Generation of Electricity Using Speed Breaker

GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER
2012
ABSTRACT
Now I am throwing some light on the very new and innovative concept i.e. GENERATING ELECTRICITY FROM A SPEED BREAKER. Producing electricity from a speed breaker is a new concept that is undergoing research. The number of vehicles on road is increasing rapidly and if we convert some of the kinetic energy of these vehicle into the rotational motion of roller then we can produce considerable amount of electricity, this is the main concept of this project. In this project, a roller is fitted in between a speed breaker and some kind of a grip is provided on the speed breaker so that when a vehicle passes over speed breaker it rotates the roller. This movement of roller is used to rotate the shaft of D.C. generator by the help of chain drive which is there to provide 1:5 speed ratios. As the shaft of D.C. generator rotates, it produces electricity. This electricity is stored in a battery. Then the output of the battery is used to lighten the street lamps on the road. Now during daytime we dont need electricity for lightening the street lamps so we are using a control switch which is manually operated .The control switch is connected by wire to the output of the battery. The control switch has ON/OFF mechanism which allows the current to flow when needed. Before starting I have one question to you all who is really very happy with the current situation of the electricity in India? I suppose no one. So this is my step to improve the situation of electricity with an innovative and useful concept i.e. Generating Electricity from a Speed breaker First of all what is electricity means to us? Electricity is the form of energy. It is the flow of electrical Power. Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. We get electricity, which is a secondary energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources. Many cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls that turned water wheels to perform work. Before electricity generation began slightly over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Direct current (DC) electricity had been used in arc lights for outdoor lighting. In the late-1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation, transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be transmitted over much greater distances than direct current. Tesla's inventions used
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electricity to bring indoor lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines. How is electricity generated? Electricity generation was first developed in the 1800's using Faradays dynamo generator. Almost 200 years later we are still using the same basic principles to generate electricity, only on a much larger scale. The rotor (rotating shaft) is directly connected to the prime mover and rotates as the prime mover turns. The rotor contains a magnet that, when turned, produces a moving or rotating magnetic field. The rotor is surrounded by a stationary casing called the stator, which contains the wound copper coils or windings. When the moving magnetic field passes by these windings, electricity is produced in them. By controlling the speed at which the rotor is turned, a steady flow of electricity is produced in the windings. These windings are connected to the electricity network via transmission lines. One question that u all are thinking is why I have apply this on the speed breaker and not on the rough road or plane road where the kinetic energy of the vehicle is more then what I m getting on the speed breaker I m giving u one example, just think over it. A car or any heavy vehicle is coming with a speed of 100 mph on the road and passing over this roller which is fitted at the level of the road then this roller is gaining the speed nearly somewhere 90 mph (due to losses). So now suppose a cycle is coming with a speed of 20 mph and is going to pass this roller (which is moving at a speed of 90 mph) due to this difference in the speed there will be a collision that is the main reason for using this concept on the speed breaker.
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Fig - Block Diagram of Project Generation of Electricity using Speed Breakers
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Fig Actual Photo Of The Project
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Fig- Circuit diagram of Project
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OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
The non-renewable resources like coal, natural oil, natural gas are limited in nature. They are using widely for energy production. The rate of consumption is quite higher. Thus after some time they will remove from the earth. The government works to save these resources. The major objectives of this project is given below1. Saving the non-renewable resources of energy. 2. Utilization of kinetic energy of vehicle. 3. Produce electricity at lower cost.
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INTRODUCTION
The word energy from the Greek energeia, "activity, operation", from energos, "active, working" is a scalar physical quantity that is a property of objects and systems which is conserved by nature. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. We use energy to do work and make all movements. When we eat, our bodies transform the food into energy to do work. When we run or walk or do some work, we burn energy in our bodies. Cars, planes, trolleys, boats, and machinery also transform energy into work. Work means moving or lifting something, warming or lighting something. There are many sources of energy that help to run the various machines invented by man. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. But it can be converted from one form to another form. This law is known as conservation of energy. Total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of reference. For example, a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the airplane, but non-zero kinetic energy relative to the earth.
1.1- Types of energy

In the nature, energy can be found in many forms. Most of the energy can be first converted into electricity (i.e. electrical energy). Then it can be easily used various purpose such as lighting, cooling, cooking and to running other various equipments. The major form can be listed as below1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Mechanical energy Electric energy Magnetic energy Chemical energy Nuclear energy Sound energy Surface energy
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1.2- Mechanical energy

The energy which is used to do some mechanical work is known as mechanical energy. Mechanical energy has two components i.e. potential energy and kinetic energy present in a mechanical system. These components can be described as follows-
1.2.1- Potential energy

Potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object. Potential energy exists when there is a force that tends to pull an object back towards some original position when the object is displaced. This force is called a restoring force. The simple example is stretching the rubber. It stores the energy is known as the potential energy. When the rubber is released, the potential energy is concerted into kinetic energy. In the mathematical form, potential energy is-
PE = mgh
WherePE = Energy (in Joules) m = mass (in kilograms) g = gravitational acceleration of the earth (9.8 m/sec2) h = height above earth's surface (in meters)
1.2.2- Kinetic Energy

