3.2.2
LizsM'khV (Spreadsheet)
LizsM'khV, iafDr (ROW) rFkk LrEHk (Column) esa O;ofLFkr MkVk ,oe~ VsDlV dh
Vscy gksrh gSA LizsM'khV esa mifLFkr izR;sd eku (MkVk ;k VsDlV) dk nqljs eku ls iwoZ
fu/kkZfjr lEcU/k gksrk gSA ;fn fdlh eku esa ifjofrZr fd;k tkrk gS rks mlls lEcaf/kr eku
esa Lor% ifjorZu gks tkrk gSA
LizsM'khV, vuqiz;ksx lkWVos;j ds ,sls oxZ dks fu#fir djrk gS ftudh enn ls
LizsM'khV dks bysDVksfud #i esa cuk;k ,ao ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA LizsM'khV izR;sd
MkVk@VsDlV dks ,d lSy (Cell) esa MkVk ds izdkj (Type) dks vklkuh ls ifjHkkf"kr fd;k
tk ldrk gSAlSy (Cell) ds uke dks yscy (Label) rFkk buds e/; laca/k dks QkWaewZyk
(Formula) dgrs gSALizsM'khV esa mifLFkr iafDr;ksa (ROWS) rFkk LrEHkksa (Columns) dh
pkSM+kbZ rFkk pkbZ dks vklkuh ls ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
LizsM'khV dk iz;ksx ctV rS;kj djus ] lkexzh izca/ku] ykxr izca/ku] vk;dj x.kuk
vkfn esa fd;k tk ldrk gSAcktkj esa miyC/k dqN LizsM'khV vuqiz;ksx lkWVos;j fuEu gS
1
yksV~l&123
(Lotus-123)
2
,e- ,l- ,Dlsy (M.S. Excel)
3.3.2.3
3.3.2.4
;s
lHkh
lkWVos;j
dEI;wVj
ij
fdlh
u
fdlh
izdkj
dh
lqfo/kk iznku djrs gSa vr% bUgs ;wfVfyVh lkWVos;j (Utility Software) dgrs gSaA ;s ;wfVfyVh
lkWVos;j lkekU;r% fuEu dk;ksaZ ds fy, iz;ksx esa yk;s tkrs gSa %&
1
Qkbyksa dks cSdvi ysus o cSdvi dks iqu% dEI;wVj ij Mkyus ds fy, fjLVksj izksxzkeA
dEI;wVj ij ok;jl dh tkap djus o mls gVkus ds fy, ,UVh ok;jl izksxzke vkfnA
,DlIyksjj
vyx&vyx LFkkuksa ij VqdM+ksa esa Hk.Mkfjr gksuk sxesUVku dgykrk gSA ftrus vf/kd sxesUV gksaxs
mruh gh dEI;wVj dh xfr /kheh gksxhA
;fn ge Qkby ds bu VqdM+ksa dk yxkrkj ,d LFkkuksa ij Hk.Mkfjr dj ldsa rks dEI;wVj dh
xfr c<+ ldrh gSA Qkby ds fofHkUu VqdMs+ tks fd eSseksjh esa vyx&vyx LFkku ij Hk.Mkfjr gSa] dks
yxkrkj ,d lkFk Hk.Mkfjr djuk fMsxesUVsku dgykrk gSA blfy, gesa dEI;wVj ij ,d eghus esa
,d ckj fMsxesUVsku lkWVos;j pyk ysuk pkfg;sA ftlls fd Qkby ds fofHkUu Hkkx yxkrkj ,d
LFkkuksa ij Hk.Mkfjr jg ldsaA vkSj dEI;wVj dh xfr rst jg ldsA
3-3.3.3 LdSufMLd
Vwy
tSlk fd ge tkurs gS fd dEI;wVj vius vki esa ,d dfBu dkEWiysDl flLVe gSA dEI;wVj
ij dk;Z djus ds nkSjku dEI;wVj esa fofHkUu izdkj ds vkUrfjd f;k,a lEiUu gksrh gSaA bu f;kvksa
ds ckjs es gesa tkudkjh Hkh ugha gskrh gS tSls fofHkUu Qkbyksa dks izkFkfed eSeksjh esa Mkyuk] budks
ekuqlkj fu"ikfnr djuk] vuko';d Qkbyksa dks izkFkfed eSeksjh ls f}rh;d eSeksjh esa Mkyuk vkfnA
bu f;kvksa ds lEiknu ds nkSjku dEI;wVj esa xyfr;ka gksus dh laEHkkouk cuh jgrh gSA ;fn
le;≤ ij bu xyfr;ksa dks lq/kkjk u tk;s rks xEHkhj ifj.kke gks ldrs gSaA
bu xyfr;ksa ls cpus ds fy, ;k xyfr;ksa ds dkj.k gksus okys ifj.kkeksa ls cpus ds fy,
LdSufMLd lkWVos;j dk mi;ksx djuk pkfg;sA ;g lkWVos;j gkMZfMLd dks lqjf{kr j[krk gSA ftl
izdkj MkWl vkWijsfVax flLVe esa pSd fMLd dek.M dk;Z djrk FkkA mlh izdkj LdSu fMLd fo.Mks
vkWijsfVax flLVe esa dk;Z djrk gSA
3-3.3.4 ok;jl LdSuj / SDyhuj
ok;jl
tho foKku esa ok;jl dk vFkZ dhVk.kqvksa ls gksrk gS tks ;fn 'kjhj ds vUnj izos'k dj tk;as
rks 'kjhj lkekU; dk;Z ugh dj ikrkA blh izdkj dEI;wVj fo"k; esa ok;jl dk vFkZ mu izksxzkeksa ls
gksrk gS tks ;fn dEI;wVj esa izos'k dj tk;sa rks dE;wVj esa ok;jl ds izos'k ds dkj.k fofHkUu izdkj
dh ijs'kkfu;ka mRiUu gks ldrh gSaA vr% ok;jl ,d fo'ks"k izdkj ds izksxzke gSa tks oSls rks vU;
lkWVos;j izksxzke dh rjg gh gksrs gSaA ijUrq ;s izksxzke dEI;wVj o mlesa Hk.Mkfjr vkadM+ksa dks uqdlku
igqapkus ds fy, gksrs gSaA ;s ok;jl dEI;wVj dh vU; Qkbyksa ds lkFk feydj dEI;wVj dh lkekU;
dk;Z iz.kkyh dks ckf/kr dj nsrs gSaA
bu ok;jl izksxzke dh fo'ks"krk ;s gksrh gSa fd ;s Lor% gh viuh izfrfyfi rS;kj dj ldrs
gSa rFkk lk/kkj.kr% ;s fdlh vU; Qkby ds lkFk tqM+dj laxzfgr gksrs gSaA vFkkZr~ ;fn ge bu ok;jl
izksxzke dh Qkby <wa<+s rks ;s Qkbysa ugh feysxhA
ok;jl gks rks mls fudkysaA
,aVhok;jl
izksxzke
ftl izdkj ok;jl ,d izksxzke gS vkSj bldh ,d fo'ks"k izdkj ds dk;Z djus dh {kerk gSA
mlh izdkj cktkj esa ,sls izksxzke Hkh miyC/k
gSa tks bu ok;jl izksxzke
S
dh mifLFkr dks tkap ldrs gSa vkSj bUgs dEI;wVj esa ls gVk ldrs gSaA ijUrq ;g vko';d ugh gS fd
dksbZ Hkh ,aVh ok;jl izksxzke lHkh izdkj ds ok;jl dh mifLFkfr dh tkap dj ldrs gksa vkSj mUgs
gVk ldrs gksaA
tSlk ge i< pqds gSa fd ;s ok;jl izksxzke gksrs gS rks budh ,d fo'ks"k dk;Z fof/k Hkh gksxhA
bl fo'ks"k dk;Z fof/k ds vk/kkj ij gh budh mifLFkfr dh tkap lEHko gSA ;fn ok;jl dh dk;Z
fof/k bl izdkj dh gks fd ,aVh ok;jl mldh igpku dj lds rks ,aVh ok;jl ml ok;jl dh u
rks mifLFkfr crk;sxk vkSj u gh mls fudky ik;sxkA vr% ;g vko';d gS fd ,aVh ok;jl ,slk gksuk
pkfg;s tks yxHkx lHkh izpfyr ok;jl dh igpku djus dh {kerk j[krk gksA gkykafd ;g lEHko
ugha gS fd ,d ,aVh ok;jl lHkh ok;jl dks igpku ldsA ij ftruk vf/kd laEHko gks ,aVh ok;jl
le;kuqlkj viMsVsM djrs jguk pkfg, ftlls fd ;g izpfyr ok;jl dh igpku dj ldsaA
fofHkUu ,aVhok;jl izksxzke cktkj esa miyC/k gSA tSls ukWjVu ,aVh ok;jl] vkbZ- ,- oh- Vh] LekVZMkWx vkfn bu lHkh ,aaVhok;jl dh dk;Ziz.kkyh vyx&vyx gksrh gSA ijUrq lHkh ,aVhok;jl
,d&,d djds lHkh Mkbo dh tkap djrs gSa vkSj fQj muesa ls ok;jl gVkrs gSaA
tc Hkh fdlh ,aVhok;jl izksxzke dks pyk,a rks igys dEI;wVj dks ,slh ykWih ;k lhMh ls
cwV djsa tks ok;jl xzflr u gksA bl ykWih dks jkbV izksVDV j[ksaA cwV djus ds ckn ,aVhok;jl izksxzke
pyk,aA
egRoiw.kZ fcUnq
1-
2-
3-
4-
lkWVos;j rhu izdkj ds gksrs gSA 1- flLVe lkWVos;j 2- ,Iyhds'ku lkWVos;j 3- ;wfVfyVh
lkWVos;j
5-
6-
7-
8. ;wfVfyVh lkWVos;j % ,sls lkWVos;j ftudk mi;ksx dj gekjs dEI;wVj dks LoLF; vFkkZr rst
xfr ls pyus yk;d o vf/kd vkadM+s xzg.k djus yk;d vkfn cuk ldrs gSA
9.
ok;jl% ,sls izksxzke ftuds dEI;wVj ij vkus ls dEI;wVj dh dk;Ziz.kkyh vFkok vkadMs+ [kjkc
gks ldrs gSaA buesa Lo;a dks dkWih djus dh {kerk gksrh gSA
10. ,aVh ok;jl+ & ,sls izksxzke tks dEI;wVj ij ok;jl dh mifLFkfr dks n'kkZrk gSA vkSj ok;jl
dks dEI;wVj esa ls fudkyus dk dk;Z djrk gSA mnkgj.k& ukWjVu ,aVh ok;jl]LekVZ MkWx] vkbZ-,-oh]Vh
vkfn
13. ok;jl ls lqj{kk& bl gsrq ckgj dh Qkbyksa ;k ykWfi;ksa dk mi;ksx de ls de djsaA ikbjsVsM
lkWVos;j dk mi;ksx u djsaA vokaNuh; yksxksa ds dEI;wVj iz;ksx ij izfrca/k gks vkfnA
12. Qkby eSustesUV %&,sls lkWVos;j ftudk iz;ksx fofHkUu Qkbyksa ;k QksYMjksa dks O;ofLFkr djus
ds dke vkrs gSA O;ofLFkr djus ls rkRi;Z Qkby dks ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku ij ys tkuk] Qkby
gVkuk] Qkby <w<+uk ]QksYMj cukuk vkfn ls gSA mnkgj.k%& fo.Mkst ,DlIyksjj] ekbZ dEI;wVj vkfnA
13. fo.Mkst ,DlIyksjj pykuk%& LVkVZ&izksxzke&fo.Mkst ,DlIyksjj
14. fMLd eSustesaUV Vwy%& ,sls lkWVos;j ftudk iz;ksx dj gkMZ fMLd] ykWih fMLd vkfn dks
LoLFk vFkkZr rst xfr'khy j[k ldrs gSA mnkgj.k %& fMLd fMsxesUVj] LdSu fMLd vkfnA
15. fMLd fMsxesUVj%& ;g lkWVos;j fMLd ij Hk.Mkfjr Qkby ds Hkkxksa dks ,d lkFk
ikl&ikl ykrk gS ftlls Qkby dks i<us esa de le; yxsA
16. LdSu fMLd%& ;g lkWVos;j fMLd ij fLFkr dfBukbZ;ksa tSls cSM lsDVj] vkfn dks lgh dj
ldrk gSA rFkk fMLd ls lEcfU/kr vU; tkudkfj;ksa dks iznf'Zkr djrk gSA
tSls dqy txg] dqy QksYMj ] dqy Qkby] Nqih Qkbyks dh la[;k] [kkyh txg vkfn A
vH;kl iz'u
cgqp;ukRed iz'u
1- dEI;wVj esa iz;ksx fd, tkus okys HkkSfrd midj.k dgykrs gSA
v lkWVos;j
c gkMZos;j
l ykWih
n lh-ih-;w-
c pkj
l rhu
c flLVe lkWVos;j
l gkMZos;j
n ,sIyhds'ku
4- izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk esa fy[ks izksxzke dks dEI;wVj dh Hkk"kk e'khuh Hkk"kk esa ifjofrZr djus dk dk;Z
dkSu djrk gS\
v dEikbyj
c bUVjizsVj
l v vkSj c nksuksa
c ekWuhVj
n foUMkst
7-
8-
9-
y?kqkjkRed
iz'u
iz'u
1- lkWVos;j D;k gS\ ;s fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gS\ izR;sd dks mnkgj.k lfgr Li"V dhft,A
2- vkWijsfVax flLVe ds eq[; dk;ksZ dk o.kZu dhft,A
3- Qkby eSustesUV Vwy ls vki D;k le>rs gS \ fdlh ,d Qkby eSustesUV Vwy ij fVIi.kh
fyf[k;sA
4- fMLd eSustesUV Vwy ls D;k vk'k; gS \
mkjekyk
1- c 2- l 3- v 4- l 5- n 6- n 7- v 8- c 9- n
4
la[;k flLVe] ckbujh xf.kro dEI;wVj dksM
(Number System, Binary Arithmetic & Computer Codes)
la[;k
izR;sd dEI;wVj vadks] v{kjksa o vU; fo'ks"k v{kjksa dks dwV :i esa vius vki esa laxzfgr djrk
gSA tc ge MkVk dks dEI;wVj esa laxzfgr djrs gSa rks MkVk ,d fHkUu :i ls dwV dksM ds :i esa e'khu
esa laxzfgr fd;k tkrk gSA vr% bl dwV dksM dks le>us ls iwoZ gesa la[;k flLVe dks le>uk gksxkA
bl ikB dk izeq[k mns'; ;g gS fd vki lkekU; la[;k vk/kkjHkwr vad flLVe o dqN izpfyr flLVe
tks fd dEI;wVj fo'ks"kKksa ds }kjk mi;ksx esa fy;s tkrs gSa] dks le>s A
ckbujh
n'keyo lerqY;
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
/;ku jgs fd ckbujh la[;k flLVe esa flQZ nks gh vad 0 o 1 gksrs gSaA blfy;s n'keyo i)fr
dh la[;k 2 dks ckbujh i)fr esa 10 ,d o 'kwU; fy[kk o i<+k tk;sA nwljk egRoiw.kZ rF; gS fd
3 fcVl ls 0 o 1 ds la;ksx ls vf/kdre 23 8 la[;k,sa cukbZ tk ldrh gSaA vr% n'keyo i)fr
dh la[;k,sa 0 ls 2n-1 dks ckbujh dh n fcV dh la[;k ls cuk;k tk ldrk gSA
;k 431
vr% (1 AF)16 = (431)10
pwafd gSDlkMslhey la[;k iz.kkyh esa 16 vad gksrs gSa vr% gSDlkMslhey ds izR;sd vad dks
ckbujh dh 4 fcV~l (24 =16) }kjk O;Dr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
4-4-1 fdlh vU; vk/kkj dh la[;k dks n'keyo dh la[;k esa ifjofrZr djuk
(Converting to Decimal from another Base)
fuEufyf[kr rhu pj.kksa ds }kjk fdlh Hkh vU; vk/kkj dh la[;k dks n'keyo iz.kkyh dh la[;k
esa ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