The energy which is due to the motion of a body. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. It is the energy of motion. An object which has motion whether it is vertical or horizontal motion has kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object in this case is given by the relation:-
KE = (1/2) mv2
WhereKE = Energy (in Joules) m = mass (in kilograms) v = velocity (in meters/sec)
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1.3- Electrical energy

The electric energy is defined as the work which must be done against the Coulomb force to rearrange charges from infinite separation to this configuration (or the work done by the Coulomb force separating the charges from this configuration to infinity). The electricity is produced by flowing the electron in an conductor. In many applications, electrical energy is used. This is the simplest form of energy which is easy to use. If an electric current passes through a resistor, electric energy is converted to heat; if the current passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be converted into other forms of energy). The amount of electric energy due to an electric current can be expressed in a number of different ways-
E = UQ = UIt = Pt = U2t / R
WhereU = The electric potential difference (in volts) Q = The charge (in coulombs) I = The current (in amperes) t = The time for which the current flows (in seconds) P = The power (in watts) R = The electric resistance (in ohms).
1.4- Law of conservation of energy

Isolated system remains constant but cannot be recreated. In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space. The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in any According to energy conservation law the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. In thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems, It states that Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. But it can be transformed from one form to another form of energy.
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The conservation of energy is a fundamental concept of physics along with the conservation of mass and the conservation of momentum. The mathematical form of the first law of thermodynamics can be given by following equation-
Q = dU+ W
WhereQ = The amount of energy added to the system by a heating process, W = The amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings, dU = The increase in the internal energy of the system. In this project the energy transform from mechanical to electrical. The mechanical energy is generating from moving vehicle and electricity is produced by dynamo. It will store in the battery bank and will be used for various purpose such as street lighting, signal control lighting etc. At present we are facing shortage of electricity. Electricity can be generated using speed breakers, strange, isn't it? The benefits from this idea will be to generate electricity for the streetlights, hoardings and then for other use. The functioning will be as follows: 1.The speed breaker on a busy road will be lifted from one side and fixed on other side( on one way road) 2. There will be a crankshaft mechanism below the speed breaker. The shaft of the generator will be attached to the disc and the rod connected to the disc from the speed breaker. This arrangement will make 1 rotation as soon as the vehicle moves over the speed breaker.(rotations can be increased using gears) 4. There will be electricity storing unit to store the generated electricity during the day and will be used during the night. The manufacturing cost is low. But the installation might be bit expensive but still affordable. Research: the prototype made using a simple dc motor gave an unbelievable output of 12 volts and the cost of the prototype was just 400 Rs. This proves the feasibility of this project. The idea can be applied on heavy traffic roads. This device functions by attaching the generator to the disc and the rod connected to the disc from the speed breaker. The machine self-levels on any surface up to a 4 degree slope. The unit may be transported to any emergency site where it then begins to process.
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Currently, propeller pitch control uses three approaches: it is based upon either hydraulic oil pressure, mechanical control using lateral motion along the axis of the drive shaft, or electric motor control with the drive motor embedded in the hub. All three of these techniques are either expensive to manufacture and install, or expensive to maintain due to high wear rates or the close machine tolerances required. Thus we use electric gear motor arrangement for this. Safe Speed is a software solution that limits the speed a vehicle can attain but cannot surpass. The program can be run on any device that has a windows based operating system, available COM port or USB port (also considering Wireless and Bluetooth connections). The device connects to the OBD II (On-Board Diagnostic Systems) usually within 1 meter of the steering wheel. (All cars built since January 1, 1996 have OBD-II systems) When the device (laptop/desktop/pad) is, At present we are facing shortage of electricity. Electricity can be generated using speed breakers, strange, isn't it? The benefits from this idea will be to generate electricity for the streetlights, hoardings and then for other use. The functioning will be as follows: 1.The speed breaker on a busy road will be lifted from one side and fixed on other side( on one way road) 2. There will be a crankshaft mechanism below the speed breaker.
1.5-Speed Breaker
Our range of speed bumps and ramblers are made from superior quality rubber. These humps are highly resistant to various impacts and brutal weather conditions. The modular and compact design makes them easy to install. We have affixed night vision reflectors and glass metals on both sides of humps. Silent features are - These are available with both yellow and black color, which enhances visibility, Moisture, UV and temperature resistant. Speed bumpers are grooved for proper drainage. Road Humps are available in different size: 1. Rubber Road Hump: 500X425X75. 2. Plastic Road Hump: 250x300x50.
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List of Mechanical Components
TABLE- 1
S. No. 1). 2). 3). 4).
Name of Components Wooden Sheet Cylindrical roller Transmission Shaft Bearing
Material Plywood Cast iron Cast iron High-Carbon Steel
Dimensions 59x35.5 L= 12, D= 6.2 D=12 mm -----------
2.1- Wooden Sheet