pj.k&1 % izR;sd vad dk LFkkuh; ewY; Kkr djsaA ;g vad dh fLFkfr o la[;k iz.kkyh ds vk/kkj
ij fuHkZj gksrk gSA
pj.k&2 % pj.k &1 esa Kkr fd;s x;s LFkkuh; ewY; dks ml fLFkfr dh la[;k ls xq.kk djsaA
pj.k&3 % pj.k &2 esa Kkr fd;s x;s xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksx dhft,A ;g ;ksx gh n'keyo dh la[;k
ds lerqY; gksxkA
mnkgj.k&1 110012 \10
pj.k&1 % izR;sd vad dk LFkkuh; ewY; fudkyuk
dkye la[;k
nk;sa ls LFkkuh; ewY;
1
20 1
2
21 2
3
22 4
4
23 8
5
24 16
pj.k&2 % LFkkuh; ewY;ksa dks mudh fLFkfr okyh la[;k ls xq.kk djuk
16
8
4
2
1
1
8
0
0
0
0
pj.k&3 %
7
448
0
0
1
1
dkWye ewY;
80 1
81 8
82 64
83 512
6
6
2048$448$0$6 2502
vr% 47068 250210
4-4-2 vk/kkj 10 okyh la[;k dks fdlh vU; vk/kkj okyh la[;k esa ifjofrZr
djuk (Converting from Base 10 to a New Base (Division-Remainder Technique)
fuEufyf[kr pkj pj.kksa ds }kjk 10 ds vk/kkj okyh la[;k dks fdlh vU; vk/kkj okyh la[;k
esa ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
pj.k 1 % n'keyo dh la[;k dks ftl vk/kkj dh la[;k esa cnyuk gks ml vk/kkj ls ml la[;k esa
Hkkx yxkvks
pj.k 2 % izFke pj.k ls izkIr 'ks"kQy dks u;s vk/kkj dh la[;k ds lcls nk;ha vksj dk vad ekusA
pj.k 3 % izkIr HkkxQy dks ml vk/kkj ls fQj ls Hkkx yxkvksA
pj.k 4 % pj.k&3 ls izkIr 'ks"kQy dks u;s vk/kkj dh la[;k ds lcls nk;ha vad ds ck;as fy[ksA
pj.k 3 o 4 dks ckj&ckj djsa vkSj izkIr 'ks"kQy dks nk;sa ls ck;sa fy[krs tk;s tc rd pj.k&3
esa HkkxQy 0 izkIr u gksA /;ku jgs fd vafre 'ks"kQy gh u;s vk/kkj okyh la[;k dk vfUre ck;k
vad gksxkA
mnkgj.k&1
(25)10 = (?)2
gy %
pj.k 1 o 2 % 25@2
HkkxQy 12 o 'ks"kQy 1
pj.k 3 o 4 % 12@2
HkkxQy 6 o 'ks"kQy 0
pj.k 3 o 4 % 6@2
HkkxQy 3 o 'ks"kQy 0
pj.k 3 o 4 % 3@2
HkkxQy 1 o 'ks"kQy 1
pj.k 3 o 4 % 1@2
HkkxQy 0 o 'ks"kQy 1
vr% (25)10 = (11001)2
mnkgj.k&2 (42)10 = (?)2
gy%
2
42
2
21
2
10
2
5
2
2
2
1
0
vr%
(42)10 = (101010)2
'ks"kQy
0
1
0
1
0
1
952
8
8
8
119
14
1
0
'ks"kQy
0
7
6
1
vr%
428
26
1
0
(428)10 = (1AC)16
12 = C
10 = A
1
'ks"kQy
0
0
'ks"kQy
100
20
4
0
vr% (100)10 = (400)5
4-4-3 vk/kkj 10 ds vykok vU; fdlh vk/kkj dh la[;k esa ifjofrZr djuk
(Converting from a Base other than 10 to a Base other than 10)
fuEufyf[kr nks pj.kksa ds }kjk mijksDr fyf[kr vk/kkj dh la[;k esa ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk
gSA
pj.k&1 % okLrfod la[;k dks loZizFke 10 ds vk/kkj dh la[;k esa ifjofrZr dfj;sA
pj.k&2 % n'keyo vk/kkj dh la[;k dks bfPNr vk/kkj dh la[;k esa ifjofrZr dfj;sA
mnkgj.k&1 % (545)6 = (?)4
gy %
pj.k&1 % 6 ds vk/kkj ls 10 ds vk/kkj esa ifjofrZr dfj;sA
= 562 + 461 + 560
= 536 + 46 + 51
= 180 + 24 + 5
= (209)10
pj.k&2 % (209)10 dks vk/kkj 4 esa ifjofrZr djuk
4
209
1
'ks"kQy
4
52
0
4
13
1
4
3
3
0
vr% (209)10 = (3101)4
vFkkZr (545)6 = (3101)4
mnkgj.k&2 (101110)2 = (?)8
545
gy %
pj.k&1 % (101110)2 dks vk/kkj 10 esa ifjorZuA
46
5
0
6
5
'ks"kQy
'ks"kQy
4-4-4 ckbujh ls vkWDVy esa ifjofrZr djus dk y?kq rjhdk (Shortcut Method
for Binary to Octal Conversion)
fuEufyf[kr pj.kksa ds }kjk ckbujh la[;k dks vkWDVy la[;k esa ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
pj.k&1 % nk;sa ls izkjEHk djrs gq;s rhu&rhu ckbujh vadksa ds lewg cuk;asA
pj.k&2 % rhu ckbujh vadksa ds lewg dks vkWDVy la[;k esa ifjofrZr djsaA
mnkgj.k&1 (101110)2 = (?)8
pj.k&1 % 101 110
pj.k&2 %
(101)2 = 122 + 021 + 1 20
=4+0+1
= 58
(110)2 = 122 + 121 + 020
=4+2+0
= 68
vr% (101110)2 = (56)8
mnkgj.k&2
(1101010)2 = (?)8
gy %
(1101010)2 = 001 101
1
5
010
2
4-4-5 vkWDVy la[;k dks ckbujh la[;k esa ifjorZu dk y?kq rjhdk
(Shortcut Method for Octal to Binary Conversion)
010
2
gy %
(6751)8 = 110
111
101
001
6
7
5
1
= (110 111 101 001)2
vr%
(6751)8 = (110 111 101 001)2
fuEufyf[kr pj.kksa ds vuqlkj djus ij ckbujh la[;k ds lerqY; gSDlkMslhey la[;k izkIr
dh tk ldrh gSA
pj.k&1 % nk;ssa ls izkjEHk djrs gq, ckbujh ds pkj&pkj vadksa dk lewg cuk;saA
pj.k&2 % izR;sd pkj ckbujh vadksa ds lewg dks ,d gSDlkMslhey dh la[;k esa ifjorZu djsaA
mnkgj.k&1 (11010011)2 = (?)16
pj.k&1 % 1101 0011
pj.k&2 %
(1101)2 = 123 + 122 + 021 + 120
=8+4+0+1
= 1310
= D16
(0011)2 = 023 + 022 + 121 + 120
=0+0+2+1
= 316
vr% (11010011)2 = (D3)16
mnkgj.k&2
(10110101100)2 = (?)16
(10110 10 1100)2 = 0101 1010 1100
5 AC
vr% (10110101100)2 = (5 AC)16
4-4-7 gSDlkMslhey la[;k dks ckbujh la[;k esa ifjofrZr djus dk y?kq rjhdk
(Shortcut Method for Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion)
gy %
(ABC)16 = 1010 1011 1100
A B
C
= (101010111100)2
vr% (ABC)16 = (101010111100)2
vkSj
68.53 = (6101 ) + (8100 ) + (510-1) + (310-2)
-2
o
10.01 = (121 ) + (020 ) + (02-1) + (12-2)
ckbujh dk n'keyo Bhd n'keyo iz.kkyh ds n'keyo dh rjg gh dk;Z djrk gSA
mnkgj.k&1 % (110.101)2 = (?)10
gy %
(110.101)2 = 122 + 121 + 020 + 12-1 + 02-1 + 12-3
=4
+2
+0
1
2
+0
1
8
= 6 + 0.5 + 0.125
= (6.625)10
mnkgj.k&2
(127.54)8 = ( )10
(127.54)8 = 182 + 281 + 780 + 58-1 + 48-2
= 64
+ 16
+7
5
8
4
64
= 87 + 0.625 + 0. 0625
= (87.6875)10
mnkgj.k&3
(2B. C4)16 = (?) 10
(2B.C4)16 = 2161 + B160 + C16-1 + 416-2
= 32 + 11 +
C
4
+
16 256
= 43 + 0.75 + 0.015625
= (43.765625)10
0$1
1$0
1$1
nks vadks dks tksM+us
Hkstdj tksM+k tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k&1 12$13
1
1
0
ij izkIr
&
&
1
gkfly (Carry) dks n'keyo iz.kkyh dh rjg vxys LFkku ij
1210 11002
1310 11012
1
gkfly (Carry)
1100 12
1101 13
11001 25
mDr mnkgj.k esa vadks dks nk;ha vksj ls tksM+uk izkjEHk djsaA fu;ekuqlkj 0 vkSj 1 dks tksM+us
ij ;ksx 1 izkIr gksrk gSA blh izdkj nwljs LFkku ds vadksa dk ;ksx 0] rhljs LFkku ds vadks dk ;ksx
0 o gkfly 1 izkIr gksrk gSA gkfly dks pkSFks LFkku ds vadks ds lkFk bls tksM+us ij vafre LFkku
dk ;ksx 11 izkIr gksrk gS( ;g fu;ekuqlkj izkIr gksrk gSA vFkkZr 1$1$1 1$1$1
gkfly 1 ;ksx 0$1
gkfly 1 ;ksx 0$1
gkfly 1 ;ksx 1
mnkgj.k&2
153 $ 94 \
15310
1 0 0 1 1 00 1
9410 $
0 1 0 1 1 11 0
24710
1 1 1 1 0 11 1
vr% 153$94 247
100110012$010111102 111101112
4-6-2 _.kkRed la[;k, (Negative Numbers)
n'keyo la[;k iz.kkyh esa _.kkRed la[;k dks blds /kukRed eku (positive Value) ds vkxs ^&*
dk fp yxkdj O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA tSls 25 /kukRed la[;k dh&25 _.kkRed la[;k gksxhA
ysfdu dEI;wVj esa _.kkRed la[;k dks O;Dr djus ds fy;s fuEufyf[kr rhu iz.kkfy;ksa dk mi;ksx
fd;k tkrk gS&
1- fp eku iz.kkyh (Signed Magnitude Method)
2- 1& dk iwjd iz.kkyh (Ones Complement Method)
3- 2& dk iwjd iz.kkyh (Twos Complement Method)
xq.kk n'keyo xq.kk ls dkQh ljy gS o fuEu fu;eksa dh enn ls xq.kk fd;k tk
0
0
0
1
1
1
10
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
dEI;wVj izk;% bl rjg ls xq.kk ugha djrk gS] tksM+ dh lgk;rk ls gh nks la[;kvksa dks xq.kk
fd;k tkrk gSA bls le>us ds fy;s ge fuEu mnkgj.k ysrs gSaA tSls 4*5 djus ds fy;s 4 dks ikp
ckj tksM+uk pkfg;s] 4$4$4$4$4 ;k 5 dks pkj ckj tksM+uk pkfg;s] tSls 5$5$5$5A ;g izf;k
dEI;wVj esas T;knk vuqdwy gSA
5- HkkT; dh vxyh fcV dks 'ks"kQy ds lkFk fy[ksa vkSj ;g izf;k rc rd nksgjk;sa tc rd HkkT;
esa dksbZ fcV uk cpsA
mnkgj.k&1
101101110
110
101101
0111 HkkxQy
110
1011
& 110
1010
&110
1001
&110
011 'ks"kQy
dEI;wVj esa Hkkx dh ;g izf;k ugha viuk;h tkrh gSA dEI;wVj nks la[;kvksa dk Hkkx djus
ds fy;s ?kVko dh izf;k dk nksgjko djrk gSA tSls 408 Kkr djus ds fy;s 8 dks 40 esa ls ?kVkrs
tk;sasxs tc rd fd 0 ;k mlls de la[;k izkIr ugha gksrh gSA dqy ftruh ckj Hkktd dks HkkT; ls
iw.kZ :i ls ?kVk;k x;k] og HkkxQy gksrk gSA
40&8
32
32&8
24
24&8
16
16&8
8
8&8
0
mijksDr mnkgj.kksa esa Hkktd 8 dks HkkT; 40 esa ls 5 ckj ?kVk;k x;kA vr% HkkxQy 5 gksxk
o 'ks"kQy 0 gksxkA
2-
eku jfgr dksM (Unweighted Code) bl dksM esa izR;sd fcV dk vius LFkku ds fglkc
ls fuf'pr eku ugha gksrk gSA tSls ASCII ;k EBCDIC dksMA
0101
0010 0111
;k 010100100111 BCD dksM gSA
BCD dksM eku;qDr dksM gS] vFkkZr fcV dk LFkku ds fglkc ls fuf'pr eku gSA BCD Code
dbZ izdkj ds gSaA tSls 8421 dksM] 7421 dksM] 6311 dksM] 2421 dksM 8421 dksM bR;kfnA buesa 8421
dksM eq[;r% izpfyr gSA
lkj.kh&1 ds }kjk 8421 dksM dks n'kkZ;k x;k gSA bl dksM esa 8] 4] 2] 1 fcV ds LFkkuksa ds eku gSaA
vFkkZr~ BCD dksM 0110 dks ;fn vadks ds eku ds fglkc ls ns[kk tk;s&
0 8 $ 14 $ 12 $ 01 6
rks ;g n'keyo la[;k 6 dk 8421 (BCD) dksM gSA dEI;wVj fMtkbuj BCD dksM esa 6 fcV~l
dk Hkh iz;ksx djrs gSa] buesa izFke nks fcV] tksu fcV (Zone Bit) dgykrh gS rFkk vfUre pkj fMftV
fcV (Digit Bit) dgykrh gSA fMftV fcV BCD ekuksa dks gh O;Dr djrh gSA 6 fcV ds bl dksM esa
vf/kdre 64 lewg dksM cuk;s tk ldrs gSaA lkj.kh&2 esa 6 fcV BCD dksM dks n'kkZ;k x;k gSA
Character
0
BCD Code
Zone
Digit
00
0000
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
01
01
01
01
01
01
01
01
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
ASCII-7 Code
Zone
Digit
011
0000
011
0001
011
0010
010
0011
011
0100
011
0101
011
0110
011
0111
011
1000
011
1001
100
0001
100
0010
100
0011
100
0100
100
0101
100
0110
100
0111
100
1000
100
1001
100
0010
100
0011
100
1100
100
1101
100
1110
100
1111
101
0000
101
0001
101
0010
101
0011
Character
ASCII-7 Code
Zone
Digit
101
101
101
101
101
101
101
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
ASCII-8 Code
Zone
Digit
0101
0000
0101
0001
0101
0010
0101
0011
0101
0100
0101
0101
0101
0110
0101
0111
0101
1000
0101
1001
1010
0001
1010
0010
1010
0011
1010
0100
1010
0101
1010
0110
1010
0111
1010
1000
1010
1001
1010
0010
1010
0011
1010
1100
1010
1101
1010
1110
1010
1111
1011
0000
1011
0001
1011
0010
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
0011
0100
0101
0100
0111
1000
1001
1010
EBCDIC Code
Zone
Digit
1111
0000
1111
0001
1111
0010
1111
0011
1111
0100
1111
0101
1111
0110
1111
0111
1111
1000
1111
1001
1100
0001
1100 0010
1100
0011
1100 0100
1100 0101
Character
EBCDIC Code
Zone
Digit
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
1101
0110
0111
1000
1001
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
Gray Code
0000
0001
0011
0010
Binary
0000
0001
0010
0011
0110
0111
0101
0100
1100
1101
1111
1110
:
:
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
:
:
bl dksM dks C-DAC (Centre for development of Advanced Computing) lhMsd iq.ks }kjk
cuk;k x;k gSA bl dksM dh lgk;rk ls Hkkjrh; Hkk"kkvksa ds v{kjksa dks O;Dr fd;k x;k gS tks fd
ch Hkk"kk ls fy;s x;s gSaA 1991 esa Hkkjrh; C;wjks vkWQ LVs.MMZl us bl dksM dks ekU;rk iznku dhA
1986&88 esa bysDVksfud foHkkx ds rRoko/kku esa ,d lfefr cukbZ xbZ vkSj lh&MSd (C-DAC)
bldk lnL; cuk ftlus bl dksM dks cuk;kA
egoiw.kZ fcUnq&
1fdlh Hkh vad iz.kkyh dk vk/kkj (Radix or Base) ml iz.kkyh esa dqy vadksa ;k izrhdksa dks
crkrk gSA
2f}vk/kkjh iz.kkyh esa 1$110 gksrk gS] vk/kkj dks O;Dr djus ds fy;s lcfLIV dk bLrseky
7-
v 84&2&1
c 7421
l 3421
n 8421
8- EBCDIC dksM fdrus fcV dk gS&
v 7
c 2
l 1
n 8
9- Unicode dksM fdrus fcV dk gS&
v 15
c 14
l 12
n 16
vfry?kqRrjkRed iz'u
1- 2$24 ds fy;s f}vk/kkjh vad iz.kkyh ds }kjk lehdj.k fyf[k;sA
2- 10] 110] 111] 1011] 1100 o 1110 f}vk/kkjh vadksa ds lerqY; n'keyo vad fyf[k;sA
3- 23-45 n'keyo vad ds lerqY; f}vk/kkjh la[;k D;k gksxh\
4- f}vk/kkjh ?kVko ds fu;e fy[ksaA
5- 1's iwjd fudkyus dh fof/k fy[ksaA
6- ?kVko fudkyus dh dkSu&dkSu lh fof/k;k gSa\
7- ASCII&7 vkSj EBCDIC&8 dksM esa D;k varj gS\
8- Unicode T;knk mi;ksx esa D;ksa fy;k tkrk gS\
9- xzs dksM D;k gS\
y?kwkjkRed iz'u&
1- 2's iwjd fudkyus dh fof/k le>kb;sA
2- 1's iwjd ?kVko dh fof/k le>kb;sA
3- 2's iwjd ?kVko esa vafre LFkku ij gkfly 1 vkus ij mldk D;k fd;k tkrk gS\ vkSj tc ;g
1's iwjd ?kVko essa izkIr gksrh gS rc bldk D;k fd;k tkrk gS\
4- dEI;wVj esa dksM dh D;k mi;ksfxrk gS\
5- fdlh Hkh vad iz.kkyh esa mlds vk/kkj dk D;k ego gS\
fucU/kkRed iz'u&
1- f}vk/kkjh (Binary) Hkkx dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sA
2- ?kVko dh fofHkUu fof/k;ksa dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sA
3- fuEufyf[kr f}vk/kkjh la[;k dks n'keyo la[;k esa ifjofrZr dfj;sA
v 00111
c 11001
l 1010-001 n 111-11
4- fuEufyf[kr gSlkMslhey la[;kvksa dks f}vk/kkjh la[;k esa cnfy;sA
v FF
c ABC
l CD42
n F329
5- fuEufyf[kr f}vk/kkjh la[;kvksa dks muds lerqY; gsDlkMslhey esa cnfy;sA
v 1110 1000 c 1010 1111 0110
l 1100 1011 n 1000 1011 1101 0110
6- 101110 dk 2's iwjd fyf[k,A
9 n
1
izksxzkfeax esFksMksyksth
(Programming Methodlogy)
1-1 ,Yxks f jFke (Algorithm)
fdlh izksxzke ds gy dks vyx&vyx LVsi ds vanj fn[kkus dks ,YxksfjFke dgrs gSA
tc ge fdlh ,YxksfjFke dk iz;ksx djsaxs rks ;g lqfuf'pr djsaxs fd gj vkWijs'ku fuf'pr
le; rd fu"ikfnr gksA ;kfu ftruh ckj Hkh LVsi fu"ikfnr (Execute) gks og ,d fuf'pr la[;k
rd gksA rFkk gj LVsi izHkkodkjh (Effective) gksA
23-
45-
fQj tks Hkh rdZ vkSj gy fudkyk gSA mldk uD'kk cukuk pkfg;s ftlls og iz'u dk lgh
mRrj vk tk;sA
,YxksfjFke dks buiqV MkVk nsdj tkap djuh pkfg;sA
6-
x dk u;k eku = x dk iqjkuk eku $ 5 vFkkZr x dk iqjkuk eku bl dFku dks fu"ikfnr djus ds ckn
[kRe gks x;k gSA vkSj mldh txg x ds u;s eku us ys yh gSA
Read n
F
1
I
1
Step 1.
Read n
Step 2.
Sum
Step 3.
Set i
Step 4.
if i<=n
Step 5.
Sum
Sum+i*i
Step 6.
Set i
i+1
Step 7.
go to step 4
Step 8.
Write sum
mnkgj.k 2- ,d ,YxksfjFke cukb;s tks fd izFke n la[;kvksa ds le rFk fo"ke la[;kvksa dk tksM+
fudkysA
Step 1.
Read n
Step 2.
Step 3.
Step 4.
Step 5.
Step 6.
Step 7.
Step 8.
Step 9.
Se
0
So
0, i
1
if i<=n
if (i%2=0)
Se
Se+i
else so
so+i
set i
i+1
Go to step 4
Print Se, So
ekM;wy
ekM;wy
ekM;wy
ekM;wy
2 ekM;wy
ekM;wy
5 ekM;wy
lk/kkj.kr;k tc Hkh dksbZ izksxzke cukrs gS rks blh rduhd dk iz;ksx djrs gSA
mnkgj.k ds fy, ;fn gesa dksbZ cM+s edku dk fuekZ.k djrs gS rks ge viuh lqfo/kkuqlkj igys
lHkh dejksa dk fuekZ.k dk;Z djk;saxs tks fd bZV o lhesUV ls gksxk] mlds ckn ge lkjk yksgs dk dke
djk;saxsA mlds ckn ydM+h dk dke djk;saxsA dgus dk eryc gS fd ge dHkh Hkh ;g ugha djk;saxs
fd ge ,d dejk cuk;saxs vkSj mlesa igys pqukbZ dk dke] fQj ydM+h dk dke] fQj yksgs dk dke
djk;saxsA vkSj mlds ckn fQj nwljs dejs dk dke Hkh blh rjg djk;saxsA
cM+k gS rks laf{kIr ykbuksa esa ml fudk; dk o.kZu djuk gSA fdl rjg ds buiqV MkVk izksxzke ds vanj
iz;ksx esa fy;s x;s gSA rFkk fdl rjg dk vkmViqV izksxzke }kjk feysxk vkfn lc dFkuksa dk Li"V
o.kZu gksuk pkfg;sA
1-4-4 vkWijsVj funsZ'k iqfLrdk (An operator instruction manual)
lkWVos;j iSdst ds vanj vkWijsVj funsZ'k iqfLrdk gksuh pkfg,A vkWijsVj funsZ'k iqfLrdk ds
varxZr gj funsZ'k dks fy[kuk fd bl lkWVos;j dks pykus ds fy, dEI;wVj dks D;k&D;k funsZ'k nsus
gksaxsA izR;sd funsZ'k Li"V gksus pkfg;s ftlls ,d lk/kkj.k O;fDr Hkh mu funsZ'kksa dk ljyrk ls iz;ksx
dj ldsA funsZ'k iqfLrdk esa ;g funsZ'k Hkh Li"V gksuk pkfg;s fd bl lkWVos;j dk dEI;wVj esa dSls
iz;ksx djsaxs rFkk bl lkWVos;j ls dSls ckgj fudysaxsA
(error) vkSj fM$cx ;kfu fM dk eryc gVkuk] cx (Bug) dk eryc =qfV vFkkZr =qfV dks gVkukA
fMcfxax ,d rjhdk gS ftlesa ge izksxzke ds vanj =qfV dk irk djrs gSA vkSj irk djus ds
ckn ml =qfV dks lgh djrs gSA
fdlh Hkh izksxzke ds vanj =qfV dks gVkus ds fuEu rjhds viuk;s tkrs gSA
1- fdlh izksxzke ds NksVs Hkkx dks] eq[; izksxzke esa tksM+us ls igys mls vyx ls dEI;wVj ij ju djds
ns[k ys fd bl NksVs izksxzke ds vanj dksbZ =qfV gS ;k ugha gSA =qfV dh tkap djus ds i'pkr~ gh
ml NksVs izksxzke dks] eq[; izksxzke esa tksM+k tk;sA
2- blds vUrxZr ge izksxzke ds vanj vfrfjDr osfj;cy ysdj mudh vkmViqV dh tkap izksxzke ds
vanj chp&chp esa djrs jgrs gSA ftlls fd ge =qfV dk irk yxk ldrs gSA
3- MkVk dks Vsl (Trace) djukA
gSA tc Hkh bl rjg dh =qfV izksxzke esa vkrh gS rks dEikbyj mlh le; crk nsrk gSA ftlls fd
=qfV dks nwj djuk lqfo/kktud jgrk gSA rFkk ;g Hkh irk yx tkrk gS fd dgka ij =qfV gSA vkSj
D;k gSA
mnkgj.k ds fy,&
# include <stdio.h>
void main ( )
{
printf ("\n enter the value of n");
scanf ("%", & n)
}
mijksDr izksxzke dks tc ge dEI;wVj ij (Compile) dEikby djrs gSA rc og nks lwpuk
nsxkA ,d ;g fd tks osfj;cy n dk iz;ksx fd;k gSA og izksxzke esa fMDy;sj ugha fd;k x;k gSA nwljh
;g fd scanf ds ckn lsehdkWyku ( dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k x;k gSA
mijksDr izksxzke dks tc Hkh bl ge dEI;wVj ij dEikby djsaxs rks ;g fdlh Hkh izdkj dh
=qfV ugha n'kkZ;sxkA ysfdu blh izksxzke dks tc ge dEI;wVj ij ju djsaxs vkSj a dk eku 6 o b dk
eku 0 nsaxs rks ;g =qfV n'kkZ;sxkA bl izdkj dh =qfV dks ju Vkbe =qfV dgrs gSA D;ksafd fdlh Hkh
uacj dks vxj ge 0 ls Hkkx nsaxs rks ifj.kke laHko ugha gSA D;ksafd dksbZ Hkh la[;k dks 0 ls Hkkx nsaxs
rks ifj.kke vuUr () vkrk gSA
blh rjg vxj ge fdlh la[;k dk (log) ykWx fudkyus dk izksxzke cuk;s rks og Hkh tc
dEikbyj ds }kjk vkCtsDV izksxzke (object program) esa ifjofrZr djsxk] rc og fdlh Hkh izdkj dh
=qfV ugha crk;sxkA ysfdu tc ge blh izksxzke dks dEI;wVj ij ju djs vkSj _.kkRed la[;k ns rks
mijksDr izksxzke esa vxj ge ;g dksM fy[kdj dEikby djsaxs rks] dEikbyj fdlh Hkh izdkj
dh =qfV ugha crk;sxkA vkSj tc blh izksxzke dks ju djsaxs vkSj a, b vkSj c dk eku nsaxs rks ge dHkh Hkh
bl lehdj.k ds ewy lgh ugha fudky ik;ssaxsA dkj.k ;g gS fd QkewZyk ds fglkc ls igys ;g cszdsV
ds vanj dk eku Kkr djsaxsA mlds ckn bl eku dks 2 ls Hkkx nsaxsA mlds ckn tks Hkh ifj.kke vk;sxk
mldks a ls xq.kk djsaxsA tcfd gekjk okLrfod lw= igys cssV ds vanj dk eku fudkydj mldks
2a ls Hkkx nsuk gSA rks bl mijksDr izksxzke ls lgh ewy fudkyus ds fy, 2*a dks cszdsV ds vanj fy[ksaxsA
vFkkZr~
Root 1 = (-b+Sqrt (d)) / (2*a);
leL;k dks le>us ds ckn vxyk dk;Z leL;k ls lacaf/kr buiqV dk irk djuk gS fd bl
leL;k dks gy djus ds fy, fdrus buiqV osfj;oy dh vko;drk gSA ftlls fd tks leL;k nh
gqbZ gS og gy gks tk;s vkSj mldk vkmViqV fey tk;sA
mnkgj.k ds fy, gedks C;kt fudkyus ds fy, izksxzke cukuk gS rks ge bl izksxzke dks gy
djus ds fy, rhu buiqV osfj;oy P,R,T ysaxsA ;fn gesa ;g dgk tk;s fd izFke 10 izkd`r la[;kvksa
dk tksM+ fudkyuk gS rks bl leL;k dkas gy djus ds fy, gesa fdlh Hkh buiqV osfj;oy dh t:jr
ugha gSA
1-10-3 LVsi ckbZ LVsi gy fudkyuk (Step by Step Solution)
buiqV dk lgh rjhds ls irk djus ds ckn] vxyk dk;Z tks Hkh leL;k gS mldk ,YxksfjFke
;k ykspkVZ cukuk gSA ftlls fd ml leL;k ls lacaf/kr gy ds lkjs LVsi nkkZ;s tk;saA
1-10-4 vadxf.krh; ,oa rdZ vkWijskuksa dk irk djuk (Identification of Arithmetic
and logic operations required for solution)
leL;k dk lgh rjhds ls gy fudkyus ds ckn vxyk dk;Z ;g irk djuk gS fd fdl LVsi
ij vadxf.krh; ,oa fdl LVsi ij rdZ vkWijskuksa dk iz;ksx djuk gSA ;g dk;Z ;fn ykspkVZ cuk;k
gS rks ykspkVZ ds ckWDl ds vkdkj ls Hkh irk py ldrk gSA
mnkgj.k ds fy, dgha Hkh ;fn fu.kkZ;d ckWDl (Decision Box) dk iz;ksx fd;k gS rks
ogka ij rdZ vkWijsku yxsxk vkSj ;fn izkslsflax ckWDl dk iz;ksx fd;k gS rks vadxf.krh; vkWijsku
yxsxkA
vkrh gSA
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.
Step 4.
Step 5.
n1
while n <10
x a * (1+r/100)
write x,n
n n+1
Step 6.
end while
1-12-2
Step 3.
Step 4.
Step 5.