The wooden sheet is made of plywood. It is used to make the base and tapper part of the project. Plywood is a type of engineered wood made from thin sheets of wood veneer, called plies or veneers. The layers are glued together, each with its grain at right angles to adjacent layers for greater strength. There are an odd number of plies. A common reason for using plywood instead of plain wood is its resistance to cracking, shrinkage, twisting/warping, and its general high degree of strength. It has replaced many dimensional lumbers on construction applications for these reasons. A vast number of varieties of plywood exist for different applications1. Softwood plywood- It is made either of Douglas fir or spruce, pine, and fir, and is used for construction and industrial purposes. 2. Hardwood plywood- It is made of red oak, birch, maple, lacuna (Philippine mahogany) and a large number of other hardwoods.
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Fig 1- Plywood
2.2- Cylindrical Roller

The cylinder is used to transform the linear kinetic energy into rotational kinetic energy. It makes a contact with the tyres of the moving vehicles. Thus the acceleration of the vehicle is converted into the rotational torque. It is made of cast iron and can also be made of any other material as per economy and applications consideration. The cast iron is quite cheap and it has higher load carrying capacity. 1. The surface area of the cylinder is-
A= 2r (r + h)
2. The volume of the cylinder is-
V= rh
Fig - Cylinder Geometry
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Wherer = Radius of cylinder h = Height of cylinder
2.3- Transmission Shaft

Roller shaft is used to support the roller cylinder. It has bearings at its both ends. The bearing is holds the roller cylinder and transfers the motion from cylinder to shaft. It is made of cast iron. The roller shaft is subjected to the high variable loads. The one end of the shaft is coupled with the shaft of dynamo. It transfers the rotation from roller cylinder to the dynamo which will generate the magnetic flux. This will cause to generate the electricity. It is subjected to various stresses such as bending stress, tensional shear stress, tensile stress etc. The design consideration of the shaft is described as follows-
1. Design against static load

The transmission shaft supporting gears and pulleys are subjected to a combined load of banding and tensional moments. The shaft materials are ductile and the principle stress theory of failure is used to determine the shaft diameter. When the shaft is subjected to bending moment and tensional moment, the bending stress and tensional shear stress are given by-
b = Mb. y/I = 32 Mb./d = Mt. r/J = 16 Mt./d

WhereMb= Bending moment, Mt= Tensional moment, y= d/2
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I= Moment of inertia J= Polar moment of inertia d= Diameter of shaft
The maximum shear stress in the shaft can be determined-
max= (b/2) +
Now, according to maximum shear stress theory of failure-
Ssy = 0.5Syt
Where, Syt = Yield strength of the material in tensile Ssy = Yield strength of the material in shear
Therefore,
max = Ssy /FOS = 0.5 Syt/FOS
Where, FOS = Factor of safety
2.4- Bearing
A bearing is a device to permit constrained relative motion between two parts, i.e. rotation or linear movement. Bearing is used to reduce the friction and increases the frictionless rotation of the shaft. There is a rolling contact bearing is used. A rolling contact bearing consists of four partsPage | 15
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1. 2. 3. 4.
Inner race Outer race A rolling element (ball, roller, needle etc.) Cage (which hold the rolling element and spaces the rolling element evenly around the periphery)
Depending upon the type of rolling contact, the bearing may be classified as follows-
2.4.1- Ball Bearing

A ball bearing is the type in which the balls are used as a rolling element. The balls are placed inside the gap between the inner and outer race. The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. One of the races is held fixed. As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other. Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races. Compared to other bearing types, the ball bearing is the least expensive, primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing.
2.4.2- Roller Bearing

A roller bearings use cylinders of slightly greater length than diameter in the gap between outer and inner races. Roller bearings have higher radial load capacity than ball bearings, but a low axial capacity and higher friction under axial loads. If the inner and outer races are misaligned, the bearing capacity drops quickly compared to either a ball bearing or a spherical roller bearing.
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Fig 3- Ball Bearing
Fig 4- Roller Bearing
2.4.3- Needle bearing

Needle roller bearings use very long and thin cylinders in the gap between inner and outer races. Radial needle bearings are cylindrical and use rollers parallel to the axis of the shaft. Needle bearing have a large surface area that is in contact with the bearing outer surfaces compared to ball bearings. Thus there is less added clearance (difference between the diameter of the shaft and the diameter of the bearing) so they are much more compact. Since the rollers are thin, the outside diameter of the bearing is only slightly larger than the hole in the middle. However, the small-diameter rollers must bend sharply where they contact the races, and thus the bearing fatigues relatively quickly.
2.4.4- Tapered roller bearing

Tapered roller bearings use conical rollers that run on conical races. Most roller bearings only take radial loads, but tapered roller bearings support both radial and axial loads, and generally can carry higher loads than ball bearings due to greater contact area. Taper roller bearings are used, for example, as the wheel bearings of most cars, trucks, buses, and so on. Tapered roller bearings are usually more expensive than ball bearings; and under heavy loads the tapered roller is like a wedge and bearing loads tend to try to eject the
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roller; the force from the collar which keeps the roller in the bearing adds to bearing friction compared to ball bearings.
Fig - Needle Roller Bearing
Fig - Tapered Roller Bearing
2.4.5- Spherical roller bearings

Spherical roller bearings use rollers that are thicker in the middle and thinner at the ends (i.e. the spherical shaped roller). Spherical roller bearings can adjust to support misaligned loads and have higher load carrying capacity. However, spherical rollers are difficult to produce and thus expensive, and the bearings have higher friction than a comparable ball bearing since different parts of the spherical rollers run at different speeds on the rounded race and thus there are opposing forces along the bearing/race contact.
2.4.6- Thrust bearing

An axial load is supported by thrust bearing. It is used to support a vertical shaft against gravitational loads. Spherical, conical or cylindrical rollers are used as a rolling element in this bearing. It can support larger thrust loads than the ball bearing due to the larger contact area, but are more expensive to manufacture.
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Fig - Spherical Roller Bearing
Fig - Thrust Bearing
2.4.7- Selection Procedure of Bearing

The basic procedure for the selection of bearing from the manufacturers catalogue consists of the following steps1. Calculate the radial and axial force acting on the bearing and determine the diameter of shaft where the bearing id to be fitted. 2. Select the type of bearing for the giving application. 3. Determine the value of X and Y, the radial and thrust factor, from the catalogue. The value of X and Y for single row deep groove ball bearing are given in the table-3. The values depend upon two ratio, (Fa/ Fr) and (Fa/Co), where Co is static load capacity. The selection of the bearing is, therefore, done by trail and error. The static and dynamic load capacity of single row deep groove ball bearing of different series. To begin with a bearing of light series, such as 60, is selected for the given diameter of the shaft and the value of Co is found. 4. Calculate the equivalent dynamic load from the equation-
P = X.Fr + Y.Fa
5. Make decision about the expected bearing life and express the life in million revolutions.
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TABLE-2: X and Y factor
Fa/Co
(Fa/ Fr) e X Y 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Fa/ Fr) e X 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 Y 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0
0.025 0.040 0.070 0.130 0.250 0.500
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.22 0.24 0.27 0.31 0.37 0.44
Calculate the dynamic load capacity from the equation-
L= (C/P)
Check whether the selected bearing of series 60 has the required Dynamic capacity. If not select the bearing of the next series and go back to step 3 and continue.
2.4.8- Life of Bearing

The relationship between the dynamic load carrying capacity, the bearing load and the bearing life is given by Where,
L= (C/P)
L= Bearing Life (in million revolution) C= Dynamic load capacity (N) a= 3 (for ball bearing) a= 10/3 (for roller bearing)
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The relationship between life in million revolutions and in working hours is given by-
L= 60nLh/106
Where, Lh = Bearing Life (in hours) n= Speed of revolution (r.p.m.)
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List of Electrical Components

TABLE- 4
ELECTRICAL COMPONENT 89S51 Micro controller Photo Diode Infra-Red Led 7805 ic regulator
QUALITY Family member of 8051 5 mm 5 mm 5 volt 10 k 470
QUANTITY 1 2 2 1 3 2 6 1 1
Resistance
270 1 k
Crystal Oscillator Transistor LDR Dynamo LED
12 MHz NPN Type
1 6 volt 1 6 21pf 2
Capacitor
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3.1- D.C. Generator

A DC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by using the principle of magnetic induction. This principle is explained as follows1. Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the conductor. The dc generator will be discussed later. 2. An elementary generator consists of a wire loop placed so that it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will produce an induced e.m.f. in the loop. Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up or use the induced e.m.f. The two main parts of a generator can be described in either mechanical or electrical terms:
Mechanical 1. Rotor: The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. 2. Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. Electrical 1. Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. 2. Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.
3.1.1- Construction of DC Generator

The generator has two main parts i.e. Stator and Rotor. The stator is the stationary part and rotor is the rotating part. The armature is present between the magnetic poles. These poles are in even number. The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The pole pieces are shaped and positioned to concentrate the
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magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE. The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They rotate with the armature. The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride against the rings. The generated voltage appears across these brushes. A single-turn rectangular copper coil moving about its axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to two split-rings which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press against the slip rings. A DC generator has following basic parts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A magnetic field Pole Shoe Pole piece Armature A commutator Brushes Housing
The fig of dc generator is shown as follows-
Fig - Parts of DC generator

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3.1.2- Working Principle

DC generator is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced e.m.f (Electromotive Force). Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. A magnet creates magnetic lines of force on either side of it that moves in opposite directions. As the metal coil passes through the magnetic field in a generator, the electrical power that is produced constantly changes. At first, the generated electric current moves in one direction (as from left to right). Then, when the coil reaches a position where it is parallel to the magnetic lines of force, no current at all is produced. As the coil continues to rotate, it cuts through magnetic lines of force in the opposite direction, and the electrical current generated travels in the opposite direction (as from right to left). The ends of the coil are attached to metal slip rings that collect the electrical current. Each slip ring, in turn, is attached to a metal brush, which transfers the current to an external circuit. Thus, a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an alternating current, one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. Commutator is a slip ring that has been cut in half, with both halves insulated from each other. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses. The current that flows into the external circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the same direction. This results in a steadier current. The rotating armature cuts the magnetic flux at an angle 90 o, 180o, 270o and 0o can be showing by following figure A, B, C and D respectively-
Fig - Functioning of Generator