Salary 2000
do
bonus .02xSalary
write bouns
Salary Salary +100
while salary <=4000
end
1-12-3
u;s fljs ls nqckjk fy[kuk dfBu o T;knk le; yxus okyk gksrk gSA vr% bl ifjfLFkfr ls fuiVus
ds fy, gesa izksxzke bl rjg dk cukuk pkfg;s ftlls fd ml izksxzke esa ifjorZu djuk vklku gksA
1-13-5 iks V s Z f cyhVh (Portability)
,d iksVsZcy izksxzke og gksrk gS ftls fdlh Hkh dEI;wVj ij ju dj ldrs gksA
,d vPNs izksxzke gksus ds fy, mijksDr lkjh fo'ks"krk,a gksuh pkfg;sA
egRoiw.kZ fcUnq
12345-
fdlh izksxzke ds gy dks vyx vyx LVsi esa fn[kkus dks ,YxksfjFke dgrs gSA
ekM+;wyj izLrko esa cMs izksxzke dks NksVs&NksVs izksxzkeksa esa ckaV nsaxsA
ju Vkbe =qfV] izksxzke dks ju djrs le; vkrh gSA
cx dk eryc gS =qfV vkSj Mh cx dk eryc gSaA =qfV dks gVkukA
,d vPNs izksxzke dh fo'ks"krk,sa gksrh gSA
(i) fjyk;soy (Reliable)
(ii) bfQfl;Ulh (Efficiency) (iii) jhMsoyhVh (Readability)
(iv) eS.VsusfcfyVh (Mantainability) (v) iksVZcsfyVh (Portability)
vH;klkFkZ izu
cgqp;ukRed izu
1fMokbM okbZ thjks (Divide by zero) =qfV gSA
v flUVsDl =qfV (Syntax error)
c yksthdy =qfV (Logical error)
l ju Vkbe =qfV (Run Time error)
n mijks esa ls dksbZ ugha
2flUVsDl =qfV (Syntax error) dk irk fd;k tkrk gSA
v ju djrs le;
c dEikby djrs le;
l izksxzke cukrs le;
n dHkh Hkh ugha
y?kqRjkRed iz'u
1ekM~;wy D;k gksrk gS \
2iksVsZosfyVh ls vki D;k le>rs gSa \
3cx D;k gksrk gS \
4.
,d vPNs izksxzke dh fo'ks"krk, crkb;s \
fucU/kkRed iz'u
1
fdUgha Hkh rhu la[;kvksa dk vkSlr fudkyus dk ,YxksfjFke cukb;s \
2,sjj fdrus izdkj dh gksrh gS \
mkjekyk
1- l
2- c]
1
C++ Hkk"kk esa izksxzke cukuk
(Programming in C++)
1.1 Getting Started
ge C++ esa izksxzke cukus ls igys ,d cus gq;s izksxzke dk v/;;u djrs gSaA ge blls ;g tku
ik;saxs fd C++ izksxzke dh lajpuk dSlh gksxhA
// sample.CPP
fVIif.k;k
// To demostrate Program structure
# include <iostream.h>
Class XYZ
{
Private :
int A;
Public:
Void getdata (int x)
{A = x;}
Void showdata ( )
{count <<"\ n data is " << A;}
};
Void main ( )
{
XYZ
OBJ1, OBJ2;
OBJ1.getdata (15);
OBJ2.getdata (35);
Dykl fu/kkZj.k
Dykl ds lnL; vkdMs
Dykl ds lnL; QaD'ku
vkWCtsDV dh ?kks"k.kk
vkdM+s fu/kkZfjr djus
ds fy, lnL; QaD'ku pykuk
OBJ1.showdata ( );
OBJ2.showdata ( );
}
mijksDr izksxzke dh izFke nks iafDr;ka '//' v{kj ls vkjEHk gks jgh gS budks fVIi.kh iafDr;ka desUV
ykbu dgrs gSaA ;s iafDr;k dEI;wVj }kjk fu"ikfnr (Execute) ugha dh tkrhA ;s dsoy izksxzke dks
le>us ;ksX; cukus ds fy;s gksrh gSA
'//' ls vkjEHk gksus okyh lHkh iafDr;ka fVIi.kh iafDr;ka dgykrh gSaA ge fdlh Hkh iafDr
ds igys '//' v{kj yxkdj ml iafDr dks fVIi.kh iafDr esa cny ldrs gaSA ;s iafDr;ka izksxzke dk Hkkx
gksrh gS ijUrq u rks dEI;qVj bUgs i<+rk gS vkSj u gh buls dksbZ dk;Z gksrk gSA
vxyh iafDr # v{kj ls vkjEHk gSA bls izh izkslslj Mk;jsfDVo dgrs gaSA ;g dEikbyj dks L=ksr
izksxzke (Source code) esa vU; Qkbykas dks 'kkfey djus dk funsZ'k nsrk gSA
vxyh iafDr esa Dykl dks fu/kkZj.k gsrq funsZ'k gSA bl iafDr esa Class lqjf{kr 'kCn gS rFkk XYZ
Dykl dk uke gSA lqjf{kr 'kCnksa dk izR;sd Hkk"kk esa fo'ks"k vFkZ gksrk gSA dks"Bd ds e/; Dykl dh
iwjh ifjHkk"kk gSA ifjHkk"kk esa izFke iafDr esa Private fy[kk gS rFkk vxyh iafDr esa ,d pj A, iw.kkZad
(integer) izdkj dk ?kksf"kr gSA ;s dEikbyj dks crkrs gS fd A ,d pj gS tks iw.kkZad izdkj dk gS
rFkk ;g Private gSA vFkkrZ ;g pj] lnL; QaD'ku dks NksM+dj vU; QaD'kuks ds fy,s miyC/k ugha gksxk
A tcfd Public Hkkx dsa vkdM+s ;k QaD'ku eq[; izksxzke ;k vU; QaD'kuksa ds fy, Hkh miyC/k jgrs gSA
tSlk fd Public Hkkx esa nks QaD'ku getdata o showdata gSA bu QaD'kuks dks eq[; izksxzke vFkok
vU; QaD'ku esa lh/ks mi;ksx (Call }kjk) fd;k tk ldrk gSA
vxyh iafDr esa class dh ifjHkk"kk lekIr gksrh gSA vxyh iafDr Void main ( ) eq[; izksxzke
dk vkjEHk crkrh gSA Void bl ckr dh lwpuk nsrk gS fd ;g eq[; izksxzke fdlh izdkj dk vkmViqV
ugha nsrkA blh izdkj main ds vkxs [kkyh dks"Bd ;g lwpuk nsrk gS fd ;g izksxzke fcuk iSjkehVj
(No argumint) dk gSA
vxyh iafDr nks vkWCtsDV mRiUu djus dk funsZ'k nsrh gS A ;s vkWCtsDV XYZ Dykl izdkj ds
gksaxsA okLro esa tc vkWCtsDV mRiUu gksrs gSa rHkh muds vkdM+ksa dks] laxzfgr djus ds fy, eSesjh esa
txg feyrh gSA bl iafDr ls nksuksa vkWCtsDV ds fy, OBJ1.A, OBJ2.A nks pj mRiUu gksaxsA
vxyh nks iafDr;k vkWCtsDV ds fy, lnL; QaD'kuksa dks pyk dj vkWCtsDV ds pjksa dk eku
fu/kkZfjr djrh gSA
vxyh nks iafDr;ka iqu% vkWCtsDV ds nwljs lnL; QaD'kuksa dks pykdj vkWCtsDV ds pjksa dk eku
Lhu ij iznf'kZr djrh gSA
vfUre iafDr esa Main izksxzke dh lekfIr dk dks"Bd gaSA
1-2
1
2
3
4
v{kj
(Alphabate)
vad
(Digit)
fo'ks"k v{kj (Special character)
[kkyh txg (White space)
Comma
&
Ampersand
Period
Caret
Semicolon
Asterisk
? Question mark
Minus sign
'
Apostrope
Plus sign
"
Quotation mark
<
Exclamation mark
>
Greater than
Vertical bar
Left Parenthesis
Slash
Right Parenthesis
Backslash
Left brace
} Right bracket
Underscore
{ Left bracket
Tilde Sign
$ Dollar sign
Right brace
% Percent sign
Number sign
10]&15-5
lqjf{kr
V + k
s+
LVhax
" ABC"
'kCn
Class, Int
fLFkjkad
vkWijsVj
+, -,*
igpku
Amount
1-3-1
ds
ukefo'ks"k
fpUg
#, $, %
'kCn dk ,d fuf'pr vFkZ gS tks cnyk ugha tk ldrkA ;s lqjf{kr 'kCn gh fdlh izksxzke ds eq[; rRo
gksrs gaSA
dqN lqjf{kr 'kCnksa dh lwph fuEufyf[kr gSA izksxzke esa bUgsa ges'kk vaxzsth o.kZekyk ds NksVs
v{kjksa esa fy[krs gaSA
auto
break
case
char
const
continue
do
double
else
enum
float
for
go
if
int
long
return
short
sizeof
static
short
igpku ds uke (Idintifier)
struct
switch
union
void
while
fdlh Hkh pj] QaD'ku vFkok vkO;wg vkfn ds uke dks igpku dk uke dgrs gaSA ;s uke ge
viuh bPNkuqlkj j[krs gaSA ;s uke v{kj vFkok vadksa ls feydj cus gksrs gSaA budk igyk v{kj vaxzsth
o.kZekyk dk v{kj gksuk pkfg;sA uke o.kZekyk ds NksVs] cM+s vFkok nksuksa v{kj ls cus gks ldrs gaSA
fo'ks"k v{kj dk mi;ksx uke esa ugha djrsA '_' (underscore) v{kj dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA
1-3-2
fLFkjka d (Constants)
fLFkjkad mudks dgrs gaS ftuds eku izksxzke ds pyus ds nkSjku cnyk u tk ldsA tSls gesa
fdlh izksxzke esa p dk eku dke ysuk gks vkSj PI = 3.14 gksxkA
izksxzke esa tgka ij Hkh PI 'kCn dk mi;ksx gksxk ogka ij 3-14 eku dke vk;sxkA vr% PI ,d
fLFkjkad dgyk;sxkA vkxs ge mu fLFkjkadksa ds izdkj o mi;ksx djus ds rjhds ds ckjs esa i<a+sxsA
1-3-3 vkWijs V j (Operators)
vkWijsVj ge mu ladsr fpUgksa dks dgrs gSa tks fdlh laf;k ds ckjsa esa ladsr nsrs gSaA tSls %&
B=3+2 ;gka nks laf;k fpUg gS ,d '$' o nwljk ' ='A ;s fpUg ladsr nsrs gaS fd 3 o 2 dk tksM+
djuk gS rFkk B ds eku dkss ;ksx ds ifj.kke ds eku ds cjkcj djuk gSA
;s fofHkUu izdkj ds gksrs gSaA ftudk v/;;u bl v/;k; esa vkxs djsaxsA
bl NksVs ls izksxzke esa ge main QaD'ku include Mk;jsfDVo o gSMj Qkbyksa ds ckjs esa i<+saxsA
1-4-1 QaD'ku %&
mDr izksxzke esa dsoy ,d gh QaD'ku gS ftldk uke main gSA izksxzke dh igyh iafDr tks
# include ls vkjEHk gks jgh gS og bl QaD'ku dk Hkkx ugha gSA geus igys ns[kk gS fd Dykl ds
vUnj Hkh QaD'ku gks ldrs gaS ftUgsa ge ml Dykl dk lnL; QaD'ku dgrs gSa]ij esEcj QaD'ku ds
vfrfjDr Hkh LorU= QaD'ku Hkh gks ldrs gSaA gekjs izksxzke esa QaD'ku dk uke main gS rFkk blds
vkxs dks"Bd yxs gSaA ;fn ge dks"Bd u yxk;s rks dEikbyj bls pj dk uke Hkh eku ldrk gS
vr% QaD'ku ds vkxs dks"Bd yxkuk vko';d gSA bu dks"Bdksa esa ge QaD'ku vkjX;wesUV fy[krs
gSaA QaD'ku ds uke ls iwoZ void fy[kk gS tks ;g crkrk gS fd ;g QaD'ku dksbZ Hkh eku okil ugha
djrkA
QaD'ku vkjX;wesUV o eku okil djus ds ckjs esa ge vkxs i<+saxsA QaD'ku ds uke dh vxyh
iafDr rFkk vfUre iafDr esa e>ys dks"Bd gSA ;s dks"Bd QaD'ku ds vkjEHk o vUr dh lwpuk nsrs gSaA
izR;sd QaD'ku ds funsZ'kks dks ges'kk e>ys dks"Bd ds vUnj fy[kuk pkfg;sA
izR;sd izksxzke dk igyk funsZ'k tks fu"ikfnr (execute) gksrk gS og main QaD'ku dk vkjEHk
gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh izksxzke esa ,d ls vf/kd QaD'ku gks ldrs gaS A ijUrq main QaD'ku dk gksuk vko';d
gS rFkk lcls igyk QaD'ku main gh gksuk pkfg;s tks fu"ikfnr (execute) gksA ;fn fdlh izksxzke
esa main QaD'ku ugha gksxk rks fyadj xyfr;k crk;sxkA
1-4-2
1-5
C++ esa
1-5-1
cout
gekjs izksxzke esa cout << "every language has it's own grammer"; dFku dk iz;ksx okD;
dks Lhu ij iznf'kZr djus ds fy;s fd;k x;k gSA C++ Hkk"kk esa cout ,d vkWCtsDV gS rFkk ;g
ekud fuxZe LVhe (standard out put stream) ls lEcfU/kr gSA rFkk ;g C++ Hkk"kk esa iwoZ
ifjHkkf"kr gSA bldk mi;ksx v{kjksa ;k mlds lewg dks Lhu ij iznf'kZr djus vFkok vU; fuxZe
;qfDr (Output device) ij Hkstus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
1-5-2
cin
blh izdkj cin Hkh ,d vkWCtsDV gSA ;g ekud vkxe LVhe ls lEcfU/kr gS rFkk ;g C++
esa iwoZ ifjHkkf"kr gSA ;g dqth iVy }kjk ;k vU; vkxe ;qfDr (input device) }kjk dEI;wVj esa Mkys
x;s vkadMksa dks xzg.k dj dEI;wVj esa laxzfgr djus ds mi;ksx esa vkrk gSA
1-5-3
gSA tSls izksxzke ds vfUre iafDr esa cout vkWCtsDV ds lkFk nks ckj iqV (<<) vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx fd;k