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3.1.3- Types of DC generator
The DC generator has following types1. DC shunt generator 2. DC series generator 3. DC compound generatora. Long shunt compound generator b. Short shunt compound generator
3.2- Microcontroller
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. A micro-controller can be compared to a small stand alone computer; it is a very powerful device, which is capable of executing a series of pre-programmed tasks and interacting with other hardware devices. Being packed in a tiny integrated circuit (IC) whose size and weight is usually negligible, it is becoming the perfect controller for robots or any machines requiring some kind of intelligent automation. A single microcontroller can be sufficient to control a small mobile robot, an automatic washer machine or a security system. Any microcontroller contains a memory to
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store the program to be executed, and a number of input/output lines that can be used to interact with other devices, like reading the state of a sensor or controlling a motor. Nowadays, microcontrollers are so cheap and easily available that it is common to use them instead of simple logic circuits like counters for the sole purpose of gaining some design flexibility and saving some space. Some machines and robots will even rely on a multitude of microcontrollers, each one dedicated to a certain task. Most recent microcontrollers are In System Programmable, meaning that you can modify the program being executed, without removing the microcontroller from its place. Today, microcontrollers are an indispensable tool for the robotics hobbyist as well as for the engineer. Starting in this field can be a little difficult, because you usually cant understand how everything works inside that integrated circuit, so you have to study the system gradually, a small part at a time, until you can figure out the whole image and understand how the system works Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (mill watts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nano watts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performancecritical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption. 3.2.1- The 8051 micro-controller architecture The 8051 is the name of a big family of microcontrollers. The device which we are going to use along this tutorial is the AT89S52which is a typical 8051 microcontroller manufactured by Atmel. Note that this part doesnt aim to explain the functioning of the different components of a 89S52 microcontroller, but rather to give you a general idea of the organization of the chip and the available features, which shall be explained in detail along this tutorial. The block diagram provided by Atmel in their datasheet showing the architecture the 89S52 device can seem very complicated, and since we are going to use the C high level language to program it, a simpler architecture can be represented.
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Fig- 8051 micro-controller architecture This figure shows the main features and components that the designer can interact with. You can notice that the 89S52 has four different ports, each one having eight Input/output lines providing a total of 32 I/O lines. Those ports can be used to output DATA and orders do other devices, or to read the state of a sensor, or a switch. Most of the ports of the 89S52 have dual function meaning that they can be used for two different functions: the first one is to perform input/output operations and the second one is used to implement special features of the microcontroller like counting external pulses, interrupting the execution of the program according to external events, performing serial data transfer or connecting the chip to a computer to update the software
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3.2.2- Pin Description Each port has eight pins, and will be treated from the software point of view as an 8bit variable called register, each bit being connected to a different Input/output pin. You can also notice two different memory types: RAM and EEPROM. Shortly, RAM is used to store variable during program execution, while the EEPROM memory is used to store the program itself, thats why it is often referred to as the program memory. The memory organization will be discussed in detail later. The special features of the 89S52 microcontroller are grouped in the blue box at the bottom of figure. At this stage of the tutorial, it is just important to note that the 89S52 incorporates hardware circuits that can be used to prevent the processor from executing various repetitive tasks and save processing power for more complex calculations. Those simple tasks can be counting the number of external pulses on a pin, or generating precise timing sequences. It is clear that the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the heart of the microcontrollers; it is the CPU that will Read the program from the FLASH memory and execute it by interacting with the different peripherals discussed above.
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Fig- pin diagram of 98s52 microcontroller
Figure shows the pin configuration of the 89S52, where the function of each pin is written next to it, and, if it exists, the dual function is written between brackets. The pins are written in the same order as in the block diagram of figure, except for the VCC and GND pins which I usually note at the top and the bottom of any device. Most of the function of the pins of the 89S52 microcontroller will be discussed in detail, except for the pins required to control an external memory, which are the pins number 29, 30 and 31. Since we are not going to use any external memory, pins 29 and 30 will be ignored through all the tutorial, and pin 31 (EA) always connected to VCC (5 Volts) to enable the micro-controller to use the internal on chip memory rather than an external one (connecting the pin 31 to ground would indicate to the microcontroller that an external memory is to be used instead of the internal one).
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1. VCC Supply voltage. 2. GND Ground. 3. Port 0 - Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification. 4. Port 1- Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. 5. Port 2- Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. Port Pin Alternate Functions P1.0 T2 (external
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6.
7.
8.
9.
count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-out P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control) P1.5 MOSI (used for In-System Programming) P1.6 MISO (used for In-System Programming) P1.7 SCK (used for In-System Programming)5 1919DMICRO6/08 Port 3 - Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the fol-lowing table. RST - Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled. ALE/PROG - Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped dur-ing each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. Port Pin Alternate Functions P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input) P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe) P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)6 1919D MICRO6/08 PSEN- Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program
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memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. 10.EA/VPP - External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming. 11.XTAL 1- Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. 12.XTAL2 - Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
3.2.3-Memory organization
A RAM stands for Random Access Memory, it has basically the same purpose of the RAM in a desktop computer, which is to store some data required during the execution time of different programs. While an EEPROM, also called FLASH memory is a more elaborated ROM (Read Only Memory) which is the memory where the program being executed is stored. Even if thats not exactly true, you can compare an EEPROM to the Hard-Disk of a desktop computer from a general point of view. The EEPROM term stands for Electronically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory. In microcontrollers, like in any digital system, memory is organized in Registers, Which is the basic unit of construction of a memory. Each register is composed of a number of bits (usually eight) where the data can be stored. In the 8051 family of microcontrollers for example, most registers are 8-bit register, capable of storing values ranging from 0 to 255. In order to use bigger values, various register can be used simultaneously. Figure 1.3.Ashows a typical 8-bit registers, where the notation D0 to D7 stands for the 8 DATA bits of the register.
Fig- Data Register
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As you shall see, the RAM memory of the 89S52, which contains 256 registers, is divided into to main parts, the GPR part, and the SFR part. GPR stands for General Purpose Register and are the registers that you can use to store any data during the execution of your program. SFRs (Special function Register) are registers used to control the functioning of the microcontroller and to assist the processor through the various operations being executed. For example, SFRs can be used to control Input/output lines, to retrieve data transmitted through the serial port of a desktop computer, or to configure one of the on-chip counters and timers. In a memory each register has a specific address which is used by the processor to read and write from specific memory location. Figure 1.3.B shows the memory organization of the 256 registers of the RAM of the 89S52 microcontroller. The address is noted in Hexadecimal format as this notation simplifies digital logic calculations for the designers, 00 corresponds to the first location and FF which is equal to 256 corresponds to the last location.
Figure - memory organization of the 256 registers A programmer that would use the assembly language, have to take this memory organization into consideration while choosing the locations where his variables are stored, as writing general purpose data into special function registers could prevent the microcontroller from working correctly, but since we will use the C language using the KEIL IDE (integrated development environment), this part will be totally handled by the compiler. MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to 64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.
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3.2.3.1- Program Memory If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external memory. On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses 0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through FFFFH are to external memory. 3.2.3.2- Data Memory The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space. When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct addressing access the SFR space. 3.2.4- Special Function Registers A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is shown in Table 5-1. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0. 3.2.5- Other microcontroller features Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins (GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors.
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Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage levels. In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). A PIT may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count register, overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc. A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer loops. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats such as IC and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). 3.2.6- Description The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard
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features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.
3.3-LDR
A photo resistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor or CdS device, from "cadmium sulfide," which is the material from which the device is made and that actually exhibits the variation in resistance with light level. Note that although CdS is a semiconductor, it is not doped silicon. A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called do pants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor. Photo resistors are basically photocells.
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Fig- light dependent resistor (LDR) and Symbol
3.4 - LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[early LEDs emitted lowintensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared
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LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
Fig LED
3.5- Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators." Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually.
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Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
3.5.1- Operation
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal. When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. (See RLC circuit.) Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes).[8] Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
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Fig Crystal oscillator, circuit diagram & symbol
3.5.2- Commonly used crystal frequencies