x;k gSA bl izdkj mi;ksx djus ij ck;sa ls nk;sas e esa f;k gksxh vFkkZr igys "Temprature in
celsius", cout vkWCtsDV dh rjQ Hkstsxk mlds ckn Ctemp pj ds eku dks cout vkWCtsDV dh rjQ
HkstsxkA
blh izdkj bUl'kZu vkWijsVj >> dks Hkh ge ,d iaf esa ,d ls vf/kd ckj mi;ksx dj ldrs gSA
1-6-1
vkWijsVj ds lkFk fd;k tkrk gSA ;s vkadMks dks lqLi"V :i ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA ;fn ge izksxzke esa
budk iz;ksx djs rks iomanip.h gSMj Qkby dks vko';d :i ls include dj yasA
(1) endl :- bl nLrdkj dk iz;ksx ubZ iafDr ij tkus ds fy, ;k ,d iafDr vkxs f[kldus ds fy,
fd;k tkrk gSA bldk izHkko "\n" cSdLys'k v{kj ds izHkko ds tSlk gh gksrk gSA vkxs fy[ks izksxzke
esa bldk iz;ksx rFkk mudk ifj.kke n'kkZ;k x;k gSA
(2) setw:- cout vkWCtsDV ds }kjk tc ge ekuksa dks iznf'kZr djrs gaSA rks gj eku dks mruh gh txg
nh tkrh gS ftrus v{kj dk eku gaS tSls ekuk X = 1203 gks rks x dk eku iznf'kZr djus ds fy, 4
v{kj dh txg feysxh ;fn ge pj ds ekuksa dks o muds e/; dh txg dks bPNkuqlkj iznf'kZr djuk
pkgsa rks setw ( ) eSfuiqysVj dk mi;ksx djuk iM+sxkA
ge ,d ,Slk izksxzke cukrs gSa tks rhu fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds uke o muds vad iznf'kZr djrk gSA
# include <iostream.h>
void main ( )
{
int A = 105, B=1203, C=15;
cout
;g vkmViqV fn[kus esa Hkh vPNk ugha yx jgk] vkSj u gh bls vklkuh ls le>k tk ldrk gSA
;fn blh izksxzke dks bl izdkj fy[kk tk;s fd lHkh uke ,d lh/k esa gks rFkk muds vad nk;sah rjQ
ls ,d lh/k esa gksA
# include <iostream.h>
xyfr;k (Errors)
izksxzke cukrs le; dbZ ckj Vkbi djus esa xyrh gks tkrh gS] ;k fdlh dFku dks fy[krs le;
xyr rjhds ls fy[k nsrs gS ;k dSbZ vU; izdkj dh xyfr;k gks tkrh gSA ;s xyfr;k dEikbyj ;k
fyadj }kjk <wa<h tk ldrh gSA ;fn izksxzke esa fdlh izdkj dh xyrh gks rks dEikbyj ;k fyadj bl
lEcU/k esa Lhu ij lans'k iznf'kZr djrk gSA
dEikbyj dsoy mu xyfr;ksa dks <wa<+dj crkrk gS tks Hkk"kk ds dFku fy[kus ds rjhdksa ls
lEcfU/kr gksrh gS tSls dFku ds vUr esa lsehdkyu u yxkuk] fdlh pj dk ?kksf"kr u djuk bR;kfnA
ekuk geus fdlh dFku ds vUr esa lsehdkyu ugha yxk;k rks dEikbyj izksxzke dks dEikby djrs
le; Lhu ij lans'k iznf'kZr djsxkA tSls
error C:\EXAM.CPP 8:statement missing; in function main ( )
;g lans'k crkrk gS fd exam.cpp izksxzke dh 8oha iafDr esa tks dFku fy[kk gS mlesa lsehdkWyu
;) ugha gSA
foUMks esa dlZj Hkh mlh ykbu ij gksxk tgka laHkor% xyrh gS ;k ftl LFkku ij dEikbyj
dh xyrh feyhA ekml dks fDyd djds vFkok dqth iVy ij dksbZ Hkh dqth nckdj] dlZj dks fu;r
LFkku ij ykdj xyrh nwj dh tk ldrh gSA
fydaj fyfdax ls lEcfU/kr izdkj dh xyfr;k <wa<rk gS tSls gekjs izksxzke esa main ( ) uke
ls dksbZ QaD'ku gh u gks vkfnA ;fn ,slk gS rks fyadj fuEu lans'k iznf'kZr djsxkA
1-6-2
la[;k dks 'kwU; 0 ls Hkkx nsuk] ;k ;fn LVSd dke fy;k gks vkSj oks Hkj x;k gksA vkfn ;s ,slh xyfr;k
gS tks dEikbys'ku ls Kkr ugha gksrhA budks Kkr djus ds fy, izksxzke dks pykuk gh iMsxkA
1-7
igys fo.Mks Lhu ij iznf'kZr gksrh gS mls C++ Hkk"kk dk lEiknd (Editor) dgrs gSA
igyh ckj ;g fo.Mks [kkyh gksxhA blds ehuw ckj esa File, Edit, Search, Run, Compile,
Debug, Project, Option, Windows, Help ehuw gksaxsaA
izksxzke cukus ds fy, bl lEiknd esa Vkbi djuk vkjEHk dj nsaA tc Qkby esa izksxzke Vkbi
dj pqds gkas vkSj laxzfgr djuk pkgas rks Qkby ehuw es ls SAVE fodYi dk p;u djsaA ;gka bPNkuqlkj
uke Vkbi dj OK cVu dk p;u djasA bl izdkj fdlh Hkh Qkby esa izksxzke Vkbi dj laxzfgr dj
ysA Qkby dk foLrkj uke ges'kk -CPP gh j[ksaA
rst xfr ls Vkbi djus gsrq dqN fo'ks"k dqft;ksa dk iz;ksx djuk vko';d gSA
uhps lwph
esa dqN dqft;k o muds mi;ksx fn;s x;s gSA
dqath
dk;Z
dlZj dks ,d iafDr ij ys tkus ds fy;sA
dlZj dks ,d iafDr uhps ys tkus ds fy;sA
dlZj dks ,d LrEHk nk;sas ys tkus ds fy;sA
dlZj dks ,d LrEHk ck;sa ys tkus ds fy;sA
1-7-1
Ctrl + f
Ctrl + g
HOME
END
Pgdn
Pgup
ENTER
Backspace
DEL
INS
dek.M
&
mi;ksx
F2
&
F3
&
F4
&
Alt+X
&
Alt+BSP
&
Shift+Alt+BSP
&
Shift+Del
&
Ctrl+INS
&
Shift+INS
&
fDyi cksMZ ij Hk.Mkfjr Hkkx dks iqu% izksxzke esa ykus ds fy, (Paste)A
Ctrl+Del
&
Ctrl+L
&
fdlh 'kCn dks <wa<rs le; tc ,d ckj og 'kCn fey tk;s rks vxys
LFkku ij ml 'kCn dks <wa<us ds fy,A
Ctrl+F9
&
Alt+F7
&
Alt+F8
&
dEikby djrs le; vxyh xyrh (Next Error) ij dlZj dks ys tkus
ds fy,A
pyk ugha ldrsA bl izksxzke dks pykus ds fy, bls pyus ;ksX; (Executable) Qkby esa ifjofrZr
djuk gksxkA ;g ifjorZu nks pj.kksa esa gksrk gSA
1 dEikbfyax
2 fyafdax
dEikbfya x (Compiling)
dEikbfyax dk vFkZ L=ksr Qkby (Source file) dks vkWCtsDV (object) file esa cnyukA dEikbfyax
ds nkSjku izksxzke dks e'khu Hkk"kk (Binary form) esa cnyk tkrk gSA ;g e'khu Hkk"kk esa fy[kk izksxzke
gh dEI;wVj ij py ldrk gSA ij pykus ls iwoZ fyfadax djuk Hkh vko';d gSA
M
Source
another
iAnather
Source file
COMPILER
COMPILER
file
Second.CPP
First.CPP
B SJ
LINKER
First.EXE
Executable
File
fya f da x (Linking)
fyafdax dk vFkZ gS fd ;fn ,d ls vf/kd vkWCtsDV Qkbyas gSa rks bu lcdks ,d lkFk djukA
dbZ cM+s&2 izksxzkeksa esa ,d ls vf/kd Qkbysa gksrh gSA ftUgsa ,d lkFk djuk vko';d gSA ;fn ,d
ls vf/kd vkWCtsDV Qkby u gks rks Hkh fyafdax vko';d gSA gks ldrk gS fd geus # include
Mk;jsfDVo ds }kjk gSMj Qkby ;k ykbczsjh Qkby dk mi;ksx fd;k gksA gSMj Qkby ;k ykbczsjh
Qkby dks eq[; Qkby ds lkFk tksM+us ds fy, Hkh fyafdax vko';d gSA
fp= esa dEikbfyax o fyafdax esa e/; lEcU/k crk;k x;k gSA fyfdax djus ds ckn gh izksxzke
pyus ;ksX; gksxkA lk/kkj.kr;k% pyus ;ksX; Qkby ,d ls vf/kd vkWCtsDV Qkbyksa ls feydj curh
gSA
dEikby djus ds fy, Qkby dks [kksydj laxzfgr (Save) djus ds ckn Qkby ehuw esa
Compile to OBJ form fodYi dk p;u djasA ,slk djus ls dEikby foUMks iznf'kZr gkasxhA ;fn
izksxzke esa fdlh izdkj dh xyrh ugha gS rks
0 Error, Success : Press any key
lans'k iznf'kZr gksaxkA bl izdkj tks vkWCtsDV Qkby cusxh mldk uke ogh gksxk tks L=ksr
Qkby dk gSA dsoy foLrkj uke .obj gksxkA
fyad djus ds fy, dEikby ehuw esa ls Link Exe File fodYi dk p;u djsaA bl izdkj
vkWCtsDV Qkby vU; vkWCtsDV Qkby ls feydj pyus ;ksX; (Executive) Qkby curh gSA bldk
foLrkj uke .exe gksxkA
izksxzke dks pykuk (Execution of Program)
pyus ;ksX; (Executable) Qkby dks pykus ds fy, Run ehuw esa ls Run fodYi dk p;u djs
;k dqth iVy ij Ctrl + F9 dqth;k nck;asA ,slk djus ij izksxzke pysxk rFkk ifj.kke ns[kus ds fy,
dqth iVy ij Alt + F5 nck;sa ;k fo.Mks ehuw esa ls User Screen fodYi dk p;u djasA
2 l
5 l
3 v
2
vkdMksa ds izdkj] pj] fLFkjkad
(Data Type, Variable, Constant)
2-1
fLFkjka d (Constants)
fLFkjkad mUgsa dgrs gSa ftudk eku izksxzke ds fu"iknu ds nkSjku cnyk u tk ldsA C++
esa fuEu izdkj ds fLFkjkad gksrs gSA
fLFkjkad
C
vadh;
v{kj fLFkjkad
fLFkjkad
Character
Numeric Constant
iw.kkZad
okLrfod
Integer
real
,d v{kj
Single
Character
Constant
v{kjksa dk
lewg
String
Msfley iw.kkZad
Msfley iw.kkZad fLFkjkad esa dsoy 0 ls 9 rd ds vadksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA
vkDVy
iw.kkZad
vkDVy iw.kkZad fLFkjkad esa 0 ls 7 rd ds vadksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA fLFkjkad ls igys
v{kj 'O' fy[kuk vko';d gSA
gSDlkMsfley iw.kkZad
xyr Msfley
iw.kkZad fLFkjkad
123
&321
0
$ 78
15 750
20]000
lgh vkWDVy
iw.kkZad fLFkjkad
xyr vkWDVy
iw.kkZad fLFkjkad
xyrh
O37
O2
O435
O37.15
O380
O390.5
O551
370
lgh
gSDlkMsfley
iw.kkZad fLFkjkad
xyr
gSDlkMsfley
iw.kkZad fLFkjkad
xyrh
OX2
OX9F
OXbcd
OX2.0
OXG2
abc
$ 1000
10-5
xyrh
iw.kkZad fLFkjkad dk vf/kdre eku dEI;wVj ij fuHkZj djrk gSA ;fn dEI;wVj 16 bit dk gS rks
32767 vf/kdre eku gks ldrk gS vkSj ;fn dEI;wVj 32 bit dk gS rks vf/kdre eku 2] 147] 483]
647 gks ldrk gSA iw.kkZad fLFkjkad ds vUr esa U, L, ;k UL v{kj yxkdj cM+h la[;k,a Hkh laxzfgr
dh tk ldrh gSA bu v{kjksa ds vFkZ fuEukuqlkj gSA
U - Unsigned
L - Long integer
UL - Unsigned long integer
2-1-2
n'keyo fpUg ds igys vFkok ckn esa vad dk gksuk vko';d ugha gSA mnkgj.k ds fy;s
245., .115, -.159
vkfn Hkh lgh okLrfod iw.kkZad gSA
okLrfod la[;kvksa dks oSKkfud rjhds ls ?kkrkad :i esa Hkh fy[k ldrs gSaA tSls 2]00]000 dks
ge 2 x 105 ;k 2-0e+ 5 Hkh fy[k ldrs gaSA dEI;wVj esa la[;kvks dks ?kkrkad :i esa fy[kus ds fy,s
fuEu izk:i gSA
Mantissa
Exponant
eSUVhlk Hkkx iw.kkZad la[;k ;k okLrfod la[;k gks ldrh gSA blds ckn v{kj 'e' dk gksuk
vko';d gaS rFkk Exponent Hkkx ,d iw.kkZad la[;k gksxhA Exponent rFkk v{kj 'e' ds e/; $ vFkok
& fpUg gks ldrk gSA
mnkgj.k 1.2 e -4,
0.95 e 4,
1.9 e + 50,
1.2 e -2
okLrfod la[;kvksa dks ?kkrkad :i esa ge rc fy[krs gS tc la[;k cgqr vf/kd cM+h vFkok cgqr
vf/kd NksVh gksA
2-1-3
tSls 'd' dk ASCII eku 100 gSA 'a' dk ASCII eku 97 gSA ;fn pwafd izR;sd v{kj fLFkjkad dk ASCII
eku la[;k gksrh gS vr% bu ij vadxf.krh; x.kuk Hkh dh tk ldrh gSA
2-1-4
"2005",
"C"
"200+5+6"
;gka /;ku nsus dh ckr gS fd 'C' o "C" nksuksa vyx&2 gSa tgka 'C' ,d v{kj fLFkjkad gS ogh
"C" v{kjksa dk lewg fLFkjkad gSA 'C' ,d ASCII eku gksxk tc fd "c" dk ughaA 'kCnksa ;k 'kCn lewgksa
2-2
"\a"
"\b"
"\f"
"\n"
"\r"
"\t"
audible alert
back space
form feed
New line
Carriage return
horizontal tab
"\v"
"\' "
vertical tab
single quote
"\" "
double quote
"\?"
"\\"
question mark
back slash
"\0"
null character
eku gh laxzfgr dj ldrs gSA Long int izdkj ds vkdMs yxHkx 2 vjc eku rd la[;k laxzfgr dj
ldrs gS aA ij os txg Hkh 4 ckbV dh ?ksjrs gaSA vr% gesa vko';drkuqlkj vkdM+ksa ds izdkj dk
p;u djuk pkfg;sA C++ Hkk"kk esa vkdM+s fuEufyf[kr izdkj ds gksrs gSaA
1 izkbejh] fcYV&bu ;k Q.Mkes.Vy izdkj ds vkdM+s A
2 ;wtj fMQkbUM izdkj ds vkdM+s A
3 MsjkbOM izdkj ds vkdM+sA
izkbejh izdkj ds vkdM+ksa dk izk:i iwoZ fu/kkZfjr gksrk gS vr% budk iz;ksx djrs le; dsoy
buds izdkj dk uke gh crkuk gksrk gS vU; xq.k/keZ iwoZ fu/kkZfjr gksrs gSa tSls int, float, char vkfnA
tcfd ;wtj fMQkbUM esa lHkh xq.k/keZ bUgsa ifjHkkf"kr djrs le; crkus gksrs gS A tSls ;s vkadM+s
fdu&2 ls feydj cus gksaxs] buds D;k eku gksaxs] budk uke D;k gksxk vkfnA tSls fd Dykl esa ge
;g crkrs gS fd Dykl esa fdl&2 izdkj ds vkdM+sgksaxs] bldk uke D;k gksxk vkfnA MsjkbCM izdkj
ds vkadM+s tks izkFkfed izdkj ds vkdM+ks ls feydj cus gksrs gks tSls ,js] LVDpj vkfnA
2-2-1
vko';d LFkku
2 byte
1 byte
4 byte
2 byte
1 byte
4 byte
1 byte
1 byte
4 byte
8 byte
10 byte
vf/kdre eku
-32768 ls + 32767
-128 ls + 127
-2,147, 483, 648 ls +2,147, 483, 647
0 ls 65535
0 ls 255
0 ls 4, 294, 967, 295
-128 ls + 127
0 ls 255
3.4e - 38 ls 3.4 e + 38
1.7e - 308 ls 1.7e +308
3.4e - 4932 ls 3.4e + 4932
ijUrq buls iwoZ long, short, signed o unsigned yxkdj budh laxzg.k {kerk de ;k T;knk
dj ldrs gSaA ,d lkFk ,d ls vf/kd 'kCn Hkh yxk ldrs gSa A tSls signed long int esa long o signed
nksuks 'kCn yxs gSaA
char :-
fdlh Hkh ,d v{kj dks character izdkj dk vkadM+k dgrs gSA ;s 1 BYTE LFkku ?ksjrs gSA
int :-
iw.kkZad izdkj ds vkdM+s] ftuesa n'keyo fpUg dk iz;ksx u gks] dks integer izdkj ds vkdM+s dgrs
gSA ;s eseksjh es 2 BYTE LFkku ?ksjrs gSaA buds igys Signed, long, unsigned 'kCn yxkdj budh
laxzg.k {kerk dks de ;k T;knk fd;k tk ldrk gSA
float :-
okLrfod la[;kvksa dks floating izdkj ds vkdM+s dgrs gaSA buesa n'keyo fpUg dk gksuk
vko';d gSA buds izk:i ds ckjs esa ge fLFkjkad i<+rs le; i<+ pqds gSaA ;fn buesa laxzfgr la[;k
dh 'kq)rk c<+kuk gks rks float ds LFkku ij double izdkj ds vkdM+ksa dk iz;ksx djsaA float izdkj ds
vkdM+s tgka n'keyo fpUg ds ckn 6 vad rd laxzfgr dj ldrs gS ogh double izdkj ds vkdM+s
n'keyo ds ckn 14 vad rd dh la[;k dks xzg.k dj ldrs gaSA
;wtj fMQkbUM izdkj ds vkdMs o fMjkbOM izdkj ds vkdMksa ds ckjs esa ge vkxs v/;;u djsaxsA
2-2-2 const:;g ,d lqjf{kr 'kCn (Reserved Word) gSA bldk iz;ksx fdlh Hkh vkdM+s dks ifjHkkf"kr djrs
le; vkadM+s ds izdkj ls iwoZ fd;k tkrk gSA ;g bl ckr dh tkudkjh nsrk gS fd vkadM+s fLFkjkad
izdkj ds gSa A vr% bldk eku iwjs izksxzke esa cnyk ugha tk ldrkA ;fn ge izksxzke esa bl eku dks
cnyus dk iz;kl djsaxs rks dEikbyj xyrh dk lans'k iznf'kZr dj nsxkA
mnkgj.k ds fy, fuEu izksxzke
# include <iostream.h>
void main ( )
{
float rad, area;
const float PI = 3.14159;
cout <<"Enter radius of circle";
cin >>rad;
area = PI * rad * rad;
cout << "area of circle is"<<area <<"\n" ;
}
bl izksxzke ds vUnj PI dk eku float izdkj dk ?kksf"kr gSA ijUrq float 'kCn ds iwoZ const 'kCn
;g Hkh ?kksf"kr djrk gS fd PI dk eku iwjs izksxzke esa 3.14159 gh jgsxk] cnysxk ughaA
bl izdkj fLFkjkadksa ds iwoZ const 'kCn dk iz;ksx djus ls izksxzke dks i<+dj ;g Kkr fd;k
tk ldrk gS fd dkSu&2 ls fLFkjkad dk iz;ksx izksxzke esa fd;k x;k gSA ;fn bldk eku Hkwyo'k cnyus
gsrq izksxzke esa dFku fy[kk gks rks dEikbyj bl bl dFku ij xyrh dk lans'k fn[kk nsrk gSA
2-2-3
pj (Variables)
vkdM+ksa dks laxzfgr djus gsrq tks uke iz;ksx esa ysrs gS mUgsa ge pj dgrs gSA pj] izksxzke ds pyus
ds nkSjku fofHkUu eku xzg.k dj ldrs gaSA pj ds uke izksxzke cukrs le; izksxzkej }kjk fn;s tkrs gSA ;s uke
bl izdkj fn;s tkus pkfg;s fd tks vkdM+s ;s xzg.k djs mldk vFkZ tkuk tk ldsA
tSls %&
COUNTER, Length, classize, total vkfnA
fdlh Hkh pj dk uke] vaxzsth o.kZekyk ds v{kj] vad ;k '-' (underscore) v{kj ls feydj cuk
gks ldrk gSA fdlh Hkh pj dk uke nsrs le; fuEu fu;eksa dk /;ku j[kk tkrk gSA
1 uke dk igyk v{kj vaxzsth o.kZekyk ds v{kjksa esa ls gksuk pkfg;sA
2 uke lk/kkj.kr;k 31 v{kjksa dk gks ldrk gSA gkykafd dqN dEikbyj dsoy izFke 8 v{kjksa
dks gh egRo nsrs gaSA
3 vaxzsth o.kZekyk ds cM+s v{kj o NksVs v{kj vyx&2 ekus tkrs gaSA tSls AMIT o amit vyx&2
gksaxsA
4 uke dksbZ lqjf{kr 'kCn (key word) ugha gks ldrkA
5 uke ds e/; [kkyh LFkku u gksA
lgh ukeksa ds dqN mnkgj.k ramesh, X1, school_name, sum1, distance x_y vkfnA
xyr uke
dkj.k
char
lqjf{kr 'kCn dk mi;ksx ugha gksxkA
price$
$ fpUg dk mi;ksx ugha gksxkA
group one
[kkyh txg ugha gksxhA
2-2-4
xyz;
p, q, sum;
noofst, average;
,d iafDr esa ,d gh izdkj ds vkdM+ksa dks ?kksf"kr dj ldrs gSaA nwljs izdkj ds fy, vyx
iafDr;ka iz;ksx djsA
2-2-5
z = 15;
bu dFkuksa dk vFkZ bl izdkj gS fd ^* fpUg ds nk;ha vksj fy[ks eku vFkok vfHkO;fDr dk eku ^*
fpUg ds ck;ha rjQ fy[ks pj esa xzg.k djkosaA vr%
Yes = p + q dFku esa igys pj p o q dk eku tksMus ds i'pkr~ dqy vk;s ifj.kke dks yes pj esa xzg.k
djk;k tk;sxkA
dFku x = x + 1
esa nk;ha vksj ds pj x ds eku esa 1 tksM+us ds ckn tks eku vk;k mls ck;ha vksj ds pj x esa
xzg.k djkosaA ekuk fd x dk eku 5 gks rks bl dFku ds fu"ikfnr gksus ds ckn x dk eku x+1 =
6 gks tk;sxkA
2-4
'ks"kQy laf;k ds ifj.kke dk fpUg izFke vkWijs.M HkkT; ds fpUg ds cjkcj gksrk gS vFkkZr
HkkT; _.kkRed gS rks 'ks"kQy Hkh _.kkRed gksxkA ;fn HkkT; /kukRed gS rks 'ks"kQy Hkh /kukRed
gksxkA ;fn fdlh vfHkO;fDr esa lHkh vkWijs.M okLrfod vksijsUM gks rks ml vfHkO;fDr dks okLrfod
vfHkO;fDr dgrs gSA okLrfod la[;kvksa esa n'keyo ds ckn 6 vad gh vkrs gSA vr% laf;k dk
ifj.kke yxHkx gksrk gSA tSls
x = 1.0/3.0 = 0.333333
y = 2.0/3.0 = 0.666667
'ks"kQy vkWijsVj (%) okLrfod la[;kvksa ij dk;Z ugha djrkA ;g dsoy iw.kkZad la[;kvksa ij
fjys'kuy vkWijsVj
ge izksxzke esa dbZ ckj nks pjksa dh rqyuk djrs gSA rFkk muds lEcU/k ds vk/kkj ij fu.kZ;
ysrs gaSA tSls nks oLrqvksa ds ewY; dh rqyuk djuk vkfnA rqyuk djus gsrq tks laf;k fpUg vkWijsVj
dke esa vkrs gS mUgsa fjys'kuy vkWijsVj dgrs gaSA C++ esa fuEu N% fjys'kuy vkWijsVj gSA
vkWijsVj
vFkZ
<
ls NksVk gSA
<=
ls cjkcj ;k NksVk gSA
>
ls cM+k gSA
>=
ls cjkcj ;k cMk gSA
==
ds cjkcj gSA
!=
ds cjkcj ugha gSA
fdlh vfHkO;fDr esa fjys'kuy vkWijsVj gks rks bl vfHkO;fDr dks fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr dgrs gSA
fdlh Hkh fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr dk ifj.kke lgh 1 ;k xyr 0 gksrk gSA
tSls
10 < 20 = lgh 1
20 < 10 = xyr 0
,d lk/kkj.k fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr esa ,d fjys'kuy vkWijsVj o nks vksijsUM gksrs gSA fjys'kuy
vfHkO;fDr dk fuEu izk:i gksrk gSA
AE1
R.O.
AE2
;gka R.O. ,d fjys'kuy vkWijsVj gSA rFkk AE1 o AE2 nksuks vFkZeSfVd dFku gS] tks fLFkjkad ;k
pj ;k budk lewg gks ldrs gSA ;fn fdlh fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr esa] vFkZeSfVd vkWijsVj gks rks igys
vFkZeSfVd vkWijsVj pysaxs mlds ckn fjys'kuy vkWijsVjA
mnkgj.k
ekuk
x = 2,
rFkk
y=5 gks rks
x+9 > y*2
esa igys x + 9 o y*2 ds eku igys fudysxk mlds ckn 11 > 10 dFku pysxk ftldk ifj.kke lgh
1 vk;sxkA
2-4-3
ykWftdy vkWijsVj
C o C++ Hkk"kk esa rhu ykWftdy vkWijsVj gSa] tks fuEu gSA
vkWijsVj
vFkZ
&&
||
Logical AND
Logical OR
!
logical NOT
ykWftdy vkWijsVj & & (AND) o || (OR) dk iz;ksx ,d ls vf/kd fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr dks
;fn fdlh vfHkO;fDr esa nks ;k nks ls vf/kd fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr dks feykdj fy[kk tk;s rks mls
ykWftdy vfHkO;fDr dgrs gSA ykWftdy vfHkO;fDr dk ifj.kke Hkh lgh 1 ;k xyr 0 gksxkA
tSlk VwFk Vscy esa crk;k x;k gS && (AND) vkWijsVj ds iz;ksx okys vfHkO;fDr dk ifj.kke lgh
1 dsoy rHkh gksxk tc && vkWijsVj ds nksuksa rjQ ds fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr dk eku lgh 1 gksA
tcfd || (OR) vkWijsVj okys vfHkO;fDr dk ifj.kke xyr (0) dsoy rHkh lgh gksxk tcfd nksuksa
rjQ dh fjys'kuy vfHkO;fDr xyr (0) gks
mnkgj.k
if (Marks > 60 && age < 14)
bl dFku dk eku lgh dsoy rc gksxk] tcfd Marks] 60ls cM+k gS rFkk age 14 ls NksVh gksA
ykWftdy vfHkO;fDr dk izk:i
RE1
RE2
AND
&&
OR
||
TRUTH TABLE
2-4-4
rFkk
- - x ;k x - - dk vFkZ x = x - 1 gSA
;fn vkWijsVj dk iz;ksx pj ls igys djs rks igys eku c<+sxk fQj vU; laf;k gksxhA tcfd
vkWijsVj pj ds ckn esa gks rks igys vU; laf;k gksxh fQj eku c<+sxkA tSls
x = 10
o
y = ++x rks y = 11 gksxk
tcfd
x = 10, y = x++ gks rks y = 10 gksxk
2-4-5
tcfd Rexp1 dk ifj.kke xyr 0 gks rks exp3 dFku lEikfnr gksxk
mnkgj.k
ekuk p = 2
q=8
a = (p>q) ? p : q;
;gka Rexp1 vFkkZr p>q gSA bldk ifj.kke xyr 0 gS vr% exp3 vFkkZr~ q dk eku a es laxzfgr
gksxkA tks fd 8 gS vr% a pj dk eku 8 gksxkA
;fn Rexp1 vFkkZr~ p>q dk ifj.kke lgh (1) gksrk rks exp2 vFkkZr p dk eku a esa laxzfgr gksxk
tks fd 2 gSA vr% pj a dk eku 2 gksxkA fdlh Hkh dFku esa vkWijsVj dh iwoZofrZrk fuEu gSA
vkWijsVj
iwoZofrZrk
++(post),- - (post)
++(pre),- - (pre),-(unary minus)
*,/,%
+,<,<=,>,>=
==,!=
&&
||
? : conditional expression)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
mnkgj.k
1
;fn a=2 gS rks C=a*++a ds eku dh x.kuk djksA
mkj :& vkWijsVj dh iwoZofrZrk ds vuqlkj igys ge ++ x.kuk djsaxs ftlls mldh eku (value) 3
rc
z/x, x+y, y/z+x, p/r+x-y lkFkZd
p%r
fujFkZd gS] D;ksafd % (Modules) fpUg
float ds lkFk iz;qDr ugha djrs gSA
2(3*x+y)
fujFkZd gS] D;ksafd 2 vkSj 3 ds chp
mRrj
2-6-2
d = b2 -4ac
u + ft
(2a + b)2
d = b*b - 4*a*c;
u+f*t
(2*a+b)*(2*a+b)
rdZlaxr
og vfHkO;fDr ftldk mRrj gka (True) ;k uk (False) esa vkrk gSA rdZlaxr vfHkO;fDr
dgrs gSA
dqN lkFkZd mnkgj.k ;gkW ij fn;s x;s gSA
p>q
!x>y
(p+q)>s
(!q) && (r||p)
2-7
mnkgj.k
# include <iostream.h>
void main ( )
{
int x=7, y;
y=x/2;
cout <<y;
}
mijksDr izksxzke dks dEI;wVj ij ju djus ij vkmViqV vkrk gS 3- vxj ge osfj;cy y dks
int ls float esa ifjofrZr dj nsrs gSA vkSj fQj vkmViqV ns[krs gS rks vkmViqV 3-5 vkrk gS uk fd 3
A vxj ge 3-5 vkmViqV ykuk pkgrs gS rks ge type casting dk iz;ksx djsaxsA
2-8
Vkbi dkfLVax vfHkO;fDr og gksrk gS tks fd fdlh Hkh vfHkO;fDr (expression) dks
fofk"V Vkbi esa ifjofrZr djus ds dke vkrh gSA
Vkbi dkfLVax fy[kus dh jpuk bl izdkj gSA
(Data Type) Expression
mijksDr izksxzke esa vxj ge Vkbi dkfLVax dk iz;ksx djrs gS rks ifjofrZr izksxzke bl izdkj
n'kkZ;k tk;sxkA
# include <iostream.h>
void main ( )
{
int x=7; float y;
y=(float) x/2;
cout <<y;
}
(ii)
2-9
int p = 6;
float q;
q=(float) p + 5.7;
int c;
c=(int) 3.5421;
C++ 'kkVZ
3-
pjksa dk uke nsrs le; fdu fu;eksa dk /;ku j[kk tkrk gSSa \
3-
mkjekyk
1 c
2 n
3 l
4 l
1
fu;=a.k dk izokg
(Flow of Control)
1-1
d.Mh'kuy
vfHkO;f
uk
gk
bQ
vUnj
CykWd ,Yl
dk vUnj dk dFku
CykWds
d
dFku
ds
;fn vfHkO;fDr dk mRrj gk gksrk gS rks dFku 1 dks fu"ikfnr (Execute) djsxk vU;Fkk
dFku 2 dks fu"ikfnr djsxkA