Crystal oscillator circuits are often designed around relatively few standard frequencies, such as 3.579545 MHz, 4.433619 MHz, 10 MHz, 14.318182 MHz, 17.734475 MHz, 20 MHz, 33.33 MHz, and 40 MHz. The popularity of the 3.579545 MHz crystals is due to low cost since they are used for NTSC color television receivers. Using frequency dividers, frequency multipliers and phase locked loop circuits, it is practical to derive a wide range of frequencies from one reference frequency. 14.318182 MHz (four times 3.579545 MHz) is used in computer video displays to generate a bitmapped video display for NTSC color monitors, such as the CGA used with the original IBM PC. (The IBM PC used 14.318182 MHz, divided by three, as its 4.77 MHz clock source, using one crystal for two purposes.) The 4.433619 MHz and 17.734475 MHz values are used in PAL color television equipment and devices intended to produce PAL signals. Crystals can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of frequencies, from a few kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz. Many applications call for a crystal oscillator frequency conveniently related to some other desired frequency, so hundreds of standard crystal frequencies are made in large quantities and stocked by electronics distributors.
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3.6- 555ic timer

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package. Introduced in 1971 by Signe tics, the 555 is still in widespread use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability, and is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year. The LM 555 a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For astable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA or drive TTL circuits.
Fig- LM555 IC timer
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Fig-internal architecture of LM555 IC timer
3.7- TRANSISTOR
A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a
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high-concentration emitter into the base where there are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.
Fig- transistor and symbol
(a) npn
(b) pnp
An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode. In typical operation, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the basecollector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the baseemitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base. To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The collectorbase junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collectorbase junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collectoremitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.
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Fig- Mechanism of Transistor
3.8- Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line. The 7805 is a VOLTAGE REGULATOR. It looks like a transistor but it is actually an integrated circuit with 3 legs. Turn it into a nice, smooth 5 volts DC. You need to feed it at least 8 volts and no more than 30 volts to do this. It can handle around .5 to .75 amps, but it gets hot. Use a heat sink. Run off of 5 volts. It can take a higher, crappy DC voltage and Use it to power circuits than need to use or run off of 5 volts.
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Fig- Schematic diagram 7805 voltage regulator
3.9- RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohm's law:
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Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
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Fig- Resistor
3.9.1- Color Coding
Fig- Color Coding of Resistor
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3.10- CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.
Fig-capacitor symbol
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The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
Fig- internal and external structure of capacitor
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3.10.1- Color Coding of Capacitor