mnkgj.k 1
C++ esa ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks fd lsfYl;l rkieku dks QkWjusgkbV esa vkSj QkWjusgkbV
rkieku dks lsfYl;l rkieku esa ifjofrZr dj nsA blds fy, izksxzke dk p;u og ;wtj (User) ls
iwNsxkA
#include<iostream.h>
1-2
usLVsM bQ dFku og gksrk gS ftles ,d bQ dFku ds vanj nwljk bQ dFku gksrk gSA bldks
ge fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf"kr djsaxsA
if (expression 1)
{
if (expression 2)
dFku&1(
else
dFku&2(
}
else
{
if (expression 3)
dFku&3(
else
dFku&4(
}
mnkgj.k ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks fd rhu la[;k dks ;wtj ls iwNs vkSj lcls cM+h la[;k dks fizaV djsA
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
cout<<\n enter the value of a;
cin>>a;
cout<<\n enter the value of b;
cin>>b;
cout<<\n enter the value of c;
cin>>c;
if(a>b)
{
if(a>c)
cout<<\n greatest number is<<a;
else
cout<<\n greatest number is<<c;
}
else
{
if(b>c)
cout<<\n greatest number is<<b;
else
cout<<\n greatest number is<<c;
}
}
1-3
mnkgj.k
C++ Hkk"kk esa ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks fd lIrkg ds fnu dk uacj ;wtj ls iwNs vkSj fQj lIrkg
1-4
,d fLop dFku nwljs fLop dFku ds vanj gks rks] bl izdkj ds dFku dks usLVsM fLop dsl
dgrs gSA
1-5
C++ Hkk"kk esa czsd dFku (Break Statement) fdlh Hkh ywi ds chp esa ls ckgj fudkyus dk
dk;Z djrk gSA tSls gh czsd (Break Statement) dFku vkrk gSA izksxzke ds dUVksy dks ywi ls ckgj
mnkgj.k :
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int a=12,i=1;
if (i==3) break;
else
{
p=a*i;
i=i+1;
cout<<\n<<p;
}
}
output :12
24
mijksD izksxzke esa tSls gh i dk eku 3 gksxk Break dFku ds dkj.k ;g vkxs fu"ikfnr ugha
djsxkA
1-6
yw i (LOOP)
ywi lk/kkj.kr;k tc iz;ksx djrs gS] tc fdlh dFku dks ,d ls T;knk ckj nksgjk;k tk
jgk gSA
(iii)
1-7
Ogkby (while) yw i
(i)
(ii)
dFku&1(
}
;fn dUMh'ku lR; gS rks ;g Ogkby ywi ds vanj tks dFku&1 gSA mldks fu"ikfnr
(Execute) djsxkA vkSj ;fn dUMh'ku lR; ugha gS rks ;g ywi ds vanj fy[ks dFku dks fu"ikfnr
(Execute) ugha djsxkA Ogkby ywi dks lk/kkj.kr;k ,UVh dUVksy ywi (Entry Control loop) dgrs
gS D;ksafd blds vanj izos'k djus ds igys ;g 'krZ (Condition) dh tkap djrk gSA
u
g
d
1-8
k
F
Mw Ogkby ywi dks ,fDtDV dUVksy ywi (Exit Controlled loop) dgrs gS] D;ksafd ;g 'krZ dh
tkap rc djrh gS] tc og ywi ls ckgj fudyrh gSA ;fn dksbZ 'krZ igys ls gh uk (False) gS rks Hkh
;g ywi de ls de ,d ckj rks fu"ikfnr gksxh gh tcfd QkWj ywi (for loop) vkSj Ogkby ywi esa
;fn 'krZ igys ls gh uk (False) gS rks ;g nksuksa ywi ,d Hkh ckj fu"ikfnr ugha gksxhA lk/kkj.kr;k
Mw&Ogkby ywi dk iz;ksx rc djrs gS tc gesa ;g ugha irk gS fd ;g ywi fdruh ckj fu"ikfnr gksxhA
Mw&Ogkby ywi dk flUVsDl
do
{
dFku&1(
mnkgj.k ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks fd ,d uEcj ds lHkh vadksa dk tksM+ dj nsA ;fn ;wtj 3427
uacj nsrk gS rks mldk mRrj 3$4$2$7=16 vk;s
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int n,s=0,d;
cout<<\n enter the number;
cin>>n;
do
{
d=n%10;
s=s+d;
n= n/10;
}while(n!=0);
cout<<\n sum=<<s;
}
1-9
QkWj ywi (for loop) QkWj ywi dk iz;ksx rc fd;k tkrk gS tc ;wtj dks igys ls
dFku&1(
}
mnkgj.k %& ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks fd ;wtj }kjk fn;s x;s uEcj rd izkr la[;kvksa dks fizaV djsA
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int n,i;
cout<<\n enter the number;
cin>>n;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
cout<<i;
}
}
mnkgj.k %& ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks fd fdlh Hkh la[;k dk QsDVksfj;y (Factorial) fudkysA
QsDVksfj;y n = n(n-1) --------3-2-1
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int n,f=1,i;
cout<<\n Enter the number;
cin>>n;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
f=f*i;
}
cout<<\n Factorial=<<f;
}
mkjekyk
1- l
2- v]
3- c]
4- l]
2
;wtj fMQkbUM QaDku
(User defined functions)
2-1 QaD'ku (Function)
fdlh Hkh cM+s izksxzke dks gy djrs le;] ml izksxzke ds chp&chp esa dbZ ckj leku dksM]
,d ls T;knk ckj iz;ksx gksrs gSA bl leku dksM ds ckj&ckj iz;ksx djus ds dkj.k izksxzke Hkh T;knk
yack gks tkrk gSA rFkk mldks le>us esa Hkh leL;k gksrh gSA
bl leL;k ds lek/kku ds fy,] og leku dksM tks ,d ls vf/kd ckj iz;ksx gks jgk gSA
mldks vyx ls fy[k fn;k tk;sxk rFkk mldk ,d vyx ls uke ns fn;k tk;sxkA bl vyx uke
dks ge QaD'ku dk uke (Function name) dgrs gSA
mlds ckn eq[; izksxzke (Main Program) esa tgka Hkh ml leku dksM dks fy[kus dh t:jr
gksxhA ogka ij og leku dksM u fy[kdj] ml QaD'ku dk uke fy[k nsaxsA bl rjg ls ;g eq[; izksxzke
vius vki QaD'ku ds vanj fy[ks dksM dks fu"ikfnr (Execute) dj nsxkA bl izdkj QaD'ku ds iz;ksx
ls le;] txg (space) dh cpr gks tkrh gSA vkSj izksxzke Hkh ljy gks tkrk gSA
QaD'ku dks fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf"kr djsaxs&
Data Type Function name (Parameter list)
{
body of the function,
return;
}
vc ge bl QaD'ku dks eq[; izksxzke esa cqykus ds fy, fuEu izdkj ls fy[ksaxs&
max (x,y);
QaD'ku dks cqykus dk fu;e ogh gS tks QaD'ku dks fMDys;j djus dk gSA dsoy rjhdk fHkUu
gS rks og MkVk Vkbi dks ugha fy[kus dk gSA
#include<iostream.h>
float interest(float,float,float);
void main()
{
float p,r,t,s;
cout<<\n enter the principle;
cin>>p;
cout<<\n enter the rate;
cin>>r;
cout<<\n enter the time;
j[krk gSA tc iz;ksx djus okyk] fdlh iSjkehVj dk eku ugha Hkstrk vkSj QaD'ku dks cqyk ysrk gSA
(calling)
bl mijksDr QaD'ku esa le; dk fMQkYV eku 3 fn;k x;k gSA blds ckn tc ge QaD'ku
dks cqykrs (call) gS vkSj ekuk bl izdkj fy[krs gSA
Si = interest (2000, .3)
rks ;g QaD'ku ewy/ku dk eku rks 2000 Hkst nsxkA C;kt dh nj -3 Hkst nsxk vkSj D;ksafd
le; dk eku ugha Hkstk gSA rks og vius vki gh 3 ys ysxkA tks fd fMQkYV iSjkehVj esa igys ls
gh j[kh gqbZ gSA
dksbZ Hkh vkjX;wesUV rc rd fMQkYV osY;w ugh ysxk] tc rd bldk vkxs okyk pj eku ugha
ysxkA
;gka ij dqN lgh vkSj xyr mnkgj.k fMQkYV vkjX;wesUV ds crk;s x;s gS&
float interest (float p, float r = .3, float t = 3) lgh
float interest (float p = 3000, float r, float t = 3) xyr
float interest (float p = 4000, float r = .3, float t ) xyr
float interest (float p, float r, float t = 3)
lgh
dks Hkh fuf'pr djuk gS rks ge u;k QaD'ku fuEu izdkj fy[ksaxsA
int multiply (const int a, const int b);
bl QaD'ku esa const iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA bldk eryc ;g vkjX;weSUV dk eku fuf'pr gSA
bl izksxzke esa eq[; izksxzke es tks iSjkehVj x vkSj y Fks mudk eku mi izksxzke ds iSjkehVj a
vkSj b esa ifjofrZr gks x;k] ftlls mi izksxzke esa a vkSj b dk eku 2 vkSj 3 mlds ckn a dk eku gksxk
7 vkSj b dk eku gksxk 1 fQj ;g a vkSj b ds eku dks fizaV dj nsxkA mlds ckn dUVksy eq[; izksxzke
esa vk;sxkA eq[; izksxzke esa x vkSj y dk eku ogh jgsxk tks igys Fkk] ;kfu 2 vkSj 3-
mnkgj.k %&
#include<iostream.h>
void change(int& a, int& b);
void main()
{
int x=2,y=3;
change(x,y);
cout<<\n x=<<x<<\n y=<<y;
}
void change (int & a, int & b)
{
a=a+5;
b=b-2;
cout<<\n a=<<a<<\nb=<<b;
}
bl izksxzke dk ifj.kke fuEu vk;sxk&
a=7
b=1
x=7
y=1
bl izksxzke esa (Actual) iSjkehVj dk eku eq[; izksxzke esa 2 vkSj 3 gS tks fd ifjofrZr gksdj
mi izksxzke ds iSjkehVj (formal) esa ifjofrZr gks x;kA vc mi izksxzke ds varxZr iSjkehVj a vkSj b
dk eku 7 vkSj 1 gks x;kA blds izHkko ls eq[; izksxzke esa Hkh osfj;cy x vkSj y dk eku 7 vkSj 1
gks x;kA
mnkgj.k %& C++ Hkk"kk esa ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks lehdj.k ax2+bx+c=0 ds ewy fudkysA
#include<iostream.h>
#include<math.h>
void roots(int,int,int,&float,&float);
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
float root1,root2;
cout<<\n enter the coeff. of x2 ;
cin>>a;
cout<<\n enter the coeff of x;
cin>>b;
cout<<\n enter constant term;
cin>>c;
roots(a,b,c,root1,root2);
cout<<\n root1=<<root1;
cout<<\n root2=<<root2;
}
void roots(int a, int b, int c, float& x1,float& x2)
{
int d;
d= b*b-4*a*c;
if(d>=0)
{
x1=(-b+sqrt(d))/(2*a);
x2=(-b-sqrt(d))/(2*a);
}
else
cout<<\n roots are not real;
}
2-8 QaD'ku ds }kjk Hkstk x;k eku (Returning Value from a function)
,d QaD'ku ges'kk ,d gh izdkj dk eku Hkstrk gSA ysfdu vxj QaD'ku okbM (void) Vkbi
dk fMDys;j gS rks ;g t:jh ugha gS fd og ,d Hkh izdkj dk eku HkstsA ;kfu QaD'ku dksbZ Hkh eku
ugha Hkstrk gSA
QaD'ku ds }kjk tks Hkh eku Hkstk tkrk gSA og fuEu izdkj ds gks ldrs gSA
(i)
okbM (void)
(ii)
(iii)
int
float
2-9 QaD'ku ds }kjk ,js dks cqykuk (Calling function with arrays)
tc Hkh ge ,js dks QaD'ku ds }kjk eq[; izksxzke ls mi izksxzke esa Hkstrs gS rks ge ,js ds izFke
vo;o dk irk (Address)] ikbUVj (Pointer) ds }kjk Hkstrs gS u fd lkjk ,jsA ftlls dEikbyj
vius vki ,js ds ckdh vo;oksa ds irs dh x.kuk Lo;a dj ysrk gS] vkSj eku Hkh irk dj ysrk gSA
mnkgj.k %& dbZ fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh vkSlr vk;q fudkyus dk izksxzke fy[kks\
mRrj %&
#include<iostream.h>
float average( int marks[20], int n);
void main()
{
int marks[20],i,n;
float av;
cout<<\n how many students;
cin>>n;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cout<<\n enter the marks of student<<(i+1);
cin>>marks[i];
}
av=average(marks,n);
cout<<\n average marks<<av;
}
float average(int marks[20], int n)
{
float s=0,a;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
s= s+marks[i];
}
a=s/n;
return a;
}
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa osfj;cy a ml CykWd ds fy, LFkkuh; gSA ftldks fd ge dsoy Main
izksxzke esa iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA
2-11-2 lkoZHkkSe osfj;cy (Global) lkoZHkkSe osfj;cy og gS] ftldks ge izksxzke ds vanj dgh
Hkh iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA ;kfu bl osfj;cy dks ge QaD'ku] CykWd ;k dgha Hkh iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA
blfy, bl rjg ds osfj;cy dks lkoZHkkSe osfj;cy (Global) dgrs gSA
mnkgj.k %&
#include<iostream.h>
int a=10;
void main()
{
cout<<a;
}
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa tks osfj;cy a n'kkZ;k x;k gSA og lkoZHkkSe osfj;cy gSA ftldks fd
eq[; izksxzke esa Hkh iz;ksx dj ldrs gS vkSj QaD'ku ds vanj Hkh iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA
dbZ ckj tc LFkkuh; (Local) vkSj lkoZHkkSe (Global) osfj;cy ges'kk QaD'ku ds vanj Nqik
gksrk gSA ftlls fd mldk iz;ksx QaD'ku ds vUnj djus ij LFkkuh; osfj;cy gh fizaV gksxk u fd
lkoZHkkSe osfj;cyA fuEu mnkgj.k fn;k x;k gSA
#include<iostream.h>
int x=35;
{
int x=40;
cout<<x;
}
2-
3-
4-
,d QaDku tks fdlh Hkh izdkj dk eku fjVuZ ugha djrk gSA
v b.V Vkbi
c void
l yksV
n Mcy
QaDku dks cukus ls Qk;nk gSA
v le; dh cpr
c txg dh cpr
l le; vkSj txg dh cpr
n mijks esa ls dksbZ Hkh ugha
fdlh Hkh osfj;cy dks dky okbZ jsQjsUl cukus ds fy, osfj;oy ds uke ls iwoZ fpUg tksMrs gSaA
v #
c &
l ?
n mijks esa ls dksbZ ugha
tc yksdy osfj;cy o lkoZHkkSe osfj;cy dk uke ,d gks rks lkoZHkkSe osfj;cy dks yksdy
osfj;cy ls vyx fn;kus ds fy,s fpUg iz;qDr djsaxsA
v ::
c ;
l :
n mijks esa ls dksbZ ugha
y?kqkjkRed
iz'u (Short Answer Type Questions)
1- QaDku D;k gksrk gS \
2- LFkkuh; o lkoZHkkSfed osfj;oy esa ls fdldk ifj{ks= T;knk gksrk gS \
3- fdlh Hkh fLVax dks fjVuZ djus ds fy, QaDku dk dkSulk Vkbi iz;q fd;k tkrk gS \
4- QaD'ku ds Vkbi fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gS \
5-
mkjekyk
1- c
2- l]
3- c]
4- v
3
,js ,oe~ LVdpj
(Array and Structure)
,js ,d gh izdkj ds MkVk lewg dks dgrs gSA ;s MkVk izdkj fdlh Hkh izkFkfed izdkj tSls
int, float, char vkfn ds vFkok ;wtj }kjk fMQkbu izdkj ds gks ldrs gSA bu dk iz;ksx structure
o object ds vUnj Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
(ii)
;g fuEu izdkj vius vki ,js ls lacaf/kr osfj;cy esa eku j[k nsxkA
age [0] = 16
age [1] = 17
age [2] = 19
age [3] = 18
age [4] = 15
LFkku tgka u;k MkVk fjDr gks tk;sxk vkSj mlds ckn ml fjDr LFkku ij u;k MkVk tqM+ tk,xkA
10010010
112112112
221221221
325325325
431431431
5395535
643639639
745743743
850845845
9950950
mnkgj.k %&
fdlh ,js ds vUnj MkVk dks tksM+us dk izksxzke C++ Hkk"kk esa fy[ksaA
#include<iostream.h>
int findpos(int [],int,int)
void main()
{
int a[10],data,n,p;
cout<<\n how many number:
cin>>n;
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cout<<\n enter a<<(i+1);
cin>>a[i];
}
cout<<\n enter the data which to be inserted;
cin>>data;
p=findpos(a,n,data);
for(i=n;i>p;i)
3-5-2
7
212212212
313313313
418418418
519519519
621621621
7227725
825825830
9309309
mnkgj.k %& ,d ,js esa ls ,d vo;o dks gVkus dk izksxzke fy[kks\
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int a[10],data,n,p;
cout<<\n how many number;
cin>>n;
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cout<<\n enter a<<(i+1);
cin>>a[i];
}
cout<<\n enter the data which to be deleted;
cin>>data;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if (a[i]==data)
{
p=i;
break;
3-5-3
vkmViqV dk uewuk %
How many students but not more than 30
5
enter the age of student 1 11
enter the age of student 2 12
enter the age of student 3 16
enter the age of student 4 17
enter the age of student 5 18
average age=14.8
void main()
{
int age[30],i,data,n, flag=0;
cout<<\n how many data;
cin>>n;
for(i=0;i<n;i+)
{
cout<<\n enter the age of student<<(i+1);
cin>>age[i];
}
cout<<\n enter the age which to be found in the list;
cin>>data;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(age[i]==data)
{
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if(flag==1)
cout<<\n the given age in the list;
else
cout<<\n the given age is not in the list;
}
mnkgj.k %& fdlh ,js ds vUnj vf/kdre vkSj U;wure eku fudkyus dk izksxzke fyf[k;sA
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int marks[30];
int n,max,min,i;
blfy, fLVax ds fMDys;j djus ds fy, ge djSDVj dk ,js fMDys;j djsaxs ftldk fd vafre djSDVj
'\0' [kkyh djSDVj (Null character) gksA tc Hkh ge fLVax fMDys;j djsaxs rks ml djSDVj ds ,js dh
la[;k ges'kk ftrus fLVax ds vanj djSDVj gSA mlls ,d T;knk fMDys;j djsaxs] ftlls fd mldk
vafre djSDVj ml ,js ds vafre vo;o esa LVksj gks tk;sA
;fn gesa ,d fLVax fMDys;j djuh gSA ftlds djSDVj dh la[;k 20 gS rks mls fuEu izdkj
ls fMDys;j djsaxsA
char Name [21];
mnkgj.k %& C++ Hkk"kk esa ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks fd ,d fLVax myVk vkSj lh/kk i<+us ij]
,d gh fLVax i<+h tk;sA mnkgj.k ey;kye] ljl vkfn
#include<iostream.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char s[20];
int i,j,n,flag=1;
cout<<\n enter string;
gets(s);
n=strlen(s);
for(i=0,j= n-1; ((i<= n/2) && (j>= n/2));i++,j)
mijksDr fMDyjs'ku vius vki gh ,js dk eku fuEu izdkj j[k nsxkA
name [0]
name [1]
name [2]
name [3]
name [4]
name [5]
name [6]
name [7]
= 'p'
= 'r'
= 'a'
= 't'
= 'e'
= 'e'
= 'k'
= '\0'
dEikbyj vius vki gh vafre djSDVj dks uy djSDVj (Null character) tksM+ nsrk gSA
3-21-6
3-22 LVsfMfyo gSMj Qkby stdlib.h :dbZ ckj izksxzke ds }kjk ge ,slk uEcj fudkyuk pkgrs gS] tks tc tc Hkh izksxzke dks
fu"ikfnr (Execute) djs rks gj ckj vyx&vyx mRrj nsA tks fd lk/kkj.k ykVjh ;k fdlh [ksy
ds izksxzke esa dke vkrk gSA bl izdkj ds iz;ksx esa ge js.MekbZt (randomize) vkSj js.M (rand) QaD'ku
dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA bu QaD'kuksa dk iz;ksx djrs le; ge stdlib.h gSMj Qkby izksxzke ds vanj tksM+rs
gSA
mnkgj.k %&
#include<iostream.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
int n;
randomize();
n=(int)(rand()*10);
cout<<n;
}
mijksDr izksxzke dks tc Hkh ge dEI;wVj ij ju djsaxs rks ges'kk gedks tks Hkh uEcj feysxk]
og 0 ls 9 rd gh feysxkA vkSj vxj ge bl izdkj dk izksxzke cukuk pkgs ftlesa fd og tks uEcj
ns og 0 ls 99 ds chp gks rks ge mijksDr izksxzke esa 10 dh txg 100 fy[k nsaxsA
o [kksyrs le; LVhe esa fMDys;j djsaxs
3-23 mi;ksdrkZ }kjk ifjHkkf"kr MkVk Vkbi (User Defined Data Types)
3-23-1
C++ esa ekStqnk MkVk Vkbi ds uke ifjorZu dh lqfo/kk iznku dh xbZ gSA dhoMZ (Keywoed)
typedef dh enn ls fdlh Vkbi fo'ks"k dks ,d u;k uke i;kZ;okph ;k miuke fn;k tk ldrk
gSA ,d typedef LVsVesaV ,d u;k MkVk Vkbi fMQkbu ugh djrk gS] vfirq ;g ekStqn MkVk Vkbi
dks ,d i;kZ;okph ;k miuke nsrk gSA
flaVsDl fuEu izdkj gS %&
typedef type alias;
;gkWa type nh xbZ Vkbi gS rFkk alias mldk u;k uke gSA
mnkgj.k %&
typedef long integer;
typedef double Real;
integer K=45;
const real PI=3.14159
3-23-2 # fMQkbu MkbjsdfVo (# define directive) %&
C++ esa izhizkslslj MkbjsdfVo # define dk mi;ksx dj dksUlVsaV (constant) fMQkbu
fd;s tk ldrs gSA;g MkbjsdfVo ,d VsDlV QSjt (text pharse) rFkk vkbMsafnQk;j (identifier)
ds e/; ,d lekurk (equivalence) mRiUu djrk gSA
#define PI 3.14159
izksxzke ds izkjaHk esa mifLFkr ;g LVsbesaV ;g bafxr djrk gS fd iqjs izksxzke esa tgkWa Hkh vkbMsafnQk;j
(identifier) PI mifLFkr gS] mls VsDlV QSjt (text pharse) 3.14159 ls izfrLFkfir fd;k tkuk gSA
#define dk mi;ksx dj MkVk Vkbi fMQkbu ugh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
tkosxhA
jktLFkku
gfj;k.kk
;w0ih0
15W
60W
100W
12
11
13
15
14
16
17
18
17
row
Column
;g f}foeh; ,js dks n'kkZ jgk gS tks fd integer Type dk gS rFkk bldk osfj;cy dk uke
price gSA rFkk ykbuksa dh la[;k 4 rFkk dkWyeksa dh la[;k 3 gSA
mnkgj.k %& ,d izksxzke fy[kks tks rhu rjg ds cYcksa dks pkj jkT;ksa esa vyx&vyx ewY;ksa dks LVksj
djrk gksA
#include<iostream.h>
#include<iomanip.h> /* it is used for setw() */
void main()
{
int price[3][4];
int i,j;
for( i =0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<4;j++)
{
cout<<\n enter the price of <<(i+1)<<bulbs"<(j+1)<<states;
cin>>price[i][j];
}
}
cout <<\n the price are as \n;
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<4;j++)
{
3-29 LV d pj (Structure)
LVdpj (Structure) lkekU; pjksa dk ,d laxzg (Collection) gSA ,d LVdpj esa fofHkUu
izdkj (type) ds pj mifLFkr gks ldrs gSA ;g fLFkfr ,js ls fHkUu gS D;ksfd ,js leku izdkj ds
pjjs dk laxzg (Collection) gSA
C Hkk"kk ls vuq#irk j[kus ds fy, C++ Hkk"kk esa struct dhoMZ (keyword) j[kk x;k
gSA tks C++ esa LVdpj (Structure) fMQkbu djus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSArFkkfi C++ esa
LVdpj (Structure), C++ dh Dykl (Class) ds leku gSAC++ esa LVdpj (Structure) ,oe~
C++ dh Dykl (Class) esa eq[; varj ;g gS fd C++ LVdpj (Structure), C++ dh ,slh
Dykl (Class) gS ftlds lHkh lnL; ifCyd (Public) gS rFkk QaD'ku (Function) ftlds lnL;
ugh gks ldrs gSA
3-29.1 LVdpj fMQkbu o fMdys;j djuk (Defining and Declaring Structure)
fla V s D l (Syntax) :LVdpj fMQkbu djus ds fy,
struct structrue_name
{
data type variable1;
data type variable2;
.
.
data type variablen;
};
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa geus Employee uke dk ,d LVdpj cuk;k gSA name[20] ,d char
Vkbi dk pj gS] age int Vkbi dk pj gS rFkk salary float Vkbi dk pj gSA tks LVdpj employee
ds lnL; (member) gSA
Employee e1;
mijksDr LVsVesaV employee LVdpj ds lnL; Name dk eku vkmViqV ds #i esa iznku
djsxkA
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa LVdpj dh ifjHkk"kk (definition) ds fy, vyx ls LVsVesaV ugh fn;k
x;k gSA
3-29.4 LVdpj ds lnL;ksa dks buh'kh;ykbt djuk (Initializing Structure Members)
3-29.6
ftl izdkj lkukU; MkVk Vkbi dks ,d QaD'ku dks jsQjsal }kjk Hkstk tk ldrk gSA mlh
izdkj ,d LVdpj ,d QaD'ku dks jsQjsal }kjk Hkstk tk ldrk gSA finys [k.M esa fn;s x, izksxzke
esa geus QaD'ku add_distance dks LVdpj d1 rFkk d2 osY;q @vkjX;qesaV ds #i esa Hkstk FkkA
bl [k.M esa] LVdpj d1 rFkk d2 dks QaD'ku add_distance dks jsQjsal ds #i esa Hkstsaxs A
mnkgj.k (Example) :#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
structure distance
{
int meter;
float cm;
};
distance add_distance( distance& , distance& );
void display( distance )
int main( )
{
distance d1,d2,d3;
cout << "Enter meter:";
cin >> d1.meter;
cout << "Enter cm:";
2-
3-
4-
5-
6-
7-
js.Me QaDku dk iz;ksx djrs le; fuEu gSMj Qkby dks izksxzke esa tksM+sxsaA
v fLVax MkV ,p
c ,l Vh Mhfyo MkV ,p
l lh Vkbi MkV ,p
n mijks esa ls dksbZ ugha
fuEu esa ls esFk MkV ,p gSMj Qkby dk QaDku gSA
v bt yksoj
c ykx
l js.Mekbt
n ,fXtV
,js ds vUnj lkjs vo;o gksrs gSaA
v ,d gh rjg ds
c vyx&vyx rjg ds
l feDl rjg ds
n dksbZ Hkh ugha
20 fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh vk;q dks ,d foeh; ,js esa LVksj djus ij mlds ,js ds vo;o ds uEcj gksaxsA
v 0 ls 19
c 0 ls 20
l 1 ls 21
n dksbZ Hkh ugha
,d fLVax osfj;scy char name [20]; esa osfj;scy ds vanj v{kj vk ldrs gSA
v 20
c 19
l 21
n 22
,l Vh vkj lh ih okbZ (strcpy) QaDku dks iz;ksx djrs le; izksxzke ds vanj gSMj Qkby
tksM+sxsaA
v eSFk MkV ,p (math.h)
c fLVax MkV ,p (string.h)
l lh Vkbi MkV ,p (ctype.h) n mijks esa ls dksbZ ugha
fdlh Hkh v{kj dks cMs v{kjksa esa ifjofrZr djus dk QaDku gSA
v Vw yksoj (tolower)
c Vw vij (toupper)
l bt yksoj (islower)
n bt vij (isupper)
y?kqkjkRed
1234567-
fdlh Hkh fLVax dks ,js esa LVksj djus ij mldk vafre djSDVj D;k vkrk gS\
,js fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gSa \
nks fLVax dh rqyuk djus okys QaDku dk uke crkb;s \
fdl izdkj ds ,js esa ykbu o dkWye dk iz;ksx gksrk gS \
VkbiMSQ (Typedef) D;k djrk gS \
LVdpj dks fMQkbu o fMdys;j djus ds fy, flaVsDl (Syntax) fyf[k,A
LVdpj dks buh'kh;ykbt djus ds fy, flaVsDl (Syntax) fyf[k,
C++ Hkk"kk esa ,d izksxzke fyf[k;s tks ;wtj }kjk fn;s x;s la[;kvksa dk vkSlr eku fudkysA
mkjekyk
1- v
6- c]
2- v
7- c
3- v
4- v]
5- c
dEI;wVj foKku
2010
ek/;fed fk{kk cksMZ jktLFkku] vtesj
izkDdFku
dEI;wVj foKku fo"k; dks ,sfPNd fo"k; ds :i esa ysus okys fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds fy, ;g
iqLrd fy[kh xbZ gSA dEI;wVj ds mi;ksx ls ge lc Hkyh Hkkafr ifjfpr gSaA viuh vko';drkvksa
ds vuq:i ge bldk mi;ksx djuk pkgrs gSa rks bl fo"k; dh xgu tkudkjh gksuk vko';d
gSA dEI;wVj iz;ksDrk ds e/; laokn LFkkfir djus esa vkWijsfVax flLVe dh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA
fofHkUu izdkj dh izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa ds mi;ksx ls ge viuh vko';drkuqlkj izksxzke cuk ldrs
gSaA C++ izksxzkfex dh vko';drk lkWVos;j ds fodkl ds fy, c<+rh tk jgh gSA
iqLrd dks ljy cukus ds fy, Hkk"kk dks cksypky dh fgUnh esa fy[kk x;k gSA Hkk"kk
dh dfBurk fo"k; dks le>us esa ck/kd uk cus bl gsrq vaxzsth 'kCnksa dk iz;ksx chp&chp esa fd;k
x;k gSA rduhdh 'kCnkoyh Hkh ;Fkkor j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA
;g iqLrd fo"k; dk v/;;u djus okys fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds fy, lgk;d fl) gksxh ,slk
iw.kZ fo'okl gSA
& ys[kdx.k
fo"k; lwph
INDEX
bdkbZ 1
dEI;w V j (Computer Fundamentals)
1
1&14
15&36
37 & 49
50&76
bdkbZ 2
izksxzkfeax
1
izksxzkfeax
77-85
bdkbZ 3
C++ dk
1
2
86-101
102-117
bdkbzZ 4
C++ es a
1
2
3
118-127
128-138
139-171