Significant Capacitance DC working Operating Colour Multiplier Characteristic EIA/vibration digits tolerance voltage temperature 0 1 20% 55 C to +70 C10 to 55 Hz Black 1 10 1% B 100 Brown 2 100 2% C 55 C to +85 C Red 3 1000 D 300 Orange 55 C to +125 4 10000 E 10 to 2000 Hz Yellow C 5 0.5% F 500 Green 55 C to +150 6 Blue C 7 Violet 8 Grey 9 EIA White 5%* 1000 Gold 10% Silver
*Or 0.5 pF, whichever is greater.
Fig-Types of Capacitor
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3.11- Photodiode
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.[1] The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
3.11.1- Principle of operation

A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron (and a positively charged electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the builtin field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. This photocurrent is the sum of both the dark current (without light) and the light current, so the dark current must be minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device.
Fig- Photodiode and its Circuit diagram
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3.12- GENERAL PURPOSE PCB

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with the help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit tracks. After completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry.
3.12.1-DRILLING
After completion of painting work, holes of 1/23 inch (1mm) diameter are drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components.
3.12.2- ETCHING
The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is known as etching. From this process the copper clad board with printed circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the PCB. After etching, the PCB is kept in clean water for about half an hour in order to get PCB away from acidic field, which may cause poor performance of the circuit. After the PCB has been thoroughly washed, paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped in thinner or turbine. Then PCB is checked as per the layout, now the PCB is ready for use.
3.12.3- SOLDERING
Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors the joint where two metal conductor are to be jointed or fused is heated with a device called soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal converting the joint solder also present oxidation.
3.12.4- SOLDERING & DESOLDERING TECHNIQUES

There are basically two soldering techniques:
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1. Manual soldering with iron. 2. Mass soldering. The iron consists of an insulated handle connected via a metal shank to the bit the function of bit is to: 1. Stare host & convey it to the component 2. To store and deliver molten solder 7 flux 3. To remove surplus solder from joints. Soldering bit is made of copper because it has good heat capacity & thermal conductivity. It may erode after long term use to avoid it coating of nickel or tin is used.
3.12.4- SOLDERING WITH IRON

The surface to be soldering must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron switched on & bellowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in form of wire is allied hear the component to be soldered & b heated with iron. The surface to be soldered is filled, iron is removed & the joint is cold without disturbing.
Solder joint are supposed to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Provide permanent low resistance path. Make a robust mechanical link between PCB & leads of components. Allow heat flow between component, joining elements & PCB. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation.
The following precaution should be taken while soldering: 1. The tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply. 2. Clean component lead & copper pad before soldering. 3. Use proper tool for component handling instead of direct handling. 4. Apply solder between component leads, PCB pattern & tip of soldering iron.
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5. Iron should be kept in contact with the joints for 2-3 seconds only instead of keeping for very long or very small time. 6. Use optimum quantity of solder. 7. Use multi Use always an iron plate copper core tip for soldering iron. 8. Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold. 9. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of asking the iron. 10.Tighten storied wire instead of single strands solvent like isopropyl alcohol. 11.Every time soldering is over, put a little clean solder on the tip.
3.13-Multimeter
A multi meter or a multi tester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A standard multi meter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are two categories of multi meters1. Analogue Multi Meter 2. Digital Multi Meter A multi meter is a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems. 3.13.1-Analog Multi meter Resolution of analog Multi Meter is limited by the width of the scale pointer, vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of ranges, and errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display. Accuracy of readings obtained are compromised by miscounting division markings, errors in mental arithmetic, parallax observation errors, and less than perfect eyesight. Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two and a half to three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and may be adequate for the limited precision actually necessary for most measurements).
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3.13.2-Digital Multi meter

The digital multi meter is the type of multi meter which shows the output values in the digital form. The Digital Multi Meter is presented in four series of Flash Presentations. These are used to measuring the current and voltage. These are designed to understand the functions and settings needed for taking different measurements of a circuit. Such a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199,999. A digital display can easily be extended in precision, the extra digits are of no value if not accompanied by care in the design and calibration of the analog portions of the multi meter. Meaningful high-resolution measurements require a good understanding of the instrument specifications, good control of the measurement conditions, and traceability of the calibration of the instrument. The figure of both multi meters is shown as follows-
Fig- Analog and Digital Multi meter
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Assembly Of The Components

The mechanical and electrical components of the project can be assembled together to achieve the desired objective. The assembling of various components have been done as per the following points1. First, cutting the wooden sheet as per dimensions. For the base, the plywood is cut in the length of 59 inches and width of 35.5 inches. After selecting the base, the taper part (speed breaker shape) is made. The angle of the taper with the base is kept 25o. The peak of the taper part is cut to fix the roller cylinder at that place. This taper part will then fixed on the base. 2. Now the shaft of 12 mm diameter is taken. On the both ends of the shaft, fixing the roller bearing. The cylindrical roller is mounted on the bearings. The shaft is fixed in the inner race of the bearing. 3. Then cylindrical roller with shaft and bearing is then assembled within the peak (cut section) of the breaker. The cylinder having 12 inch length and 6.2 inch diameter is fixing at the peak. For cutting the roller, the high carbon steel, high speed steel blades or other cutting machine is used. The roller should be fixed in such a way that the top surface of the roller should be above the peak of breaker. This surface makes the contact with the tires of moving vehicles. 4. The one end of the shaft is coupled with rotor shaft of a DC generator. The gear box is placed between the both shafts. This gear box transfers rotations to generator shaft. Thus due to rotation of generator armature, electricity will generate. This electricity is alternating in nature. Commutator is placed at the armature shaft. Commutator is a slip ring that has been cut in half, with both halves insulated from each other. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses, they slip from one half of the commutator to the other. The current that flows into the external circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the same direction. This results in a steadier current. 5. The one end of the wires is connected at the brushes and other with the load (i.e. LED Light). Thus the power from the generator is supplied to the LED Light.
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Working Of The Assembly
The basic concept is based upon the transformation of the mechanical energy (kinetic energy) of the moving vehicle into the electrical energy (i.e. electricity). There is a large amount of the kinetic energy in a vehicle when it is in motion. This energy is utilized by the speed breaker. The working of the assembly can be easily understood as the following way. The small part of cylindrical roller is kept above the surface of the road. When the weighted vehicle having kinetic energy, came upon the roller surface and passing it, the roller starts to rotate in the same direction as the wheel of the vehicle. This gives the prime rotation to the cylindrical roller. The cylindrical roller has a transmission shaft. The one end of transmission shaft is coupled with the armature shaft of the dynamo by compound gear train. The rotation of the transmission shaft is transferred to armature shaft. Now the armature rotates at a rated r.p.m. between the magnetic poles. There is magnetic field between the poles. Thus a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an alternating current, one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses. The current that flows into the external circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the same direction. The functioning can be shown by following figure-
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Fig 25- Current Generation Process This current is stored in the battery bank. These batteries can be used for either directly at the place where the electricity is generated or other places easily.
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Conclusion
The non-renewable resources like coal, natural oil, natural gas are limited in nature. They are using widely for energy production. The rate of consumption is quite higher. Thus after some time they will remove from the earth. The government works to save these resources. But in the future, the energy is necessary for the various applications. There are many applications and devices which are necessary for the human being in daily life. They consume lot of energy for their working. They are the part of the life. Thus for running of these applications, the energy is required in future. So the option of the non-renewable resources is necessary. A vehicle weighing 1,000 kg going up a height of 10 cm on such a rumble strip produces approximately 0.98 kilowatt power. So one such speed-breaker on a busy highway, where about 100 vehicles pass every minute, about one kilo watt of electricity can be produced every single minute. The figure will be huge at the end of the day. Now in the daily life, there are lots of vehicles running on the roads. They have kinetic energy. But during the braking all kinetic energy is lost. It means all the generated energy due to such vehicles is going to waste. So we need to have a mechanism that could able to utilize the energy of the vehicles. Their kinetic energy is used to generate the electricity. This energy can be utilized to give the additional rotation to the dynamo. Hence causes to generate electricity. This energy can be stored in battery bank and used for further use. The major advantages of this project as given below:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Generation of electricity at low cost. Operating cost is less. Stored electricity can be used for other purposes. Convert the totally waste energy in some useful work. For government economic consideration. Saving the other energy resources.
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On the basis of above discussion and advantages of this project, we can conclude that, it is very necessary for the future use for electricity production at low cost and from totally wastage energy.
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Future Scope
The future scope of this project is for street lighting and road applications which consume the electricity. During the day period, the battery charged and at night it will use for lighting. The government provides the electricity for lighting purpose. That will eliminate and the governments electricity can be saved. The street lighting is flashes by batteries. This will help the government for economic purpose and give the way to utilize their energy for other purposes. This is a non conventional energy resource. The no. of vehicles increases as the days goes on increasing. Higher no. of vehicle passing through the road will cause of large amount of energy generated. Thus it is an efficient and effective way to generate the electricity in the future at minimum cost. The various application of this project in future are listed below1. 2. 3. 4. 5. For home appliances For street lighting For signal lighting For small industry applications For other application on the roads like loud speaker, signal light, road indicator, direction indicator etc.
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FEATURES OF THE PROJECT
There major features of this project as given below:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Generation of electricity at low cost. Operating cost is less. Stored electricity can be used for other purposes. Convert the totally waste energy in some useful work. For government economic consideration. Saving the other energy resources. It can also work in night as we have provided a storage battery. It can generate electricity in forward as well as in reverse direction. Light in weight.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Websites:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. http://www.en.wikipedia.org http://www.google.com http://www.physlink.com http://www.youtube.com http://www.woodshell.com http://www.eia.doe.gov
Books:A. Theory of Machines B. Design of Machine elements C. Electrical Engineering Dr. R.K. Bansal V.B. Bhandari B.L. Thareja
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GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER