Equivalent Circuits and Parameters Ofpower System Plant

Int roduct ion 5.
1
Synchronous machines 5.2
Armat ure react ion 5.3
St eady st at e t heory 5.4
Salient pole rot or 5.5
Transient analysis 5.6
Asymmet ry 5.7
M achine react ances 5.8
Negat ive sequence react ance 5.9
Zero sequence react ance 5.10
Direct and quadrat ure axis values 5.11
Ef f ect of sat urat ion on machine react ances 5.12
Transf ormers 5.13
Transf ormer posit ive sequence equivalent circuit s 5.14
Transf ormer zero sequence equivalent circuit s 5.15
Aut o- t ransf ormers 5.16
Transf ormer impedances 5.17
Overhead lines and cables 5.18
Calculat ion of series impedance 5.19
Calculat ion of shunt impedance 5.20
Overhead line circuit s wit h or wit hout eart h wires 5.21
OHL equivalent circuit s 5.22
Cable circuit s 5.23
Overhead line and cable dat a 5.24
Ref erences 5.25
5 E q u i v a l e n t C i r c u i t s a n d P a r a m e t e r s
o f P o w e r S y s t e m P l a n t
N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e
4 7
5 . 1 I N TRODU CTI ON
Knowl edge of t he behavi our of t he pri nci pal el ect ri cal
syst em pl ant i t ems under normal and f aul t condi t i ons i s
a prerequi si t e f or t he proper appl i cat i on of prot ect i on.
Thi s chapt er summari ses basi c synchronous machi ne,
t ransf ormer and t ransmi ssi on l i ne t heory and gi ves
equi val ent ci rcui t s and paramet ers so t hat a f aul t st udy
can be successf ul l y compl et ed bef ore t he sel ect i on and
appl i cat i on of t he prot ect i on syst ems descri bed i n l at er
chapt ers. Onl y what mi ght be ref erred t o as ' t radi t i onal '
synchronous machi ne t heory i s covered, as t hat i s al l t hat
cal cul at i ons f or f aul t l evel st udi es general l y requi re.
Reader s i nt er est ed i n mor e advanced model s of
synchronous machi nes are ref erred t o t he numerous
papers on t he subj ect , of whi ch ref erence [ 5.1] i s a good
st art i ng poi nt .
Power syst em pl ant may be di vi ded i nt o t wo broad
groups - st at i c and rot at i ng.
The model l i ng of st at i c pl ant f or f aul t l evel cal cul at i ons
provi des f ew di f f i cul t i es, as pl ant paramet ers general l y
do not change duri ng t he peri od of i nt erest f ol l owi ng
f aul t i ncept i on. The probl em i n model l i ng rot at i ng pl ant
i s t hat t he par amet er s change dependi ng on t he
response t o a change i n power syst em condi t i ons.
5 . 2 SYN CH RON OU S M A CH I N ES
There are t wo mai n t ypes of synchronous machi ne:
cyl i ndri cal rot or and sal i ent pol e. In general , t he f ormer
i s conf i ned t o 2 and 4 pol e t urbi ne generat ors, whi l e
sal i ent pol e t ypes are bui l t wi t h 4 pol es upwards and
i ncl ude most cl asses of dut y. Bot h cl asses of machi ne
are si mi l ar i n so f ar t hat each has a st at or carryi ng a
t hree- phase wi ndi ng di st ri but ed over i t s i nner peri phery.
Wi t hi n t he st at or bore i s carri ed t he rot or whi ch i s
magnet i sed by a wi ndi ng carryi ng d.c. current .
The essent i al di f f erence bet ween t he t wo cl asses of
machi ne l i es i n t he rot or const ruct i on. The cyl i ndri cal
rot or t ype has a uni f orml y cyl i ndri cal rot or t hat carri es
i t s exci t at i on wi ndi ng di st ri but ed over a number of sl ot s
5 E q ui v a l en t C i r cui t s a n d P a r a met er s
of P ow er S y st em P l a n t
most common. Two- st roke di esel engi nes are of t en
deri vat i ves of mari ne desi gns wi t h rel at i vel y l arge out put s
(ci rca 30MW i s possi bl e) and may have runni ng speeds of
t he order of 125rpm. Thi s requi res a generat or wi t h a
l arge number of pol es (48 f or a 125rpm, 50Hz generat or)
and consequent l y i s of l arge di amet er and short axi al
l engt h. Thi s i s a cont rast t o t urbi ne- dri ven machi nes t hat
are of smal l di amet er and l ong axi al l engt h.
5
E
q
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around i t s peri phery. Thi s const ruct i on i s unsui t ed t o
mul t i - pol ar machi nes but i t i s very sound mechani cal l y.
Hence i t i s part i cul arl y wel l adapt ed f or t he hi ghest
speed el ect ri cal machi nes and i s uni versal l y empl oyed f or
2 pol e uni t s, pl us some 4 pol e uni t s.
The sal i ent pol e t ype has pol es t hat are physi cal l y
separat e, each carryi ng a concent rat ed exci t at i on
wi ndi ng. Thi s t ype of const ruct i on i s i n many ways
compl ement ary t o t hat of t he cyl i ndri cal rot or and i s
empl oyed i n machi nes havi ng 4 pol es or more. Except i n
speci al cases i t s use i s excl usi ve i n machi nes havi ng more
t han 6 pol es. Fi gure 5.1 i l l ust rat es a t ypi cal l arge
cyl i ndri cal rot or generat or i nst al l ed i n a power pl ant .
Two and f our pol e generat ors are most of t en used i n
appl i cat i ons where st eam or gas t urbi nes are used as t he
dri ver. Thi s i s because t he st eam t urbi ne t ends t o be
sui t ed t o hi gh rot at i onal speeds. Four pol e st eam t urbi ne
generat ors are most of t en f ound i n nucl ear power
st at i ons as t he rel at i ve wet ness of t he st eam makes t he
hi gh rot at i onal speed of a t wo- pol e desi gn unsui t abl e.
Most generat ors wi t h gas t urbi ne dri vers are f our pol e
machi nes t o obt ai n enhanced mechani cal st rengt h i n t he
rot or- si nce a gearbox i s of t en used t o coupl e t he power
t urbi ne t o t he generat or, t he choi ce of synchronous
speed of t he generat or i s not subj ect t o t he same
const rai nt s as wi t h st eam t urbi nes.
Generat ors wi t h di esel engi ne dri vers are i nvari abl y of
f our or more pol e desi gn, t o mat ch t he runni ng speed of
t he dri ver wi t hout usi ng a gearbox. Four- st roke di esel
engi nes usual l y have a hi gher runni ng speed t han t wo-
st roke engi nes, so generat ors havi ng f our or si x pol es are
Strong
N S
Direction of rotation
(a)
(b)
S N N
Weak Weak Strong
Fi gure 5.2: Di st ort i on of f l ux
due t o armat ure react i on
4 8
Fi gure 5.1: Large synchronous generat or

4 9
5
5 . 3 A RM ATU RE REA CTI ON
Armat ure react i on has t he great est ef f ect on t he
operat i on of a synchronous machi ne wi t h respect bot h t o
t he l oad angl e at whi ch i t operat es and t o t he amount of
exci t at i on t hat i t needs. The phenomenon i s most easi l y
expl ai ned by consi deri ng a si mpl i f i ed i deal generat or
wi t h f ul l pi t ch wi ndi ng operat i ng at uni t y p.f ., zero l ag
p.f . and zero l ead p.f . When operat i ng at uni t y p.f ., t he
vol t age and current i n t he st at or are i n phase, t he st at or
current produci ng a cross magnet i si ng magnet o- mot i ve
f orce (m.m.f .) whi ch i nt eract s wi t h t hat of t he rot or,
resul t i ng i n a di st ort i on of f l ux across t he pol e f ace. As
can be seen f rom Fi gure 5.2(a) t he t endency i s t o weaken
t he f l ux at t he l eadi ng edge or ef f ect i vel y t o di st ort t he
f i el d i n a manner equi val ent t o a shi f t agai nst t he
di rect i on of rot at i on.
If t he power f act or were reduced t o zero l aggi ng, t he
current i n t he st at or woul d reach i t s maxi mum 90 af t er
t he vol t age and t he rot or woul d t heref ore be i n t he
posi t i on shown i n Fi gure 5.2(b). The st at or m.m.f . i s now
act i ng i n di rect opposi t i on t o t he f i el d.
Si mi l arl y, f or operat i on at zero l eadi ng power f act or, t he
st at or m.m.f . woul d di rect l y assi st t he rot or m.m.f . Thi s
m.m.f . ari si ng f rom current f l owi ng i n t he st at or i s known
as ' armat ure react i on' .
5 . 4 . STEA DY STATE TH EORY
The vect or di agr am of a si ngl e cyl i ndr i cal r ot or
synchronous machi ne i s shown i n Fi gure 5.3, assumi ng
t hat t he magnet i c ci rcui t i s unsat urat ed, t he ai r- gap i s
uni f orm and al l vari abl e quant i t i es are si nusoi dal .
Furt her, si nce t he react ance of machi nes i s normal l y very
much l arger t han t he resi st ance, t he l at t er has been
negl ect ed.
The exci t at i on ampere- t urns, AT
e
, produces a f l ux
across t he ai r- gap t hereby i nduci ng a vol t age, E
t
, i n t he
st at or. Thi s vol t age dri ves a current I at a power f act or
cos
- 1
and gi ves ri se t o an armat ure react i on m.m.f . AT
ar
i n phase wi t h i t . The m.m.f . AT
f
resul t i ng f rom t he
combi nat i on of t hese t wo m.m.f . vect ors (see Fi gure
5.3(a)) i s t he exci t at i on whi ch must be provi ded on t he
rot or t o mai nt ai n f l ux across t he ai r- gap. Rot at i ng t he
rot or m.m.f . di agram, Fi gure 5.3(a), cl ockwi se unt i l
coi nci des wi t h E
t
and changi ng t he scal e of t he di agram
so t hat AT
e
becomes t he basi c uni t , where AT
e
= E
t
=1,
resul t s i n Fi gure 5.3(b). The m.m.f . vect ors have t hus
become, i n ef f ect , vol t age vect or s. For exampl e
AT
ar
/AT
e
i s a uni t of vol t age t hat i s di rect l y proport i onal
t o t he st at or l oad current . Thi s vect or can be f ul l y
represent ed by a react ance and i n pract i ce t hi s i s cal l ed
' armat ure react i on react ance' and i s denot ed by X
ad
.
Si mi l arl y, t he remai ni ng si de of t he t ri angl e becomes
AT
f
/ AT
e
, whi ch i s t he per uni t vol t age produced on
open ci rcui t by ampere- t urns AT
f
. It can be consi dered
as t he i nt ernal generat ed vol t age of t he machi ne and i s
desi gnat ed E
o
.
The t rue l eakage react ance of t he st at or wi ndi ng whi ch
gi ves ri se t o a vol t age drop or regul at i on has been
negl ect ed. Thi s react ance i s desi gnat ed X
L
(or X
a
i n
some t ext s) and t he vol t age drop occurri ng i n i t , IX
L
, i s
t he di f f erence bet ween t he t ermi nal vol t age V and t he
vol t age behi nd t he st at or l eakage react ance, E
L
.
IZ
L
i s exact l y i n phase wi t h t he vol t age drop due t o X
ad
,
as shown on t he vect or di agram Fi gure 5.3(c). It shoul d
be not ed t hat X
ad
and X
L
can be combi ned t o gi ve a
si mpl e equi val ent react ance; t hi s i s known as t he
' synchronous react ance' , denot ed by X
d
.
The power generat ed by t he machi ne i s gi ven by t he
equat i on:
Equat i on 5.1
where i s t he angl e bet ween t he i nt ernal vol t age and
t he t ermi nal vol t age and i s known as t he l oad angl e of
t he machi ne.
P VI
VE
X
d
cos sin
E
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AT
f
AT
e
AT
f
IX
d
IX
L
IX
ad
E
o
E
L
V
AT
e
AT
ar
E
t
(=V)
E
t
=1=V
I
(a)
AT
e
AT
ar
AT
e
AT
f
(c)
I
(b)
I
AT
ar
Fi gure 5.3: Vect or di agram
of synchronous machi ne
It f ol l ows f rom t he above anal ysi s t hat , f or st eady st at e
perf ormance, t he machi ne may be represent ed by t he
equi val ent ci rcui t shown i n Fi gure 5.4, where X
L
i s a t rue
react ance associ at ed wi t h f l ux l eakage around t he st at or
wi ndi ng and X
ad
i s a f i ct i t i ous react ance, bei ng t he rat i o
of ar mat ur e r eact i on and open- ci r cui t exci t at i on
magnet o- mot i ve f orces.
In pract i ce, due t o necessary const ruct i onal f eat ures of a
cyl i ndri cal rot or t o accommodat e t he wi ndi ngs, t he
react ance X
a
i s not const ant i rrespect i ve of rot or
posi t i on, and model l i ng proceeds as f or a generat or wi t h
a sal i ent pol e rot or. However, t he numeri cal di f f erence
bet ween t he val ues of X
ad
and X
aq
i s smal l , much l ess
t han f or t he sal i ent pol e machi ne.
5 . 5 SA LI EN T POLE ROTOR
The precedi ng t heory i s l i mi t ed t o t he cyl i ndri cal rot or
generat or. The basi c assumpt i on t hat t he ai r- gap i s
uni f orm i s very obvi ousl y not val i d when a sal i ent pol e
rot or i s bei ng consi dered. The ef f ect of t hi s i s t hat t he f l ux
produced by armat ure react i on m.m.f . depends on t he
posi t i on of t he rot or at any i nst ant , as shown i n Fi gure 5.5.
Lag
Armature
reaction M.M.F.
Lead
Flux
Flux
Q
u
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a
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a
x
i
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Q
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a
d
r
D
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t
a
x
i
s
p
o
When a pol e i s al i gned wi t h t he assumed si ne wave
m.m.f . set up by t he st at or, a correspondi ng si ne wave
f l ux wi l l be set up, but when an i nt er- pol ar gap i s al i gned
very severe di st ort i on i s caused. The di f f erence i s t reat ed
by consi der i ng t hese t wo axes, t hat i s t hose
correspondi ng t o t he pol e and t he i nt er- pol ar gap,
separ at el y. They ar e desi gnat ed t he ' di r ect ' and
' quadrat ure' axes respect i vel y, and t he general t heory i s
known as t he ' t wo axi s' t heory.
The vect or di agram f or t he sal i ent pol e machi ne i s si mi l ar
t o t hat f or t he cyl i ndri cal rot or except t hat t he react ance
and current s associ at ed wi t h t hem are spl i t i nt o t wo
component s. The synchronous react ance f or t he di rect
axi s i s X
d
= X
ad
+ X
L
, whi l e t hat i n t he quadrat ure axi s
i s X
q
= X
aq
+ X
L
. The vect or di agram i s const ruct ed as
bef ore but t he appropri at e quant i t i es i n t hi s case are
resol ved al ong t wo axes. The resul t ant i nt ernal vol t age
i s E
o
, as shown i n Fi gure 5.6.
In passi ng i t shoul d be not ed t hat E

0
i s t he i nt ernal
vol t age whi ch woul d be gi ven, i n cyl i ndri cal rot or t heory,
by vect ori al l y addi ng t he si mpl e vect ors IX
d
and V. There
i s very l i t t l e di f f erence i n magni t ude bet ween E
0
and E
0
but a subst ant i al di f f erence i n i nt ernal angl e; t he si mpl e
t heory i s perf ect l y adequat e f or cal cul at i on of exci t at i on
current s but not f or st abi l i t y consi derat i ons where l oad
angl e i s si gni f i cant .
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5 0
Fi gure 5.5: Vari at i on of armat ure react i on m.m.f .
wi t h pol e posi t i on
V
I
d
I
q
I
d
X
d
I
q
X
q
E
O
IX
d
E'
O
I
Pole axis
Fi gure 5.6: Vect or di agram
f or sal i ent pol e machi ne
Fi gure 5.4: Equi val ent ci rcui t
of el ement ary machi ne
X
ad
X
L
E
t V E
o
5 1
5 . 6 TRA N SI EN T A N A LYSI S
For normal changes i n l oad condi t i ons, st eady st at e
t heory i s perf ect l y adequat e. However, t here are
occasi ons when al most i nst ant aneous changes are
i nvol ved, such as f aul t s or swi t chi ng operat i ons. When
t hi s happens new f act ors are i nt roduced wi t hi n t he
machi ne and t o r epr esent t hese adequat el y a
correspondi ng new set of machi ne charact eri st i cs i s
requi red.
The gener al l y accept ed and most si mpl e way t o
appr eci at e t he meani ng and der i vat i on of t hese
charact eri st i cs i s t o consi der a sudden t hree- phase short
ci rcui t appl i ed t o a machi ne i ni t i al l y runni ng on open
ci rcui t and exci t ed t o normal vol t age E
0
.
Thi s vol t age wi l l be generat ed by a f l ux crossi ng t he ai r-
gap. It i s not possi bl e t o conf i ne t he f l ux t o one pat h
excl usi vel y i n any machi ne, and as a resul t t here wi l l be
a l eakage f l ux
L
t hat wi l l l eak f rom pol e t o pol e and
across t he i nt er- pol ar gaps wi t hout crossi ng t he mai n
ai r- gap as shown i n Fi gure 5.7. The f l ux i n t he pol e wi l l
be +
L
.
If t he st at or wi ndi ng i s t hen short - ci rcui t ed, t he power
f act or i n i t wi l l be zero. A heavy current wi l l t end t o
f l ow, as t he resul t i ng armat ure react i on m.m.f . i s
demagnet i si ng. Thi s wi l l reduce t he f l ux and condi t i ons
wi l l set t l e unt i l t he armat ure react i on nearl y bal ances
t he exci t at i on m.m.f ., t he remai nder mai nt ai ni ng a very
much reduced f l ux across t he ai r- gap whi ch i s j ust
suf f i ci ent t o generat e t he vol t age necessary t o overcome
t he st at or l eakage react ance (resi st ance negl ect ed). Thi s
i s t he si mpl e st eady st at e case of a machi ne operat i ng on
short ci rcui t and i s f ul l y represent ed by t he equi val ent of
Fi gure 5.8(a); see al so Fi gure 5.4.
It mi ght be expect ed t hat t he f aul t current woul d be
gi ven by E
0
/(X
L
+X
ad
) equal t o E
0
/X
d
, but t hi s i s very
much reduced, and t he machi ne i s operat i ng wi t h no
sat urat i on. For t hi s reason, t he val ue of vol t age used i s
t he val ue read f rom t he ai r- gap l i ne correspondi ng t o
normal exci t at i on and i s rat her hi gher t han t he normal
vol t age. The st eady st at e current i s gi ven by:
Equat i on 5.2
where E
g
= vol t age on ai r gap l i ne
An i mport ant poi nt t o not e now i s t hat bet ween t he
i ni t i al and f i nal condi t i ons t here has been a severe
reduct i on of f l ux. The rot or carri es a hi ghl y i nduct i ve
wi ndi ng whi ch l i nks t he f l ux so t hat t he rot or f l ux
l i nkages bef ore t he short ci rcui t are produced by
(+
L
). In pract i ce t he l eakage f l ux i s di st ri but ed over
t he whol e pol e and al l of i t does not l i nk al l t he wi ndi ng.
L
i s an equi val ent concent rat ed f l ux i magi ned t o l i nk al l
t he wi ndi ng and of such a magni t ude t hat t he t ot al
l i nkages are equal t o t hose act ual l y occurri ng. It i s a
f undament al pri nci pl e t hat any at t empt t o change t he
f l ux l i nked wi t h such a ci rcui t wi l l cause current t o f l ow
i n a di rect i on t hat wi l l oppose t he change. In t he present
case t he f l ux i s bei ng reduced and so t he i nduced
current s wi l l t end t o sust ai n i t .
I
E
X
d
g
d
5
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2
L
2
L
Fi gure 5.7: Fl ux pat hs of sal i ent pol e machi ne
X
ad
X
ad
X
ad
X
f
X
L
X
L
X
L
X
f
X
kd
(c) Subtransient reactance
(b) Transient reactance
(a) Synchronous reactance
Fi gure 5.8: Synchronous machi ne react ances
For t he posi t i on i mmedi at el y f ol l owi ng t he appl i cat i on of
t he short ci rcui t , i t i s val i d t o assume t hat t he f l ux l i nked
wi t h t he rot or remai ns const ant , t hi s bei ng brought
about by an i nduced current i n t he rot or whi ch bal ances
t he heavy demagnet i si ng ef f ect set up by t he short -
ci rcui t ed armat ure. So ( +
L
) remai ns const ant , but
owi ng t o t he i ncreased m.m.f . i nvol ved, t he f l ux l eakage
wi l l i ncrease consi derabl y. Wi t h a const ant t ot al rot or
f l ux, t hi s can onl y i ncrease at t he expense of t hat f l ux
crossi ng t he ai r- gap. Consequent l y, t hi s generat es a
reduced vol t age, whi ch, act i ng on t he l eakage react ance,
gi ves t he short ci rcui t current .
It i s more conveni ent f or machi ne anal ysi s t o use t he
rat ed vol t age E
0
and t o i nvent a f i ct i t i ous react ance t hat
wi l l gi ve ri se t o t he same current . Thi s react ance i s
cal l ed t he ' t ransi ent react ance' X
d
and i s def i ned by t he
equat i on:
Transi ent current
Equat i on 5.3
It i s great er t han X
L
, and t he equi val ent ci rcui t i s
represent ed by Fi gure 5.8(b) where:
and X
f
i s t he l eakage react ance of t he f i el d wi ndi ng
The above equat i on may al so be wri t t en as:
X
d
= X
L
+ X
f
where X
f
= ef f ect i ve l eakage react ance of f i el d wi ndi ng
The f l ux wi l l onl y be sust ai ned at i t s rel at i vel y hi gh val ue
whi l e t he i nduced current f l ows i n t he f i el d wi ndi ng. As
t hi s current decays, so condi t i ons wi l l approach t he
st eady st at e. Consequent l y, t he durat i on of t hi s phase
wi l l be det ermi ned by t he t i me const ant of t he exci t at i on
wi ndi ng. Thi s i s usual l y of t he order of a second or l ess
- hence t he t erm ' t ransi ent ' appl i ed t o charact eri st i cs
associ at ed wi t h i t .
A f urt her poi nt now ari ses. Al l synchronous machi nes
have what i s usual l y cal l ed a damper wi ndi ng or
wi ndi ngs. In some cases, t hi s may be a physi cal wi ndi ng
(l i ke a f i el d wi ndi ng, but of f ewer t urns and l ocat ed
separat el y), or an ef f ect i ve one (f or i nst ance, t he sol i d
i ron rot or of a cyl i ndri cal rot or machi ne). Somet i mes,
bot h physi cal and ef f ect i ve damper wi ndi ngs may exi st
(as i n some desi gns of cyl i ndri cal rot or generat ors,
havi ng bot h a sol i d i ron rot or and a physi cal damper
wi ndi ng l ocat ed i n sl ot s i n t he pol e f aces).
Under short ci rcui t condi t i ons, t here i s a t ransf er of f l ux
f rom t he mai n ai r- gap t o l eakage pat hs. Thi s di versi on i s,
t o a smal l ext ent , opposed by t he exci t at i on wi ndi ng and
t he mai n t ransf er wi l l be experi enced t owards t he pol e t i ps.
X
X X
X X
X
d
ad f
ad f
L
'
+
+
I
E
X
d
o
d
'
'
The damper wi ndi ng(s) i s subj ect ed t o t he f ul l ef f ect of

f l ux t ransf er t o l eakage pat hs and wi l l carry an i nduced
current t endi ng t o oppose i t . As l ong as t hi s current can
f l ow, t he ai r- gap f l ux wi l l be hel d at a val ue sl i ght l y
hi gher t han woul d be t he case i f onl y t he exci t at i on
wi ndi ng were present , but st i l l l ess t han t he ori gi nal
open ci rcui t f l ux .
As bef ore, i t i s conveni ent t o use rat ed vol t age and t o
creat e anot her f i ct i t i ous react ance t hat i s consi dered t o
be ef f ect i ve over t hi s peri od. Thi s i s known as t he ' sub-
t ransi ent react ance' X
d
and i s def i ned by t he equat i on:
Sub- t ransi ent current I
d
Equat i on 5.4
where
or X
d
= X
L
+ X
kd
and X
kd
= l eakage react ance of damper wi ndi ng(s)
X
kd
= ef f ect i ve l eakage react ance of damper wi ndi ng(s)
It i s great er t han X
L
but l ess t han X
d
and t he
correspondi ng equi val ent ci rcui t i s shown i n Fi gure
5.8(c).
Agai n, t he durat i on of t hi s phase depends upon t he t i me
const ant of t he damper wi ndi ng. In pract i ce t hi s i s
approxi mat el y 0.05 seconds - very much l ess t han t he
t ransi ent - hence t he t erm ' sub- t ransi ent ' .
Fi gure 5.9 shows t he envel ope of t he symmet ri cal
component of an ar mat ur e shor t ci r cui t cur r ent
i ndi cat i ng t he val ues descri bed i n t he precedi ng anal ysi s.
The anal ysi s of t he st at or current wavef orm resul t i ng
f rom a sudden short ci rcui t t est i s t radi t i onal l y t he
X X
X X X
X X X X X X
d L
ad f kd
ad f kd f ad kd
''
+
+ +
E
X
o
d
''
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C
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t
Time
E
o
I''
d
X''
d
=
E
o
I '
d
X'
d
=
E
air gap
I
d
I
X
d
X
=
Fi gure 5.9: Transi ent decay envel ope
of short - ci rcui t current
met hod by whi ch t hese r eact ances ar e measur ed.
However, t he maj or l i mi t at i on i s t hat onl y di rect axi s
paramet ers are measured. Det ai l ed t est met hods f or
synchronous machi nes are gi ven i n ref erences [ 5.2] and
[ 5.3] , and i ncl ude ot her t est s t hat are capabl e of
provi di ng more det ai l ed paramet er i nf ormat i on.
5 . 7 A SYM M ETRY
The exact i nst ant at whi ch t he short ci rcui t i s appl i ed t o
t he st at or wi ndi ng i s of si gni f i cance. If resi st ance i s
negl i gi bl e compared wi t h react ance, t he current i n a coi l
wi l l l ag t he vol t age by 90, t hat i s, at t he i nst ant when
t he vol t age wave at t ai ns a maxi mum, any current
f l owi ng t hrough woul d be passi ng t hrough zero. If a
short ci rcui t were appl i ed at t hi s i nst ant , t he resul t i ng
current woul d ri se smoot hl y and woul d be a si mpl e a.c.
component . However, at t he moment when t he i nduced
vol t age i s zero, any current f l owi ng must pass t hrough a
maxi mum (owi ng t o t he 90l ag). If a f aul t occurs at t hi s
moment , t he r esul t i ng cur r ent wi l l assume t he
correspondi ng rel at i onshi p; i t wi l l be at i t s peak and i n
t he ensui ng 180 wi l l go t hrough zero t o maxi mum i n
t he reverse di rect i on and so on. In f act t he current must
act ual l y st art f rom zero and so wi l l f ol l ow a si ne wave
t hat i s compl et el y asymmet ri cal . Int ermedi at e posi t i ons
wi l l gi ve varyi ng degrees of asymmet ry.
Thi s asymmet ry can be consi dered t o be due t o a d.c.
component of cur r ent whi ch di es away because
resi st ance i s present .
The d.c. component of st at or current set s up a d.c. f i el d
i n t he st at or whi ch causes a suppl y f requency ri ppl e on
t he f i el d current , and t hi s al t ernat i ng rot or f l ux has a
f urt her ef f ect on t he st at or. Thi s i s best shown by
consi der i ng t he suppl y f r equency f l ux as bei ng
represent ed by t wo hal f magni t ude waves each rot at i ng
i n opposi t e di rect i ons at suppl y f requency rel at i ve t o t he
rot or. So, as vi ewed f rom t he st at or, one i s st at i onary
and t he ot her rot at i ng at t wi ce suppl y f requency. The
l at t er set s up second harmoni c current s i n t he st at or.
Furt her devel opment al ong t hese l i nes i s possi bl e but t he
resul t i ng harmoni cs are usual l y negl i gi bl e and normal l y
negl ect ed.
5 . 8 M A CH I N E REA CTA N CES
Tabl e 5.1 gi ves val ues of machi ne react ances f or sal i ent
pol e and cyl i ndri cal rot or machi nes t ypi cal of l at est
desi gn pract i ce. Al so i ncl uded are paramet ers f or
synchronous compensat ors such machi nes are now
rarel y bui l t , but si gni f i cant numbers can st i l l be f ound i n
operat i on.
5.8.1 Synchronous React ance X
d
= X
L
+ X
ad
The order of magni t ude of X
L
i s normal l y 0.1- 0.25p.u.,
whi l e t hat of X
ad
i s 1.0- 2.5p.u. The l eakage react ance X
L
can be reduced by i ncreasi ng t he machi ne si ze (derat i ng),
or i ncreased by art i f i ci al l y i ncreasi ng t he sl ot l eakage,
but i t wi l l be not ed t hat X
L
i s onl y about 10% of t he
t ot al val ue of X
d
and cannot exerci se much i nf l uence.
The armat ure react i on react ance can be reduced by
decreasi ng t he armat ure react i on of t he machi ne, whi ch
i n desi gn t erms means reduci ng t he ampere conduct or or
el ect ri cal (as di st i nct f rom magnet i c) l oadi ng - t hi s wi l l
of t en mean a physi cal l y l arger machi ne. Al t ernat i vel y
t he exci t at i on needed t o generat e open- ci rcui t vol t age
may be i ncreased; t hi s i s si mpl y achi eved by i ncreasi ng
t he machi ne ai r- gap, but i s onl y possi bl e i f t he exci t at i on
syst em i s modi f i ed t o meet t he i ncreased requi rement s.
In general , cont rol of X
d
i s obt ai ned al most ent i rel y by
varyi ng X
ad
, and i n most cases a reduct i on i n X
d
wi l l
mean a l arger and more cost l y machi ne. It i s al so wort h
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Tabl e 5.1: Typi cal synchronous generat or paramet ers
Type of machine
Cylindrical rot or t urbine generat ors Salient pole generat ors
4 Pole I
Air Cooled
Hydrogen Hydrogen/
4 Pole Mult i- pole
Mult i- Pole Cooled Wat er Cooled
Short circuit rat io 0.5- 0.7 1.0- 1.2 0.4- 0.6 0.4- 0.6 0.4- 0.6 0.4- 0.6 0.6- 0.8
Direct axis synchronous react ance X
d
(p.u.) 1.6- 2.0 0.8- 1.0 2.0- 2.8 2.1- 2.4 2.1- 2.6 1.75- 3.0 1.4- 1.9
Quadrat ure axis synchronous react ance X
q
(p.u.) 1.0- 1.23 0.5- 0.65 1.8- 2.7 1.9- 2.4 2.0- 2.5 0.9- 1.5 0.8- 1.0
Direct axis t ransient react ance X
d
(p.u.) 0.3- 0.5 0.2- 0.35 0.2- 0.3 0.27- 0.33 0.3- 0.36 0.26- 0.35 0.24- 0.4
Direct axis sub- t ransient react ance X
d
(p.u.) 0.2- 0.4 0.12- 0.25 0.15- 0.23 0.19- 0.23 0.21- 0.27 0.19- 0.25 0.16- 0.25
Quadrat ure axis sub- t ransient react ance X
q
(p.u.) 0.25- 0.6 0.15- 0.25 0.16- 0.25 0.19- 0.23 0.21- 0.28 0.19- 0.35 0.18- 0.24
Negat ive sequence react ance X
2
(p.u.) 0.25- 0.5 0.14- 0.35 0.16- 0.23 0.19- 0.24 0.21- 0.27 0.16- 0.27 0.16- 0.23
Zero sequence react ance X
0
(p.u.) 0.12- 0.16 0.06- 0.10 0.06- 0.1 0.1- 0.15 0.1- 0.15 0.01- 0.1 0.045- 0.23
Direct axis short circuit t ransient t ime const ant T
d
(s) 1.5- 2.5 1.0- 2.0 0.6- 1.3 0.7- 1.0 0.75- 1.0 0.4- 1.1 0.25- 1
Direct axis open circuit t ransient t ime const ant T
do
(s) 5- 10 3- 7 6- 12 6- 10 6- 9.5 3.0- 9.0 1.7- 4.0
Direct axis short circuit sub- t ransient - t ime const ant T
d
(s) 0.04- 0.9 0.05- 0.10 0.013- 0.022 0.017- 0.025 0.022- 0.03 0.02- 0.04 0.02- 0.06
Direct axis open circuit sub- t ransient t ime const ant T
do
(s) 0.07- 0.11 0.08- 0.25 0.018- 0.03 0.023- 0.032 0.025- 0.035 0.035- 0.06 0.03- 0.1
Quadrat ure axis short circuit sub- t ransient t ime const ant T
q
(s) 0.04- 0.6 0.05- 0.6 0.013- 0.022 0.018- 0.027 0.02- 0.03 0.025- 0.04 0.025- 0.08
Quadrat ure axis open circuit sub- t ransient t ime const ant T
qo
(s) 0.1- 0.2 0.2- 0.9 0.026- 0.045 0.03- 0.05 0.04- 0.065 0.13- 0.2 0.1- 0.35
NB all react ance values are unsat urat ed.
not i ng t hat X
L
normal l y changes i n sympat hy wi t h X
ad
,
but t hat i t i s compl et el y overshadowed by i t .
The val ue 1/ X
d
has a speci al si gni f i cance as i t
approxi mat es t o t he short ci rcui t rat i o (S.C.R.), t he onl y
di f f erence bei ng t hat t he S.C.R. t akes sat urat i on i nt o
account whereas X
d
i s deri ved f rom t he ai r- gap l i ne.
5.8.2 Transi ent React ance X
d
= X
L
+ X
f
The t ransi ent react ance covers t he behavi our of a
machi ne i n t he per i od 0.1- 3.0 seconds af t er a
di st urbance. Thi s general l y corresponds t o t he speed of
changes i n a syst em and t heref ore X
d
has a maj or
i nf l uence i n t ransi ent st abi l i t y st udi es.
General l y, t he l eakage react ance X
L
i s equal t o t he
ef f ect i ve f i el d l eakage react ance X
f
, about 0.1- 0.25p.u.
The pri nci pal f act or det ermi ni ng t he val ue of X
f
i s t he
f i el d l eakage. Thi s i s l argel y beyond t he cont rol of t he
desi gner, i n t hat ot her consi derat i ons are at present more
si gni f i cant t han f i el d l eakage and hence t ake precedence
i n det ermi ni ng t he f i el d desi gn.
X
L
can be vari ed as al ready out l i ned, and, i n pract i ce,
cont rol of t ransi ent react ance i s usual l y achi eved by
varyi ng X
L
5.8.3 Sub- t ransi ent React ance X
d
= X
L
+ X
kd
The sub- t r ansi ent r eact ance det er mi nes t he i ni t i al
current peaks f ol l owi ng a di st urbance and i n t he case of
a sudden f aul t i s of i mport ance f or sel ect i ng t he breaki ng
capaci t y of associ at ed ci rcui t breakers. The mechani cal
st resses on t he machi ne reach maxi mum val ues t hat
depend on t hi s const ant . The ef f ect i ve damper wi ndi ng
l eakage react ance X
kd
i s l argel y det ermi ned by t he
l eakage of t he damper wi ndi ngs and cont rol of t hi s i s
onl y possi bl e t o a l i mi t ed ext ent . X
kd
normal l y has a
val ue bet ween 0.05 and 0.15 p.u. The maj or f act or i s X
L
whi ch, as i ndi cat ed previ ousl y, i s of t he order of 0.1- 0.25
p.u., and cont rol of t he sub- t ransi ent react ance i s
normal l y achi eved by varyi ng X
L
.
It shoul d be not ed t hat good t ransi ent st abi l i t y i s
obt ai ned by keepi ng t he val ue of X
d
l ow, whi ch
t heref ore al so i mpl i es a l ow val ue of X
d
. The f aul t rat i ng
of swi t chgear, et c. wi l l t heref ore be rel at i vel y hi gh. It i s
not normal l y possi bl e t o i mprove t ransi ent st abi l i t y
perf ormance i n a generat or wi t hout adverse ef f ect s on
f aul t l evel s, and vi ce versa.
5 . 9 N EGATI V E SEQU EN CE REA CTA N CE
Negat i ve sequence current s can ari se whenever t here i s
any unbal ance present i n t he syst em. Thei r ef f ect i s t o
set up a f i el d rot at i ng i n t he opposi t e di rect i on t o t he
mai n f i el d generat ed by t he rot or wi ndi ng, so subj ect i ng
t he rot or t o doubl e f requency f l ux pul sat i ons. Thi s gi ves
ri se t o parasi t i c current s and heat i ng; most machi nes are
qui t e l i mi t ed i n t he amount of such current whi ch t hey
are abl e t o carry, bot h i n t he st eady st at e and
t ransi ent l y.
An accurat e cal cul at i on of t he negat i ve sequence current
capabi l i t y of a generat or i nvol ves consi derat i on of t he
current pat hs i n t he rot or body. In a t urbi ne generat or
rot or, f or i nst ance, t hey i ncl ude t he sol i d rot or body, sl ot
wedges, exci t at i on wi ndi ng and end- wi ndi ng ret ai ni ng
ri ngs. There i s a t endency f or l ocal over- heat i ng t o occur
and, al t hough possi bl e f or t he st at or, cont i nuous l ocal
t emperat ure measurement i s not pract i cal i n t he rot or.
Cal cul at i on requi res compl ex mat hemat i cal t echni ques
t o be appl i ed, and i nvol ves speci al i st sof t ware.
In pract i ce an empi ri cal met hod i s used, based on t he
f act t hat a gi ven t ype of machi ne i s capabl e of carryi ng,
f or short peri ods, an amount of heat det ermi ned by i t s
t hermal capaci t y, and f or a l ong peri od, a rat e of heat
i nput whi ch i t can di ssi pat e cont i nuousl y. Synchronous
machi nes are desi gned t o be capabl e of operat i ng
cont i nuousl y on an unbal anced syst em such t hat , wi t h
none of t he phase current s exceedi ng t he rat ed current ,
t he rat i o of t he negat i ve sequence current I
2
t o t he rat ed
current I
N
does not exceed t he val ues gi ven i n Tabl e 5.2.
Under f aul t condi t i ons, t he machi ne shal l al so be capabl e
of operat i on wi t h t he product of and t ime in
seconds (t ) not exceedi ng t he val ues gi ven.
I
I
N
2
2
_
,
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mot ors 0.1 20
generat ors 0.08 20
synchronous
condensers
0.1 20
mot ors 0.08 15
generat ors 0.05 15
synchronous
condensers
0.08 15
all 0.1 15
all 0.1 10
<=350 0.08 8
351- 900 Not e 1 Not e 2
901- 1250 Not e 1 5
1251- 1600 0.05 5
Machine Maximum Maximum
Rot or Cooling Type (S
N
) I
2
/I
N
f or (I
2
/I
N
)
2
t
f or
/Rat ing cont inuous operat ion during
(MVA) operat ion f ault s
indirect
direct
indirect ly cooled (air)
indirect ly cooled (hydrogen)
direct ly cooled
Salient
Cylindrical
Not e 1: Calculat e as
I
2
= 0.08-
S
N
-350
I
N
3 x 10
4
Not e 2: Calculat e as
(
I
2
)
2
t = 8- 0.00545(S
N
-350)
I
N
Tabl e 5.2: Unbal anced operat i ng condi t i ons f or synchronous machi nes
(f rom IEC 60034- 1)
5 4
Rot or
const ruct ion
5 5
5 . 1 0 Z ERO SEQU EN CE REA CTA N CE
If a machi ne i s operat i ng wi t h an eart hed neut ral , a
syst em eart h f aul t wi l l gi ve ri se t o zero sequence
current s i n t he machi ne. Thi s react ance represent s t he
machi ne' s cont ri but i on t o t he t ot al i mpedance of f ered t o
t hese current s. In pract i ce i t i s general l y l ow and of t en
out wei ghed by ot her i mpedances present i n t he ci rcui t .
5 . 11 DI RECT A N D QU A DRATU RE A X I S V A LU ES
The t ransi ent react ance i s associ at ed wi t h t he f i el d
wi ndi ng and si nce on sal i ent pol e machi nes t hi s i s
concent r at ed on t he di r ect axi s, t her e i s no
correspondi ng quadrat ure axi s val ue. The val ue of
react ance appl i cabl e i n t he quadrat ure axi s i s t he
synchronous react ance, t hat i s, X
q
= X
q
.
The damper wi ndi ng (or i t s equi val ent ) i s more wi del y
spread and hence t he sub- t ransi ent react ance associ at ed
wi t h t hi s has a def i ni t e quadrat ure axi s val ue X
q
, whi ch
di f f ers si gni f i cant l y i n many generat ors f rom X
d
.
5 . 1 2 EFFECT OF SATU RATI ON
ON M A CH I N E REA CTA N CES
In general , any el ect ri cal machi ne i s desi gned t o avoi d
severe sat urat i on of i t s magnet i c ci rcui t . However, i t i s
not economi cal l y possi bl e t o operat e at such l ow f l ux
densi t i es as t o r educe sat ur at i on t o negl i gi bl e
proport i ons, and i n pract i ce a moderat e degree of
sat urat i on i s accept ed.
Si nce t he armat ure react i on react ance X
ad
i s a rat i o
AT
ar
/ AT
e
i t i s evi dent t hat AT
e
wi l l not vary i n a l i near
manner f or di f f erent vol t ages, whi l e AT
ar
wi l l remai n
unchanged. The val ue of X
ad
wi l l vary wi t h t he degree of
sat urat i on present i n t he machi ne, and f or ext reme
accur acy shoul d be det er mi ned f or t he par t i cul ar
condi t i ons i nvol ved i n any cal cul at i on.
Al l t he ot her react ances, namel y X
L
, X
d
and X
d
are
t rue react ances and act ual l y ari se f rom f l ux l eakage.
Much of t hi s l eakage occurs i n t he i ron part s of t he
machi nes and hence must be af f ect ed by sat urat i on. For
a gi ven set of condi t i ons, t he l eakage f l ux exi st s as a
resul t of t he net m.m.f . whi ch causes i t . If t he i ron
ci rcui t i s unsat urat ed i t s react ance i s l ow and l eakage
f l ux i s easi l y est abl i shed. If t he ci rcui t s are hi ghl y
sat urat ed t he reverse i s t rue and t he l eakage f l ux i s
rel at i vel y l ower, so t he react ance under sat urat ed
condi t i ons i s l ower t han when unsat urat ed.
Most cal cul at i on met hods assume i nf i ni t e i r on
permeabi l i t y and f or t hi s reason l ead t o somewhat
i deal i sed unsat urat ed react ance val ues. The recogni t i on
of a f i ni t e and varyi ng permeabi l i t y makes a sol ut i on
ext remel y l abori ous and i n pract i ce a si mpl e f act or of
approxi mat el y 0.9 i s t aken as represent i ng t he reduct i on
i n react ance ari si ng f rom sat urat i on.
It i s necessary t o di st i ngui sh whi ch val ue of react ance i s
bei ng measured when on t est . The normal i nst ant aneous
short ci rcui t t est carri ed out f rom rat ed open ci rcui t
vol t age gi ves a current t hat i s usual l y several t i mes f ul l
l oad val ue, so t hat sat urat i on i s present and t he
react ance measured wi l l be t he sat urat ed val ue. Thi s
val ue i s al so known as t he ' rat ed vol t age' val ue si nce i t i s
measured by a short ci rcui t appl i ed wi t h t he machi ne
exci t ed t o rat ed vol t age.
In some cases, i f i t i s wi shed t o avoi d t he severe
mechani cal st rai n t o whi ch a machi ne i s subj ect ed by
such a di rect short ci rcui t , t he t est may be made f rom a
sui t abl y reduced vol t age so t hat t he i ni t i al current i s
approxi mat el y f ul l l oad val ue. Sat urat i on i s very much
reduced and t he react ance val ues measured are vi rt ual l y
unsat urat ed val ues. They are al so known as ' rat ed
current ' val ues, f or obvi ous reasons.
5 . 1 3 TRA N SFORM ERS
A t ransf ormer may be repl aced i n a power syst em by an
equi val ent ci rcui t represent i ng t he sel f - i mpedance of ,
and t he mut ual coupl i ng bet ween, t he wi ndi ngs. A t wo-
wi ndi ng t ransf ormer can be si mpl y represent ed as a ' T'
net work i n whi ch t he cross member i s t he short - ci rcui t
i mpedance, and t he col umn t he exci t at i on i mpedance. It
i s rarel y necessary i n f aul t st udi es t o consi der exci t at i on
i mpedance as t hi s i s usual l y many t i mes t he magni t ude
of t he short - ci rcui t i mpedance. Wi t h t hese si mpl i f yi ng
assumpt i ons a t hree- wi ndi ng t ransf ormer becomes a st ar
of t hree i mpedances and a f our- wi ndi ng t ransf ormer a
mesh of si x i mpedances.
The i mpedances of a t ransf ormer, i n common wi t h ot her
pl ant , can be gi ven i n ohms and qual i f i ed by a base
vol t age, or i n per uni t or percent age t erms and qual i f i ed
by a base MVA. Care shoul d be t aken wi t h mul t i -
wi ndi ng t ransf ormers t o ref er al l i mpedances t o a
common base MVA or t o st at e t he base on whi ch each i s
gi ven. The i mpedances of st at i c appar at us ar e
i ndependent of t he phase sequence of t he appl i ed
vol t age; i n consequence, t ransf ormer negat i ve sequence
and posi t i ve sequence i mpedances are i dent i cal . In
det ermi ni ng t he i mpedance t o zero phase sequence
cur r ent s, account must be t aken of t he wi ndi ng
connect i ons, ear t hi ng, and, i n some cases, t he
const ruct i on t ype. The exi st ence of a pat h f or zero
sequence current s i mpl i es a f aul t t o eart h and a f l ow of
bal anci ng current s i n t he wi ndi ngs of t he t ransf ormer.
Pract i cal t hree- phase t ransf ormers may have a phase
shi f t bet ween pr i mar y and secondar y wi ndi ngs
dependi ng on t he connect i ons of t he wi ndi ngs del t a or
st ar. The phase shi f t t hat occurs i s general l y of no
si gni f i cance i n f aul t l evel cal cul at i ons as al l phases are
shi f t ed equal l y. It i s t heref ore i gnored. It i s normal t o
f i nd del t a- st ar t ransf ormers at t he t ransmi t t i ng end of a
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t ransmi ssi on syst em and i n di st ri but i on syst ems f or t he
f ol l owi ng reasons:
a. at t he t ransmi t t i ng end, a hi gher st ep- up vol t age
r at i o i s possi bl e t han wi t h ot her wi ndi ng
arrangement s, whi l e t he i nsul at i on t o ground of t he
st ar secondary wi ndi ng does not i ncrease by t he
same rat i o
b. i n di st ri but i on syst ems, t he st ar wi ndi ng al l ows a
neut ral connect i on t o be made, whi ch may be
i mpor t ant i n consi der i ng syst em ear t hi ng
arrangement s
c. t he del t a wi ndi ng al l ows ci r cul at i on of zer o
sequence cur r ent s wi t hi n t he del t a, t hus
pr event i ng t r ansmi ssi on of t hese f r om t he
secondary (st ar) wi ndi ng i nt o t he pri mary ci rcui t .
Thi s si mpl i f i es prot ect i on consi derat i ons
5 . 1 4 TRA N SFORM ER POSI TI V E SEQU EN CE
EQU I V A LEN T CI RCU I TS
The t ransf ormer i s a rel at i vel y si mpl e devi ce. However,
t he equi val ent ci rcui t s f or f aul t cal cul at i ons need not
necessari l y be qui t e so si mpl e, especi al l y where eart h
f aul t s are concerned. The f ol l owi ng t wo sect i ons di scuss
t he equi val ent ci rcui t s of vari ous t ypes of t ransf ormers.
5.14.1 Two- wi ndi ng Transf ormers
The t wo- wi ndi ng t ransf ormer has f our t ermi nal s, but i n
most syst em probl ems, t wo- t ermi nal or t hree- t ermi nal
equi val ent ci rcui t s as shown i n Fi gure 5.10 can represent
i t . In Fi gure 5.10(a), t ermi nal s A' and B' are assumed t o
be at t he same pot ent i al . Hence i f t he per uni t sel f -
i mpedances of t he wi ndi ngs are Z
11
and Z
22
respect i vel y
and t he mut ual i mpedance bet ween t hem Z
12
, t he
t ransf ormer may be represent ed by Fi gure 5.10(b). The
ci rcui t i n Fi gure 5.10(b) i s si mi l ar t o t hat shown i n Fi gure
3.14(a), and can t heref ore be repl aced by an equi val ent
' T ' as shown i n Fi gure 5.10(c) where:
Equat i on 5.5
Z
1
i s descri bed as t he l eakage i mpedance of wi ndi ng AA'
and Z
2
t he l eakage i mpedance of wi ndi ng BB'.
Impedance Z
3
i s t he mut ual i mpedance bet ween t he
wi ndi ngs, usual l y represent ed by X
M
, t he magnet i zi ng
react ance paral l el ed wi t h t he hyst eresi s and eddy current
l oops as shown i n Fi gure 5.10(d).
If t he secondary of t he t ransf ormers i s short - ci rcui t ed,
and Z
3
i s assumed t o be l arge wi t h respect t o Z
1
and Z
2
,
t hen t he short - ci rcui t i mpedance vi ewed f rom t he
t ermi nal s AA i s Z
T
= Z
1
+ Z
2
and t he t ransf ormer can
be repl aced by a t wo- t ermi nal equi val ent ci rcui t as
shown i n Fi gure 5.10(e).
The rel at i ve magni t udes of Z
T
and X
M
are of t he order of
10% and 2000% respect i vel y. Z
T
and X
M
rarel y have t o
be consi dered t oget her, so t hat t he t ransf ormer may be
represent ed ei t her as a seri es i mpedance or as an
exci t at i on i mpedance, accordi ng t o t he probl em bei ng
st udi ed.
A t ypi cal power t ransf ormer i s i l l ust rat ed i n Fi gure 5.11.
5.14.2 Three- wi ndi ng Transf ormers
If exci t at i on i mpedance i s negl ect ed t he equi val ent
ci r cui t of a t hr ee- wi ndi ng t r ansf or mer may be
represent ed by a st ar of i mpedances, as shown i n Fi gure
5.12, where P, T and S are t he pri mary, t ert i ary and
secondary wi ndi ngs respect i vel y. The i mpedance of any
of t hese branches can be det ermi ned by consi deri ng t he
short - ci rcui t i mpedance bet ween pai rs of wi ndi ngs wi t h
t he t hi rd open.
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z
1 11 12
2 22 12
3 12

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5 6
Zero bus
(d) '' equivalent circuit
Zero bus
(b) Equivalent circuit of model
Zero bus
(c) 'T' equivalent circuit
Zero bus
(e) Equivalent circuit: secondary winding s/c
R j
X
M
B'
B' C'
B' B' A'
B' A'
A'
A'
B C A
A'
B
B A
B A
B A
A
Z
T
=Z
1
+Z
2
Z
1
=Z
11
-Z
12
Z
2
=Z
22
-Z
12
Z
3
=Z
12
r
1
+jx
1
r
2
+jx
2
Z
12
Z
11
Z
22 Load E
(a) Model of transformer
~
Fi gure 5.10: Equi val ent ci rcui t s
f or a t wo- wi ndi ng t ransf ormer
Zero bus
S
P
T
Z
t
Z
s
Z
p
Tertiary
Secondary
Primary
f or a t hree- wi ndi ng t ransf ormer
5 7
The except i ons t o t he general rul e of negl ect i ng
magnet i si ng i mpedance occur when t he t ransf ormer i s
st ar/ st ar and ei t her or bot h neut ral s are eart hed. In
t hese ci rcumst ances t he t ransf ormer i s connect ed t o t he
zero bus t hrough t he magnet i si ng i mpedance. Where a
t hree- phase t ransf ormer bank i s arranged wi t hout
i nt erl i nki ng magnet i c f l ux (t hat i s a t hree- phase shel l
t ype, or t hree si ngl e- phase uni t s) and provi ded t here i s a
pat h f or zero sequence current s, t he zero sequence
i mpedance i s equal t o t he posi t i ve sequence i mpedance.
In t he case of t hree- phase core t ype uni t s, t he zero
sequence f l uxes produced by zero sequence current s can
f i nd a hi gh rel uct ance pat h, t he ef f ect bei ng t o reduce
t he zero sequence i mpedance t o about 90% of t he
posi t i ve sequence i mpedance.
However, i n hand cal cul at i ons, i t i s usual t o i gnore t hi s
vari at i on and consi der t he posi t i ve and zero sequence
i mpedances t o be equal . It i s common when usi ng
sof t ware t o perf orm f aul t cal cul at i ons t o ent er a val ue of
zero- sequence i mpedance i n accordance wi t h t he above
gui del i nes, i f t he manuf act urer i s unabl e t o provi de a
val ue.
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5 . 1 5 TRAN SFORM ER ZERO SEQUEN CE
EQUI VALEN T CI RCUI TS
The f l ow of zero sequence current s i n a t ransf ormer i s
onl y possi bl e when t he t ransf ormer f orms part of a
cl osed l oop f or uni - di rect i onal current s and ampere- t urn
bal ance i s mai nt ai ned bet ween wi ndi ngs.
The posi t i ve sequence equi val ent ci rcui t i s st i l l
mai nt ai ned t o represent t he t ransf ormer, but now t here
are cert ai n condi t i ons at t ached t o i t s connect i on i nt o t he
ext ernal ci rcui t . The order of exci t at i on i mpedance i s
very much l ower t han f or t he posi t i ve sequence ci rcui t ;
i t wi l l be roughl y bet ween 1 and 4 per uni t , but st i l l hi gh
enough t o be negl ect ed i n most f aul t st udi es.
The mode of connect i on of a t ransf ormer t o t he ext ernal
ci rcui t i s det ermi ned by t aki ng account of each wi ndi ng
arrangement and i t s connect i on or ot herwi se t o ground.
If zero sequence current s can f l ow i nt o and out of a
wi ndi ng, t he wi ndi ng t ermi nal i s connect ed t o t he
ext ernal ci rcui t (t hat i s, l i nk a i s cl osed i n Fi gure 5.13). If
zero sequence current s can ci rcul at e i n t he wi ndi ng
wi t hout f l owi ng i n t he ext ernal ci rcui t , t he wi ndi ng
t ermi nal i s connect ed di rect l y t o t he zero bus (t hat i s,
l i nk b i s cl osed i n Fi gure 5.13). Tabl e 5.3 gi ves t he zero
sequence connect ions of some common t wo- and t hree-
winding t ransf ormer arrangement s applying t he above rules.
Fi gure 5.11: Large t ransf ormer

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Tabl e 5.3: Zero sequence equi val ent ci rcui t connect i ons
Zero bus
b
Z
T
a
b
a
Zero bus
b
Z
T
a
b
a
Zero bus
b
Z
T
a
b
a
Zero bus
b
Z
T
a
b
a
Zero bus
b
Z
T
a
b
a
Zero bus
Zero bus
b
Z
T
Z
T
a
b b
a
b
a
Zero bus
Z
t
Z
s
Z
p
a
b b
a
b
a
Zero bus
Z
t
Z
s
Z
p
a
b b
a
b
a
Zero bus
Z
t
Z
s
Z
p
a
b b
a
b
a
Zero bus
Z
t
Z
s
Z
p
a
b b
a
b
a
Zero bus
Z
t
Z
s
Z
p
a
b
a
Zero phase sequence network Connections and zero phase sequence currents
5 9
5 . 1 6 A U TO- TRA N SFORM ERS
The aut o- t r ansf or mer i s char act er i sed by a si ngl e
cont i nuous wi ndi ng, part of whi ch i s shared by bot h t he
hi gh and l ow vol t age ci rcui t s, as shown i n Fi gure 5.14(a).
The ' common' wi ndi ng i s t he wi ndi ng bet ween t he l ow
vol t age t ermi nal s whereas t he remai nder of t he wi ndi ng,
bel ongi ng excl usi vel y t o t he hi gh vol t age ci rcui t , i s
desi gnat ed t he ' seri es' wi ndi ng, and, combi ned wi t h t he
' common' wi ndi ng, f orms t he ' seri es- common' wi ndi ng
bet ween t he hi gh vol t age t ermi nal s. The advant age of
usi ng an aut o- t ransf ormer as opposed t o a t wo- wi ndi ng
t ransf ormer i s t hat t he aut o- t ransf ormer i s smal l er and
l i ght er f or a gi ven rat i ng. The di sadvant age i s t hat
gal vani c i sol at i on bet ween t he t wo wi ndi ngs does not
exi st , gi vi ng ri se t o t he possi bi l i t y of l arge overvol t ages
on t he l ower vol t age syst em i n t he event of maj or
i nsul at i on breakdown.
Three- phase aut o- t ransf ormer banks general l y have st ar
connect ed mai n wi ndi ngs, t he neut ral of whi ch i s
normal l y connect ed sol i dl y t o eart h. In addi t i on, i t i s
common pract i ce t o i ncl ude a t hi rd wi ndi ng connect ed i n
del t a cal l ed t he t ert i ary wi ndi ng, as shown i n Fi gure
5.14(b).
5.16.1 Posi t i ve Sequence Equi val ent Ci rcui t
The posi t i ve sequence equi val ent ci rcui t of a t hree- phase
aut o- t ransf ormer bank i s t he same as t hat of a t wo- or
t hree- wi ndi ng t ransf ormer. The st ar equi val ent f or a
t hree- wi ndi ng t ransf ormer, f or exampl e, i s obt ai ned i n
t he same manner, wi t h t he di f f er ence t hat t he
i mpedances bet ween wi ndi ngs are desi gnat ed as f ol l ows:
Equat i on 5.8
where:
Z
sc-t
= i mpedance bet ween ' seri es common' and t ert i ary
wi ndi ngs
Z
sc-c
= i mpedance bet ween ' ser i es common' and
' common' wi ndi ngs
Z
sc-t
= i mpedance bet ween ' common' and t er t i ar y
wi ndi ngs
When no l oad i s connect ed t o t he del t a t ert i ary, t he poi nt
T wi l l be open- ci rcui t ed and t he short - ci rcui t i mpedance
of t he t ransf ormer becomes Z
L
+ Z
H
= Z
sc-c
, t hat i s,
si mi l ar t o t he equi val ent ci rcui t of a t wo- wi ndi ng
t ransf ormer, wi t h magnet i si ng i mpedance negl ect ed; see
Fi gure 5.14(c).
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
L sc c c t sc t
H sc c sc t c t
T sc t c t sc c
+
( )
+
( )
+
( )

1
2
1
2
1
2
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Zero potential bus
a
b
Z
e
Z
t
Z
p
Z
s
Z
e
b b
a
a
(b) Three windings
(a) Two windings
Zero potential bus
b
a a
b
Z
T
2
Z
T
2
Fi gure 5.13: Zero sequence equi val ent ci rcui t s
H
L
N
L
N
T
H
T
H L H L
T
Zero potential bus
Zero potential bus
(e) Equivalent circuit with isolated neutral
L H
T
Z
HT
Z
LH
Z
X
Z
Z
Z
Y
Z
H
I
H
I
L
I
L
-I
H
I
L
-I
H
V
L
V
H
I
H
I
H
I
L
I
L I
T
I
N
Z
N
Z
L
Z
T
Z
LT
I
L0
I
H0
I
L0
I
T0 I
T1
I
L1
I
H0
I
H1
I
T0
(c) Positive sequence impedance (d) Zero sequence equivalent circuit
(a) Circuit diagram
(b) Circuit diagram with tertiary winding
of aut o- t ransf ormer
5.16.2 Zero Sequence Equi val ent Ci rcui t
The zero sequence equi val ent ci rcui t i s deri ved i n a
si mi l ar manner t o t he posi t i ve sequence ci rcui t , except
t hat , as t here i s no i dent i t y f or t he neut ral poi nt , t he
current i n t he neut ral and t he neut ral vol t age cannot be
gi ven di rect l y. Furt hermore, i n deri vi ng t he branch
i mpedances, account must be t aken of an i mpedance i n
t he neut ral Z
n
, as shown i n t he f ol l owi ng equat i ons,
where Z
x
, Z
y
and Z
z
are t he i mpedances of t he l ow, hi gh
and t ert i ary wi ndi ngs respect i vel y and N i s t he rat i o
bet ween t he seri es and common wi ndi ngs.
Equat i on 5.9
Fi gure 5.14(d) shows t he equi val ent ci rcui t of t he
t ransf ormer bank. Current s I
LO
and I
HO
are t hose
ci rcul at i ng i n t he l ow and hi gh vol t age ci rcui t s respect i vel y.
The di f f erence bet ween t hese current s, expressed i n
amperes, i s t he current i n t he common wi ndi ng.
The current i n t he neut ral i mpedance i s t hree t i mes t he
current i n t he common wi ndi ng.
5.16.3 Speci al Condi t i ons of Neut ral Eart hi ng
Wi t h a sol i dl y grounded neut ral , Z
n
= O, t he branch
i mpedances Z
x
, Z
y
, Z
z
, become Z
L
, Z
H
, Z
T
, t hat i s,
i dent i cal t o t he cor r espondi ng posi t i ve sequence
equi val ent ci rcui t , except t hat t he equi val ent i mpedance
Z
T
of t he del t a t ert i ary i s connect ed t o t he zero pot ent i al
bus i n t he zero sequence net work.
When t he neut ral i s ungrounded Z
n
= and t he
i mpedances of t he equi val ent st ar al so become i nf i ni t e
because t here are apparent l y no pat hs f or zero sequence
current s bet ween t he wi ndi ngs, al t hough a physi cal
ci rcui t exi st s and ampere- t urn bal ance can be obt ai ned.
A sol ut i on i s t o use an equi val ent del t a ci rcui t (see Fi gure
5.14(e)), and eval uat e t he el ement s of t he del t a di rect l y
f rom t he act ual ci rcui t . The met hod requi res t hree
equat i ons correspondi ng t o t hree assumed operat i ng
condi t i ons. Sol vi ng t hese equat i ons wi l l rel at e t he del t a
i mpedances t o t he i mpedance bet ween t he seri es and
t ert i ary wi ndi ngs, as f ol l ows:
Equat i on 5.10
Z Z
N
N
Z Z N
Z Z
N
N
LH s t
LT s t
HT s t
+
( )
+
( )
2
1
1
Z Z Z
N
N
Z Z Z
N
N
Z Z Z
N
x L n
y H n
z T n
+
+
( )

+
( )
+
+
( )
3
1
3
1
3
1
1
2
Wi t h t he equi val ent del t a repl aci ng t he st ar i mpedances
i n t he aut o- t ransf ormer zero sequence equi val ent ci rcui t
t he t ransf ormer can be combi ned wi t h t he syst em
i mpedances i n t he usual manner t o obt ai n t he syst em
zero sequence di agram.
5 . 1 7 TRA N SFORM ER I M PEDA N CES
In t he vast maj ori t y of f aul t cal cul at i ons, t he Prot ect i on
Engi neer i s onl y concerned wi t h t he t ransf ormer l eakage
i mpedance; t he magnet i si ng i mpedance i s negl ect ed, as
i t i s very much hi gher. Impedances f or t ransf ormers
rat ed 200MVA or l ess are gi ven i n IEC 60076 and
repeat ed i n Tabl e 5.4, t oget her wi t h an i ndi cat i on of X/ R
val ues (not part of IEC 60076). These i mpedances are
commonl y used f or t ransf ormers i nst al l ed i n i ndust ri al
pl ant s. Some vari at i on i s possi bl e t o assi st i n cont rol l i ng
f aul t l evel s or mot or st art i ng, and t ypi cal l y up t o
10%
vari at i on on t he i mpedance val ues gi ven i n t he t abl e i s
possi bl e wi t hout i ncurri ng a si gni f i cant cost penal t y. For
t hese t ransf ormers, t he t appi ng range i s smal l , and t he
vari at i on of i mpedance wi t h t ap posi t i on i s normal l y
negl ect ed i n f aul t l evel cal cul at i ons.
For t r ansf or mer s used i n el ect r i ci t y di st r i but i on
net works, t he si t uat i on i s more compl ex, due t o an
i ncreasi ng t rend t o assi gn i mport ance t o t he st andi ng (or
no- l oad) l osses r epr esent ed by t he magnet i si ng
i mpedance. Thi s can be adj ust ed at t he desi gn st age but
t here i s of t en an i mpact on t he l eakage react ance i n
consequence. In addi t i on, i t may be more i mport ant t o
cont rol f aul t l evel s on t he LV si de t han t o i mprove mot or
st art i ng vol t age drops. Theref ore, depart ures f rom t he
IEC 60076 val ues are commonpl ace.
IEC 60076 does not make recommendat i ons of nomi nal
i mpedance i n r espect of t r ansf or mer s r at ed over
200MVA, whi l e generat or t ransf ormers and a.c. t ract i on
suppl y t ransf ormers have i mpedances t hat are usual l y
speci f i ed as a resul t of Power Syst ems St udi es t o ensure
sat i sf act ory perf ormance. Typi cal val ues of t ransf ormer
i mpedances coveri ng a vari et y of t ransf ormer desi gns are
gi ven i n Tabl es 5.5 5.9. Where appropri at e, t hey
i ncl ude an i ndi cat i on of t he i mpedance vari at i on at t he
ext remes of t he t aps gi ven. Transf ormers desi gned t o
wor k at 60Hz wi l l have subst ant i al l y t he same
i mpedance as t hei r 50Hz count erpart s.
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6 0
MVA Z% HV/LV X/R Tolerance on Z%
<0.630 4.00 1.5
10
0.631- 1.25 5.00 3.5
10
1.251 - 3.15 6.25 6.0
10
3.151 - 6.3 7.15 8.5
10
6.301- 12.5 8.35 13.0
10
12.501- 25.0 10.00 20.0
7.5
25.001 - 200 12.50 45.0
7.5
>200 by agreement
Tabl e 5.4: Transf ormer i mpedances - IEC 60076
6 1
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MVA Primary kV Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV X/R rat io MVA Primary kV Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV X/R rat io
7.5 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 7.5 15 24 33 10% 6.9 24 25
7.5 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 7.5 17 30 33 10% 6.9 24 25
8 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 8 9 30 132 +10% - 20% 11 21.3 43
11.5 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 6.6 11.5 24 30 132 +10% - 20% 11 25 30
11.5 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 6.6 11.5 24 30 132 +10% - 20% 11 23.5 46
11.5 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 11.5 24 40 132 +10% - 20% 11 27.9 37
11.5 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 11.5 26 45 132 +10% - 20% 33 11.8 18
11.5 33 +4.5% - 18% 6.6 11.5 24 60 132 +10% - 20% 33 16.7 28
12 33 +5% - 15% 11.5 12 27 60 132 +10% - 20% 33 17.7 26
12 33 10% 11.5 12 27 60 132 +10% - 20% 33 14.5 25
12 33 10% 11.5 12 25 60 132 +10% - 20% 66 11 25
15 66 +9% - 15% 11.5 15 14 60 132 +10% - 20% 11/11 35.5 52
15 66 +9% - 15% 11.5 15 16 60 132 +9.3% - 24% 11/11 36 75
16 33 10% 11.5 16 16 60 132 +9.3% - 24% 11/11 35.9 78
16 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 16 30 65 140 +7.5% - 15% 11 12.3 28
16 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 6.6 16 31 90 132 +10% - 20% 33 24.4 60
19 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 19 37 90 132 +10% - 20% 66 15.1 41
30 33 +5.72% - 17.16% 11 30 40
MVA Primary Primary Secondary Tert iary Z% X/R
kV Taps kV kV HV/LV rat io
20 220 +12.5% - 7.5% 6.9 - 9.9 18
20 230 +12.5% - 7.5% 6.9 - 10- 14 13
57 275 10% 11.8 7.2 18.2 34
74 345 +14.4% - 10% 96 12 8.9 25
79.2 220 +10% - 15% 11.6 11 18.9 35
120 275 +10% - 15% 34.5 - 22.5 63
125 230 16.8% 66 - 13.1 52
125 230 not known 150 - 10- 14 22
180 275 15% 66 13 22.2 38
255 230 +10% 16.5 - 14.8 43
Table 5.6: Impedances of t wo winding dist ribut ion t ransf ormers
Primary volt age >200kV
MVA Primary Primary Secondary Z% X/R
kV Taps kV HV/LV rat io
95 132 10% 11 13.5 46
140 157.5 10% 11.5 12.7 41
141 400 5% 15 14.7 57
151 236 5% 15 13.6 47
167 145 +7.5% - 16.5% 15 25.7 71
180 289 5% 16 13.4 34
180 132 10% 15 13.8 40
247 432 +3.75% - 16.25% 15.5 15.2 61
250 300 +11.2% - 17.6% 15 28.6 70
290 420 10% 15 15.7 43
307 432 +3.75% - 16.25% 15.5 15.3 67
346 435 +5% - 15% 17.5 16.4 81
420 432 +5.55% - 14.45% 22 16 87
437.8 144.1 +10.8% - 21.6% 21 14.6 50
450 132 10% 19 14 49
600 420 11.25% 21 16.2 74
716 525 10% 19 15.7 61
721 362 +6.25% - 13.75% 22 15.2 83
736 245 +7% - 13% 22 15.5 73
900 525 +7% - 13% 23 15.7 67
(a) Three- phase unit s
MVA/ Primary Primary Secondary Z% X/R
phase kV Taps kV HV/LV rat io
266.7 432/
-
3 +6.67% - 13.33% 23.5 15.8 92
266.7 432/
-
3 +6.6% - 13.4% 23.5 15.7 79
277 515/
-
3 5% 22 16.9 105
375 525/
-
3 +6.66% - 13.32% 26 15 118
375 420/
-
3 +6.66% - 13.32% 26 15.1 112
(b) Single- phase unit s
Tabl e 5.7: Impedances of generat or t ransf ormers
Table 5.5: Impedances of t wo winding dist ribut ion t ransf ormers
Primary volt age <200kV
MVA Primary Primary Secondary Secondary Tert iary Z% X/R
kV Taps kV Taps kV HV/LV rat io
100 66 - 33 - - 10.7 28
180 275 - 132 15% 13 15.5 55
240 400 - 132 +15% - 5% 13 20.2 83
240 400 - 132 +15% - 5% 13 20.0 51
240 400 - 132 +15% - 5% 13 20.0 61
250 400 - 132 +15% - 5% 13 10- 13 50
500 400 - 132 +0% - 15% 22 14.3 51
750 400 - 275 - 13 12.1 90
1000 400 - 275 - 13 15.8 89
1000 400 - 275 - 33 17.0 91
333.3 500
3 10% 230
3 - 22 18.2 101
Tabl e 5.8: Aut ot ransf ormer dat a
5 . 1 8 OV ERH EA D LI N ES A N D CA BLES
In t hi s sect i on a descri pt i on of common overhead l i nes
and cabl e syst ems i s gi ven, t oget her wi t h t abl es of t hei r
i mport ant charact eri st i cs. The f ormul ae f or cal cul at i ng
t he charact eri st i cs are devel oped t o gi ve a basi c i dea of
t he f act ors i nvol ved, and t o enabl e cal cul at i ons t o be
made f or syst ems ot her t han t hose t abul at ed.
A t r ansmi ssi on ci r cui t may be r epr esent ed by an
equi val ent or T net work usi ng l umped const ant s as
shown i n Fi gure 5.15. Z i s t he t ot al seri es i mpedance
(R + jX)L and Y i s t he t ot al shunt admi t t ance (G + jB)L,
where L i s t he ci rcui t l engt h. The t erms i nsi de t he
bracket s i n Fi gure 5.15 are correct i on f act ors t hat al l ow
f or t he f act t hat i n t he act ual ci rcui t t he paramet ers are
di st ri but ed over t he whol e l engt h of t he ci rcui t and not
l umped, as i n t he equi val ent ci rcui t s.
Wi t h short l i nes i t i s usual l y possi bl e t o i gnore t he shunt
admi t t ance, whi ch great l y si mpl i f i es cal cul at i ons, but on
l onger l i nes i t must be i ncl uded. Anot her si mpl i f i cat i on
t hat can be made i s t hat of assumi ng t he conduct or
conf i gurat i on t o be symmet ri cal . The sel f - i mpedance of
each conduct or becomes Z
p
, and t he mut ual i mpedance
bet ween conduct ors becomes Z
m
. However, f or ri gorous
cal cul at i ons a det ai l ed t reat ment i s necessary, wi t h
account bei ng t aken of t he spaci ng of a conduct or i n
rel at i on t o i t s nei ghbour and eart h.
5 . 1 9 CA LCU LATI ON OF SERI ES I M PEDA N CE
The sel f i mpedance of a conduct or wi t h an eart h ret urn
and t he mut ual i mpedance bet ween t wo par al l el
conduct ors wi t h a common eart h ret urn are gi ven by t he
Carson equat i ons:
Equat i on 5.11
where:
R = conduct or a.c. resi st ance (ohms/ km)
dc = geomet ri c mean radi us of a si ngl e conduct or
D = spaci ng bet ween t he paral l el conduct ors
f = syst em f requency
D
e
= equi val ent spaci ng of t he eart h ret urn pat h
= 216
p/f where p i s eart h resi st i vi t y (ohms/ cm

3
)
The above f ormul ae gi ve t he i mpedances i n ohms/ km. It
shoul d be not ed t hat t he l ast t erms i n Equat i on 5.11 are
very si mi l ar t o t he cl assi cal i nduct ance f ormul ae f or l ong
st rai ght conduct ors.
The geomet ri c means radi us (GMR) of a conduct or i s an
equi val ent radi us t hat al l ows t he i nduct ance f ormul a t o
be reduced t o a si ngl e t erm. It ari ses because t he
i nduct ance of a sol i d conduct or i s a f unct i on of t he
i nt ernal f l ux l i nkages i n addi t i on t o t hose ext ernal t o i t .
I f t he or i gi nal conduct or can be r epl aced by an
equi val ent t hat i s a hol l ow cyl i nder wi t h i nf i ni t esi mal l y
t hi n wal l s, t he current i s conf i ned t o t he surf ace of t he
conduct or, and t here can be no i nt ernal f l ux. The
geomet ri c mean radi us i s t he radi us of t he equi val ent
conduct or. If t he ori gi nal conduct or i s a sol i d cyl i nder
havi ng a radi us r i t s equi val ent has a radi us of 0.779r.
It can be shown t hat t he sequence i mpedances f or a
symmet ri cal t hree- phase ci rcui t are:
Equat i on 5.12
wher e Z
p
and Z
m
ar e gi ven by Equat i on 5.11.
Subst i t ut i ng Equat i on 5.11 i n Equat i on 5.12 gi ves:
Equat i on 5.13
Z Z R j f
D
dc
Z R f j f
D
dcD
o
e
1 2 10
10
2
3
0 0029
0 00296 0 00869
+
+ +
. log
. . log
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z
p m
o p m
1 2
2

+
Z R f j f
D
dc
Z f j f
D
D
p
e
m
e
+ +
+
0 000988 0 0029
0 000988 0 0029
10
10
. . log
. . log
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6 2
(a) Actual transmission circuit
R
X
R
X
B G B G
Series impedance Z = R + jX per unit length
Shunt admittance Y = G + jB per unit length
(b) Equivalent
(c) T Equivalent
Note: Z and Y in (b) and (c) are the total series
impedance and shunt admittance respectively.
Z=(R+jX)L and Y=(G+jB)L where L is the circuit length.
...
5040 120
Z
2
Y
2
Z
2
Y
2
Z
3
Y
3
17Z
3
Y
3
6
ZY
ZY
1
ZY
ZY
ZY
ZY
sinh
+ + + + =
...
20160 120 12
1
tanh
+ + + - =
2
2
2
ZY
ZY tanh Y
2
2
2
ZY
ZY tanh Y
2
2
2
ZY
ZY tanh Z
2
2
2
ZY
ZY tanh Z
ZY
ZY sinh
Y
ZY
ZY sinh
Z
Fi gure 5.15: Transmi ssi on ci rcui t equi val ent s

6 3
In t he f ormul a f or Z
0
t he expressi on
3
dcD
2
i s t he
geomet ri c mean radi us of t he conduct or group.
Where t he ci rcui t i s not symmet ri cal , t he usual case,
symmet r y can be mai nt ai ned by t r ansposi ng t he
conduct ors so t hat each conduct or i s i n each phase
posi t i on f or one t hi rd of t he ci rcui t l engt h. If A, B and C
are t he spaci ngs bet ween conduct ors bc, ca and ab t hen
D i n t he above equat i ons becomes t he geomet ri c mean
di st ance bet ween conduct ors, equal t o
3
ABC.
Wr i t i ng D
c
=
3
dcD
2
, t he sequence i mpedances i n
ohms/ km at 50Hz become:
Equat i on 5.14
5 . 2 0 CA LCU LATI ON OF SH U N T I M PEDA N CE
It can be shown t hat t he pot ent i al of a conduct or a
above ground due t o i t s own charge qa and a charge - qa
on i t s i mage i s:
Equat i on 5.15
where h i s t he hei ght above ground of t he conduct or and
r i s t he radi us of t he conduct or, as shown i n Fi gure 5.16.
Si mi l arl y, i t can be shown t hat t he pot ent i al of a
conduct or a due t o a charge qb on a nei ghbouri ng
conduct or b and t he charge -qb on i t s i mage i s:
Equat i on 5.16
where D i s t he spaci ng bet ween conduct ors a and b and
D i s t he spaci ng bet ween conduct or b and t he i mage of
conduct or a as shown i n Fi gure 5.14.
Si nce t he capaci t ance C= q/V and t he capaci t i ve
react ance X
c
=1/C, i t f ol l ows t hat t he sel f and mut ual
capaci t i ve react ance of t he conduct or syst em i n Fi gure
5.16 can be obt ai ned di rect l y f rom Equat i ons 5.15 and
5.16. Furt her, as l eakage can usual l y be negl ect ed, t he
sel f and mut ual shunt i mpedances Z
p
and Z
m
i n
megohm- km at a syst em f requency of 50Hz are:
Equat i on 5.17
Where t he di st ances above ground are great i n rel at i on
Z j
h
r
Z j
D
D
p
m
'
'
'
0 132
2
0 132
10
10
. log
. log
V qb
D
D
a e
'
'
2 log
V qa
h
r
a e
2
2
log
Z Z R j
ABC
dc
Z R j
D
D
o
e
c
1 2 10
3
10
0 145
0 148 0 434
+
+
( )
+
. log
. . log
t o t he conduct or spaci ng, whi ch i s t he case wi t h overhead
l i nes, 2h=D. Fr om Equat i on 5.12, t he sequence
i mpedances of a symmet ri cal t hree- phase ci rcui t are:
Equat i on 5.18
It shoul d be not ed t hat t he l ogari t hmi c t erms above are
si mi l ar t o t hose i n Equat i on 5.13 except t hat r i s t he
act ual radi us of t he conduct ors and D i s t he spaci ng
bet ween t he conduct ors and t hei r i mages.
Agai n, where t he conduct ors are not symmet ri cal l y
spaced but t ransposed, Equat i on 5.18 can be re- wri t t en
maki ng use of t he geomet ri c mean di st ance bet ween
conduct ors,
3
ABC, and gi vi ng t he di st ance of each

conduct or above ground, t hat i s, h
a
, h
2
, h
c
, as f ol l ows:
Equat i on 5.19
Z Z j
ABC
r
Z j
h h h
r A B C
a b b
1 2 10
3
0 10
2 2 2 3
0 132
0 132
8

. log
. log
Z Z j
D
r
Z j
D
rD
o
1 2 10
10
2
3
0 132
0 396

. log
. log
'
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a'
h
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a b
D'
D
Conductor
Radius r
Fi gure 5.16 Geomet ry of t wo paral l el conduct ors
a and b and t he i mage of a (a' )
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6 4
Fi gure 5.17: Typi cal OHL conf i gurat i ons (not t o scal e)
2.75
R1
Y
2.75
3.10
W
R1
Y
a
b
a
3.30
3.30
d
2.00 - N
1.75 - K
c
W
a b c d
1.4 3.0 3.7 3.0 63 kV(K)
90 kV (N) 3.1 3.8 3.8 1.85
Y
W
R1
2.50
2.70
6.6
a
2.50
Double circuit
U
n
= 170kV
Double circuit
U
n
= 138kV
Single circuit
U
n
= 110kV
Single circuit
U
n
= 63kV/90kV
Single circuit
U
n
= 90kV
Double circuit
U
n= 63kV/90kV
Double circuit
U
n
= 63kV/66kV/90kV
Single circuit
U
n
= 63kV/66kV/90kV
Single circuit
3.9 3.9
4.2 4.2
5.80
6.20
Y
W
3.7
R1
a
b
4.1
a
3.4
1.40
1.85
1.40
(m)
63
66
n
U (kV) a
90
A=3.5m
A A
A C B
a a
3.3
6.6
11
22
33
U
n
(kV)
1
1.25
0.55
0.8
0.67
a (m)
R1
Y
X
W
R2
6.0
0.50
3.80
2.8 2.8
8.0 8.0
3.5 3.5
3.0 3.0
3.50
3.50
4.00
a
90
63
(kV)
n
U
1.85
1.4
(m) a
2
2
6.60
2
2
a=3.7m
b=4.6m
6 5
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Fi gure 5.17(cont ): Typi cal OHL conf i gurat i ons (not t o scal e)
W
R1
R2
b
a
5.0
d
2.5
c
6.0
6.0
7.5
X
W
X
R1
2.40
9.74
32.4
8.5
25.1
9.2
11.3
7.0
X
W
R1
7.7
5.0
8.0
9.5
10.0
9.5
23.0
12.0
7.4
8.5
7.8
7.4
6.7
7.8
6.7
8.5
8.5
n1 n
9.8
9.5
5.0
5.0
n2
p
6.3
6.3
4.8
4.5
n
n1
p
5.20
7.50
8.45
n2
12.0
37.0
20.0
0
0
0 0
0
Y
X
W
R1
16.4
12.2
1.75
5.0
9.5
7.5
16.0
8.0
2.8
2.8
d
3.5
a
4.2
c b
4.5
3.8
4.8
4.1 A
4.8 4.5 4.2 2.8
B
C
Single circuit
U
n
= 800kV
Double circuit
U
n
= 550kV
Double circuit
U
n
= 420kV
Double circuit
U
n
= 420kV
Double circuit
U
n
= 245kV
Double circuit
U
n
= 245kV
Single circuit
U
n
= 550kV
Single circuit
U
n
= 245kV
Single circuit
U
n
= 245kV
5 . 2 1 OV ERH EA D LI N E CI RCU I TS
W I TH OR W I TH OU T EA RTH W I RES
Typi cal conf i gurat i ons of overhead l i ne ci rcui t s are gi ven
i n Fi gure 5.17. Tower hei ght s are not gi ven as t hey vary
consi derabl y accordi ng t o t he desi gn span and nat ure of
t he ground. As i ndi cat ed i n some of t he t ower out l i nes,
some t ower desi gns are desi gned wi t h a number of base
ext ensi ons f or t hi s purpose. Fi gure 5.18 shows a t ypi cal
t ower.
I n some cases, t he phase conduct or s ar e not
symmet ri cal l y di sposed t o each ot her and t heref ore, as
previ ousl y i ndi cat ed, el ect rost at i c and el ect romagnet i c
unbal ance wi l l resul t , whi ch can be l argel y el i mi nat ed by
t ransposi t i on. Modern pract i ce i s t o bui l d overhead l i nes
wi t hout t ransposi t i on t owers t o reduce cost s; t hi s must
be t aken i nt o account i n ri gorous cal cul at i ons of t he
unbal ances. In ot her cases, l i nes are f ormed of bundl ed
conduct ors, t hat i s conduct ors f ormed of t wo, t hree or
f our separat e conduct ors. Thi s arrangement mi ni mi ses
l osses when vol t ages of 220kV and above are i nvol ved.
It shoul d be not ed t hat t he l i ne conf i gurat i on and
conduct or spaci ngs are i nf l uenced, not onl y by vol t age,
but al so by many ot her f act ors i ncl udi ng t ype of
i nsul at ors, t ype of support , span l engt h, conduct or sag
and t he nat ure of t errai n and ext ernal cl i mat i c l oadi ngs.
Theref ore, t here can be l arge vari at i ons i n spaci ngs
bet ween di f f erent l i ne desi gns f or t he same vol t age l evel ,
so t hose depi ct ed i n Fi gure 5.17 are onl y t ypi cal
exampl es.
When cal cul at i ng t he phase sel f and mut ual i mpedances,
Equat i ons 5.11 and 5.17 may be used, but i t shoul d be
remembered t hat i n t hi s case Z
p
i s cal cul at ed f or each
conduct or and Z
m
f or each pai r of conduct ors. Thi s
sect i on i s not , t heref ore, i nt ended t o gi ve a det ai l ed
anal ysi s, but rat her t o show t he general met hod of
f ormul at i ng t he equat i ons, t aki ng t he cal cul at i on of
seri es i mpedance as an exampl e and assumi ng a si ngl e
ci rcui t l i ne wi t h a si ngl e eart h wi re.
The phase vol t age drops V
a
,V
b
,V
b
of a si ngl e ci rcui t l i ne
wi t h a si ngl e eart h wi re due t o current s I
a
, I
b
, I
b
f l owi ng
i n t he phases and I
e
i n t he eart h wi re are:
Equat i on 5.20
where:
and so on.
The equat i on requi red f or t he cal cul at i on of shunt
vol t age drops i s i dent i cal t o Equat i on 5.20 i n f orm,
except t hat pri mes must be i ncl uded, t he i mpedances
bei ng deri ved f rom Equat i on 5.17.
Z f j f
D
D
ab
e
+ 0 000988 0 0029
10
. . log
Z R f j f
D
dc
aa
e
+ + 0 000988 0 0029
10
. . log
V Z I Z I Z I Z I
V Z I Z I Z I Z I
V Z I Z I Z I Z I
Z I Z I Z I Z I
a aa a ab b ac c ae e
b ba a bb b bc c be e
c ca a cb b cc c ce e
ea a eb b ec c ee e
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
0
5
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6 6
Fi gure 5.18: Typi cal overhead l i ne t ower
6 7
From Equat i on 5.20 i t can be seen t hat :
Maki ng use of t hi s rel at i on, t he sel f and mut ual
i mpedances of t he phase conduct ors can be modi f i ed
usi ng t he f ol l owi ng f ormul a:
Equat i on 5.21
For exampl e:
and so on.
So Equat ion 5.20 can be simplif ied while st ill t aking account
of t he ef f ect of t he eart h wire by delet ing t he f ourt h row and
f ourt h column and subst it ut ing J
aa
f or Z
aa
, J
ab
f or Z
ab
, and
so on, calculat ed using Equat ion 5.21. The single circuit line
wit h a single eart h wire can t heref ore be replaced by an
equivalent single circuit line having phase self and mut ual
impedances J
aa
, J
ab
and so on.
It can be shown f rom t he symmet ri cal component t heory
gi ven i n Chapt er 4 t hat t he sequence vol t age drops of a
general t hree- phase ci rcui t are:
Equat i on 5.22
And, f rom Equat i on 5.20 modi f i ed as i ndi cat ed above and
Equat i on 5.22, t he sequence i mpedances are:
V Z I Z I Z I
V Z I Z I Z I
V Z I Z I Z I
0 00 0 01 1 02 2
1 10 0 11 1 12 2
2 20 0 21 1 22 2
+ +
+ +
+ +
J Z
Z Z
Z
ab ab
ae be
ee

J Z
Z
Z
aa aa
ae
ee

2
J Z
Z Z
Z
nm nm
ne me
ee

+ + I
Z
Z
I
Z
Z
I
Z
Z
I
e
ea
ee
a
eb
ee
b
ec
ee
c
The devel opment of t hese equat i ons f or doubl e ci rcui t
l i nes wi t h t wo eart h wi res i s si mi l ar except t hat more
t erms are i nvol ved.
The sequence mut ual i mpedances are very smal l and can
usual l y be negl ect ed; t hi s al so appl i es f or doubl e ci rcui t
l i nes except f or t he mut ual i mpedance bet ween t he zero
sequence ci rcui t s, namel y (Z
OO
= Z
OO)
. Tabl e 5.10 gi ves
t ypi cal val ues of al l sequence sel f and mut ual i mpedances
some si ngl e and doubl e ci rcui t l i nes wi t h eart h wi res. Al l
conduct ors are 400mm
2
ACSR, except f or t he 132kV
doubl e ci rcui t exampl e where t hey are 200mm
2
.
5 . 2 2 OH L EQU I V A LEN T CI RCU I TS
Consi der an eart hed, i nf i ni t e busbar source behi nd a
l engt h of t ransmi ssi on l i ne as shown i n Fi gure 5.19(a).
An eart h f aul t i nvol vi ng phase A i s assumed t o occur at
F. If t he dri vi ng vol t age i s E and t he f aul t current i s I
a
Z J J J J J J
Z J J J J J J
Z J a J aJ aJ a J J
Z J aJ a J a J aJ
aa bb cc ab bc ac
aa bb cc ab bc ac
aa bb cc ab ac bc
aa bb cc ab ac
00
11
12
2 2
21
2 2
1
3
2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
3
1
3
2
3
+ +
( )
+ + +
( )
+ +
( )
+ +
( )
+ +
( )
+ + +
( )
+ +
( )
+ + ++
( )
+ +
( )
+ +
( )
+ +
( )
+ +
( )
J
Z J a J aJ aJ a J J
Z J aJ a J a J aJ Jbc
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
bc
aa bb cc ab ac bc
aa bb cc ab ac
20
2 2
10
2 2
22 11
01 20
02 10
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
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132kV 380kV 132kV 275kV
Sequence impedance Single circuit line Single circuit line Double circuit line Double circuit line
(400 mm
2
) (400 mm
2
) (200 mm
2
) (400 mm
2
)
Z
00
= (Z
00
) 1.0782 7354 0.8227 7036 1.1838 716 0.9520 7646
Z
11
= Z
22
= (Z
11
) 0.3947 7854 0.3712 7557 6619 0.3354 7435
(Z
00
=Z
00
) - - 0.6334 712 0.5219 7543
Z
01
= Z
20
= (Z
01
= Z
20
) 0.0116 - 16652 0.0094 - 3928 0.0257 - 6325 0.0241 - 7214
Z
02
= Z
10
= (Z
02
= Z
10
) 58 0.0153 2853 0.0197 - 9458 0.0217 - 10020
Z
12
= (Z
12
) 0.0255 - 409 0.0275 14726 0.0276 16117 0.0281 14946
Z
21
= (Z
21
) 0.0256 - 1391 0.0275 2729 0.0277 3713 0.0282 296
(Z
11
=Z
11
= Z
22
= Z
22
) - - 0.0114 886 0.0129 8844
(Z
02
= Z
02
= Z
10
= Z
10
) - - 0.0140 - 9344 0.0185 - 9116
(Z
02
= Z
02
= Z
10
= Z
10
- - 0.0150 - 4411 0.0173 - 772
(Z
12
= Z
12
) - - 0.0103 14510 0.0101 14920
(Z
21
= Z
21
) - - 0.0106 3056 0.0102 2731
Tabl e 5.10: Sequence sel f and mut ual i mpedances
f or vari ous l i nes
Equat i on 5.23
t hen t he ear t h
f aul t i mpedance i s Z
e
. From symmet ri cal component
t heory (see Chapt er 4):
t hus
si nce, as shown, Z
1
= Z
2
f or a t ransmi ssi on ci rcui t . From
Equat i ons 5.12, Z
1
=Z
p
- Z
m
and Z
O
=Z
p
+2Z
m
. Thus,
subst i t ut i ng t hese val ues i n t he above equat i on gi ves
Z
e
=Z
p
. Thi s rel at i on i s physi cal l y val i d because Z
p
i s t he
sel f - i mpedance of a si ngl e conduct or wi t h an eart h ret urn.
Si mi l arl y, f or a phase f aul t bet ween phases B and C at F:
where
3E i s t he vol t age bet ween phases and 2Z i s t he

i mpedance of t he f aul t l oop.
Maki ng use of t he above rel at i ons a t ransmi ssi on ci rcui t
may be represent ed, wi t hout any l oss i n general i t y, by
t he equi val ent of Fi gure 5.19(b), where Z
1
i s t he phase
i mpedance t o t he f aul t and (Z
0
-Z
1
)/3 i s t he i mpedance
of t he eart h pat h, t here bei ng no mut ual i mpedance
bet ween t he phases or bet ween phase and eart h. The
equi val ent i s val i d f or si ngl e and doubl e ci rcui t l i nes
except t hat f or doubl e ci rcui t l i nes t here i s zero sequence
mut ual i mpedance, hence Z
0
=(Z
00
- Z
00
).
The equi val ent ci rcui t of Fi gure 5.19(b) i s val uabl e i n
I I
E
Z
b c

3
2
1
Z
Z Z
e
+ 2
3
1 0
I
E
Z Z Z
a
+ +
3
1 2 0
di st ance rel ay appl i cat i ons because t he phase and eart h
f aul t rel ays are set t o measure Z
2
and are compensat ed
f or t he eart h ret urn i mpedance (Z
0
-Z
1
)/3.
I t i s cust omar y t o quot e t he i mpedances of a
t ransmi ssi on ci rcui t i n t erms of Z
1
and t he rat i o Z
0
/Z
1
,
si nce i n t hi s f orm t hey are most di rect l y usef ul . By
def i ni t i on, t he posi t i ve sequence i mpedance Z
1
i s a
f unct i on of t he conduct or spaci ng and radi us, whereas
t he Z
0
/Z
1
rat i o i s dependent pri mari l y on t he l evel of
eart h resi st i vi t y . Furt her det ai l s may be f ound i n
Chapt er 12.
5 . 2 3 CA BLE CI RCU I TS
The basi c f ormul ae f or cal cul at i ng t he seri es and shunt
i mpedances of a t ransmi ssi on ci rcui t , Equat i ons 5.11 and
5.17 may be appl i ed f or eval uat i ng cabl e paramet ers;
si nce t he conduct or conf i gur at i on i s nor mal l y
symmet ri cal GMD and GMR val ues can be used wi t hout
ri sk of appreci abl e errors. However, t he f ormul ae must
be modi f i ed by t he i ncl usi on of empi ri cal f act ors t o t ake
account of sheat h and screen ef f ect s. A usef ul general
ref erence on cabl e f ormul ae i s gi ven i n ref erence [ 5.4] ;
more det ai l ed i nf ormat i on on part i cul ar t ypes of cabl es
shoul d be obt ai ned di rect f rom t he manuf act urers. The
equi val ent ci rcui t f or det ermi ni ng t he posi t i ve and
negat i ve sequence seri es i mpedances of a cabl e i s shown
i n Fi gure 5.20. From t hi s ci rcui t i t can be shown t hat :
Equat i on 5.24
where R
c
, R
s
are t he core and sheat h (screen) resi st ances
per uni t l engt h, X
c
and X
s
core and sheat h (screen)
react ances per uni t l engt h and X
cs
t he mut ual react ance
bet ween core and sheat h (screen) per uni t l engt h. X
cs
i s
i n general equal t o X
s
.
The zero sequence seri es i mpedances are obt ai ned
di rect l y usi ng Equat i on 5.11 and account can be t aken of
t he sheat h i n t he same way as an eart h wi re i n t he case
of an overhead l i ne.
The shunt capaci t ances of a sheat hed cabl e can be
cal cul at ed f rom t he si mpl e f ormul a:
Equat i on 5.25
where d i s t he overal l di amet er f or a round conduct or, T
core i nsul at i on t hi ckness and permi t t i vi t y of di el ect ri c.
When t he conduct ors are oval or shaped, an equi val ent
C
d T
d
F km
+
'
0 0241
1
2
.
log
/
Z Z R R
X
R X
j X X
X
R X
c s
cs
s s
c s
cs
s s
1 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
+
+
'
+
+
'
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6 8
(a) Actual circuit
C
B
A
E
Source Line
F
B
C
F S
I
c
II
Z
1
Z
1
Z
1
(Z
0
-Z )/3
I
b
II
I
a
I
A
E
(b) Equivalent circuit
3E
~
~
~
Fi gure 5.19: Three- phase equi val ent
of a t ransmi ssi on ci rcui t
6 9
5
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di amet er d may be used where d=(1/) x peri phery of
conduct or. No si mpl e f ormul a exi st s f or bel t ed or
unscreened cabl es, but an empi ri cal f ormul a t hat gi ves
reasonabl e resul t s i s:
Equat i on 5.26
where Gis a geomet ric f act or which is a f unct ion of core and
belt insulat ion t hickness and overall conduct or diamet er.
5 . 2 4 OV ERH EA D LI N E A N D CA BLE DATA
The f ol l owi ng t abl es cont ai n t ypi cal dat a on overhead
l i nes and cabl es t hat can be used i n conj unct i on wi t h t he
vari ous equat i ons quot ed i n t hi s t ext . It i s not i nt ended
t hat t hi s dat a shoul d r epl ace t hat suppl i ed by
manuf act urers. Where t he resul t s of cal cul at i ons are
i mport ant , rel i ance shoul d not be pl aced on t he dat a i n
t hese Tabl es and dat a shoul d be sourced di rect l y f rom a
manuf act urer/ suppl i er.
At t he concept ual desi gn st age, i ni t i al sel ect i on of overhead
l i ne conduct or si ze wi l l be det ermi ned by f our f act ors:
a. maxi mum l oad t o be carri ed i n MVA
b. l engt h of l i ne
c. conduct or mat er i al and hence maxi mum
t emperat ure
d. cost of l osses
Tabl e 5.21 gi ves i ndi cat i ve det ai l s of t he capabi l i t y of
vari ous si zes of overhead l i nes usi ng t he above f act ors,
f or AAAC and ACSR conduct or mat eri al s. It i s based on
commonl y used st andards f or vol t age drop and ambi ent
t emperat ure. Si nce t hese f act ors may not be appropri at e
f or any part i cul ar proj ect , t he Tabl e shoul d onl y be used
as a gui de f or i ni t i al si zi ng, wi t h appropri at el y det ai l ed
cal cul at i ons carri ed out t o arri ve at a f i nal proposal .
C
G
F km
0 0555 .
/
Tabl e 5.12: GMR f or al umi ni um conduct or st eel

rei nf orced (ACSR) (r = conduct or radi us)
Number of Layers Number of Al St rands GMR
1 6 0.5r*
1 12 0.75r*
2 18 0.776r
2 24 0.803r
2 26 0.812r
2 30 0.826r
2 32 0.833r
3 36 0.778r
3 45 0.794r
3 48 0.799r
3 54 0.81r
3 66 0.827r
4 72 0.789r
4 76 0.793r
4 84 0.801r
* - Indicat ive values only, since GMR f or single layer conduct ors is af f ect ed by cyclic
magnet ic f lux, which depends on various f act ors.
X
cs
Per unit length
I
c
I
s
R
s
'
X
s
Per unit length
R
c
'
X
c
Per unit length
V
V is voltage per unit length
Sheath circuit (s) Core circuit (c)
Fi gure 5.20: Equi val ent ci rcui t f or det ermi ni ng
posi t i ve or negat i ve i mpedance of cabl es
Number of St rands GMR
7 0.726r
19 0.758r
37 0.768r
61 0.772r
91 0.774r
127 0.776r
169 0.776r
Solid 0.779r
Tabl e 5.11: GMR f or st randed copper, al umi ni um and
al umi ni um al l oy conduct ors (r = conduct or radi us)
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7 0
St randing and wire Sect ional area Tot al Approx. R
DC
Designat ion diamet er (mm) (mm
2
) area overall at 20 C
(mm
2
) diamet er (Ohm/km)
Aluminium St eel Aluminium St eel (mm)
Gopher 6 2.36 1 2.36 26.2 4.4 30.6 7.08 1.093
Weasel 6 2.59 1 2.59 31.6 5.3 36.9 7.77 0.908
Ferret 6 3 1 3 42.4 7.1 49.5 9 0.676
Rabbit 6 3.35 1 3.35 52.9 8.8 61.7 10.05 0.542
Horse 12 2.79 7 2.79 73.4 42.8 116.2 13.95 0.393
Dog 6 4.72 7 1.57 105.0 13.6 118.5 14.15 0.273
Tiger 30 2.36 7 2.36 131.2 30.6 161.9 16.52 0.220
Wolf 30 2.59 7 2.59 158.1 36.9 194.9 18.13 0.182
Dingo 18 3.35 1 3.35 158.7 8.8 167.5 16.75 0.181
Lynx 30 2.79 7 2.79 183.4 42.8 226.2 19.53 0.157
Caracal 18 3.61 1 3.61 184.2 10.2 194.5 18.05 0.156
Jaguar 18 3.86 1 3.86 210.6 11.7 222.3 19.3 0.137
Pant her 30 3 7 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.136
Zebra 54 3.18 7 3.18 428.9 55.6 484.5 28.62 0.067
DC
2
(mm
2
Sparrow 6 2.67 1 2.67 33.6 5.6 39.2 8.01 0.854
Robin 6 3 1 3 42.4 7.1 49.5 9 0.677
Raven 6 3.37 1 3.37 53.5 8.9 62.4 10.11 0.536
Quail 6 3.78 1 3.78 67.4 11.2 78.6 11.34 0.426
Pigeon 6 4.25 1 4.25 85.0 14.2 99.2 12.75 0.337
Penguin 6 4.77 1 4.77 107.2 17.9 125.1 14.31 0.268
Part ridge 26 2.57 7 2 135.2 22.0 157.2 16.28 0.214
Ost rich 26 2.73 7 2.21 152.0 26.9 178.9 17.28 0.191
Merlin 18 3.47 1 3.47 170.5 9.5 179.9 17.35 0.169
Lark 30 2.92 7 2.92 201.4 46.9 248.3 20.44 0.144
Hawk 26 3.44 7 2.67 241.7 39.2 280.9 21.79 0.120
Dove 26 3.72 7 2.89 282.0 45.9 327.9 23.55 0.103
Teal 30 3.61 19 2.16 306.6 69.6 376.2 25.24 0.095
Swif t 36 3.38 1 3.38 322.3 9.0 331.2 23.62 0.089
Tern 45 3.38 7 2.25 402.8 27.8 430.7 27.03 0.072
Canary 54 3.28 7 3.28 456.1 59.1 515.2 29.52 0.064
Curlew 54 3.52 7 3.52 523.7 68.1 591.8 31.68 0.055
Finch 54 3.65 19 2.29 565.0 78.3 643.3 33.35 0.051
Bit t ern 45 4.27 7 2.85 644.5 44.7 689.2 34.17 0.045
Falcon 54 4.36 19 2.62 805.7 102.4 908.1 39.26 0.036
Kiwi 72 4.41 7 2.94 1100.0 47.5 1147.5 44.07 0.027
(a) t o ASTM B232
(b) t o BS 215.2
Tabl e 5.14: Overhead l i ne conduct or dat a - al umi ni um
conduct ors st eel rei nf orced (ACSR).
Overall R
DC
St randing
Wire Diamet er Diamet er (20C)
area (mm
2
)
(mm) (mm) (Ohm/km)
10.6 7 1.38 4.17 1.734
21.2 7 1.96 5.89 0.865
26.7 7 2.20 6.60 0.686
33.6 7 7.00 7.42 0.544
42.4 7 2.77 8.33 0.431
53.5 7 3.12 9.35 0.342
67.4 7 3.50 10.52 0.271
85.0 7 3.93 11.79 0.215
107.2 7 4.42 13.26 0.171
126.6 19 2.91 14.58 0.144
152.0 19 3.19 15.98 0.120
177.3 19 3.45 17.25 0.103
202.7 19 3.69 18.44 0.090
228.0 37 2.80 19.61 0.080
253.3 37 2.95 20.65 0.072
278.7 37 3.10 21.67 0.066
304.3 37 3.23 22.63 0.060
329.3 61 2.62 23.60 0.056
354.7 61 2.72 24.49 0.052
380.0 61 2.82 25.35 0.048
405.3 61 2.91 26.19 0.045
456.0 61 3.09 27.79 0.040
506.7 61 3.25 29.26 0.036
(a) ASTM St andards
Overall R
DC
St randing
Wire Diamet er Diamet er (20C)
area (mm
2
)
(mm) (mm) (Ohm/km)
11.0 1 3.73 3.25 1.617
13.0 1 4.06 4.06 1.365
14.0 1 4.22 4.22 1.269
14.5 7 1.63 4.88 1.231
16.1 1 4.52 4.52 1.103
18.9 1 4.90 4.90 0.938
23.4 1 5.46 5.46 0.756
32.2 1 6.40 6.40 0.549
38.4 7 2.64 7.92 0.466
47.7 7 2.95 8.84 0.375
65.6 7 3.45 10.36 0.273
70.1 1 9.45 9.45 0.252
97.7 7 4.22 12.65 0.183
129.5 19 2.95 14.73 0.139
132.1 7 4.90 14.71 0.135
164.0 7 5.46 16.38 0.109
165.2 19 3.33 16.64 0.109
(b) BS St andards
Tabl e 5.13: Overhead l i ne conduct or - hard drawn copper
(d) t o NF C34- 120
Tabl e 5.14: Overhead l i ne conduct or dat a - al umi ni um
conduct ors st eel rei nf orced (ACSR).
7 1
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DC
2
(mm
2
35/6 6 2.7 1 2.7 34.4 5.7 40.1 8.1 0.834
44/32 14 2 7 2.4 44.0 31.7 75.6 11.2 0.652
50/8 6 3.2 1 3.2 48.3 8.0 56.3 9.6 0.594
70/12 26 1.85 7 1.44 69.9 11.4 81.3 11.7 0.413
95/15 26 2.15 7 1.67 94.4 15.3 109.7 13.6 0.305
95/55 12 3.2 7 3.2 96.5 56.3 152.8 16 0.299
120/70 12 3.6 7 3.6 122.1 71.3 193.4 18 0.236
150/25 26 2.7 7 2.1 148.9 24.2 173.1 17.1 0.194
170/40 30 2.7 7 2.7 171.8 40.1 211.8 18.9 0.168
185/30 26 3 7 2.33 183.8 29.8 213.6 19 0.157
210/50 30 3 7 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.136
265/35 24 3.74 7 2.49 263.7 34.1 297.7 22.4 0.109
305/40 54 2.68 7 2.68 304.6 39.5 344.1 24.1 0.095
380/50 54 3 7 3 381.7 49.5 431.2 27 0.076
550/70 54 3.6 7 3.6 549.7 71.3 620.9 32.4 0.052
560/50 48 3.86 7 3 561.7 49.5 611.2 32.2 0.051
650/45 45 4.3 7 2.87 653.5 45.3 698.8 34.4 0.044
1045/45 72 4.3 7 2.87 1045.6 45.3 1090.9 43 0.028
St randing and wire Sect ional area Tot al Approxi. R
DC
2
(mm
2
CANNA 59.7 12 2 7 2 37.7 22.0 59.7 10 0.765
CANNA 75.5 12 2.25 7 2.25 47.7 27.8 75.5 11.25 0.604
CANNA 93.3 12 2.5 7 2.5 58.9 34.4 93.3 12.5 0.489
CANNA 116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306
CROCUS 116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306
CANNA 147.1 30 2.25 7 2.25 119.3 27.8 147.1 15.75 0.243
CROCUS 181.6 30 2.5 7 2.5 147.3 34.4 181.6 17.5 0.197
CROCUS 228 30 2.8 7 2.8 184.7 43.1 227.8 19.6 0.157
CROCUS 297 36 2.8 19 2.25 221.7 75.5 297.2 22.45 0.131
CANNA 288 30 3.15 7 3.15 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124
CROCUS 288 30 3.15 7 3.15 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124
CROCUS 412 32 3.6 19 2.4 325.7 86.0 411.7 26.4 0.089
CROCUS 612 66 3.13 19 2.65 507.8 104.8 612.6 32.03 0.057
CROCUS 865 66 3.72 19 3.15 717.3 148.1 865.4 38.01 0.040
(c) t o DIN 48204
No. Wire Sect ional Overall R
DC
St andard Designat ion of Al diamet er area diamet er at 20C
St rands (mm) (mm
2
) (mm) (Ohm/km)
BS 3242 Box 7 1.85 18.8 5.6 1.750
BS 3242 Acacia 7 2.08 23.8 6.2 1.384
BS 3242 Almond 7 2.34 30.1 7.0 1.094
BS 3242 Cedar 7 2.54 35.5 7.6 0.928
BS 3242 Fir 7 2.95 47.8 8.9 0.688
BS 3242 Hazel 7 3.3 59.9 9.9 0.550
BS 3242 Pine 7 3.61 71.6 10.8 0.460
BS 3242 Willow 7 4.04 89.7 12.1 0.367
BS 3242 - 7 4.19 96.5 12.6 0.341
BS 3242 - 7 4.45 108.9 13.4 0.302
BS 3242 Oak 7 4.65 118.9 14.0 0.277
BS 3242 Mullberry 19 3.18 150.9 15.9 0.219
BS 3242 Ash 19 3.48 180.7 17.4 0.183
BS 3242 Elm 19 3.76 211.0 18.8 0.157
BS 3242 Poplar 37 2.87 239.4 20.1 0.139
BS 3242 Sycamore 37 3.23 303.2 22.6 0.109
BS 3242 Upas 37 3.53 362.1 24.7 0.092
BS 3242 Yew 37 4.06 479.0 28.4 0.069
BS 3242 Tot ara 37 4.14 498.1 29.0 0.067
BS 3242 Rubus 61 3.5 586.9 31.5 0.057
BS 3242 Araucaria 61 4.14 821.1 28.4 0.040
DC
St andard Designat ion of Al diamet er area diamet er at 20C
St rands (mm) (mm
2
) (mm) (Ohm/km)
ASTM B- 397 Kench 7 2.67 39.2 8.0 0.838
ASTM B- 397 Kibe 7 3.37 62.4 10.1 0.526
ASTM B- 397 Kayak 7 3.78 78.6 11.4 0.418
ASTM B- 397 Kopeck 7 4.25 99.3 12.8 0.331
ASTM B- 397 Kit t le 7 4.77 125.1 14.3 0.262
ASTM B- 397 Radian 19 3.66 199.9 18.3 0.164
ASTM B- 397 Rede 19 3.78 212.6 18.9 0.155
ASTM B- 397 Ragout 19 3.98 236.4 19.9 0.140
ASTM B- 397 Rex 19 4.14 255.8 19.9 0.129
ASTM B- 397 Remex 19 4.36 283.7 21.8 0.116
ASTM B- 397 Ruble 19 4.46 296.8 22.4 0.111
ASTM B- 397 Rune 19 4.7 330.6 23.6 0.100
ASTM B- 397 Spar 37 3.6 376.6 25.2 0.087
ASTM B- 397 Solar 37 4.02 469.6 28.2 0.070
ASTM B- 399 - 19 3.686 202.7 18.4 0.165
ASTM B- 399 - 19 3.909 228.0 19.6 0.147
ASTM B- 399 - 19 4.12 253.3 20.6 0.132
ASTM B- 399 - 37 3.096 278.5 21.7 0.120
ASTM B- 399 - 37 3.233 303.7 22.6 0.110
ASTM B- 399 - 37 3.366 329.2 23.6 0.102
ASTM B- 399 - 37 3.493 354.6 24.5 0.094
ASTM B- 399 - 37 3.617 380.2 25.3 0.088
ASTM B- 399 - 37 3.734 405.2 26.1 0.083
ASTM B- 399 - 37 3.962 456.2 27.7 0.073
ASTM B- 399 - 37 4.176 506.8 29.2 0.066
(a) ASTM
(b) BS
Tabl e 5.15: Overhead l i ne conduct or dat a - al umi ni um al l oy.
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7 2
No. of Wire Sect ional Overall R
DC
St andard Designat ion Al diamet er area diamet er at 20C
St rands (mm) (mm
2
) (mm) (Ohm/km)
NF C34- 125 ASTER 22 7 2 22.0 6.0 1.497
NF C34- 125 ASTER 34- 4 7 2.5 34.4 7.5 0.958
NF C34- 125 ASTER 54- 6 7 3.15 54.6 9.5 0.604
NF C34- 125 ASTER 75- 5 19 2.25 75.5 11.3 0.438
NF C34- 125 ASTER 93,3 19 2.5 93.3 12.5 0.355
NF C34- 125 ASTER 117 19 2.8 117.0 14.0 0.283
NF C34- 125 ASTER 148 19 3.15 148.1 15.8 0.223
NF C34- 125 ASTER 181- 6 37 2.5 181.6 17.5 0.183
NF C34- 125 ASTER 228 37 2.8 227.8 19.6 0.146
NF C34- 125 ASTER 288 37 3.15 288.3 22.1 0.115
NF C34- 125 ASTER 366 37 3.55 366.2 24.9 0.091
NF C34- 125 ASTER 570 61 3.45 570.2 31.1 0.058
NF C34- 125 ASTER 851 91 3.45 850.7 38.0 0.039
NF C34- 125 ASTER 1144 91 4 1143.5 44.0 0.029
NF C34- 125 ASTER 1600 127 4 1595.9 52.0 0.021
No. of Wire Sect ional Overall R
DC
St andard Designat ion Al diamet er area diamet er at 20C
St rands (mm) (mm
2
) (mm) (Ohm/km)
DIN 48201 16 7 1.7 15.9 5.1 2.091
DIN 48201 25 7 2.1 24.3 6.3 1.370
DIN 48201 35 7 2.5 34.4 7.5 0.967
DIN 48201 50 19 1.8 48.4 9.0 0.690
DIN 48201 50 7 3 49.5 9.0 0.672
DIN 48201 70 19 2.1 65.8 10.5 0.507
DIN 48201 95 19 2.5 93.3 12.5 0.358
DIN 48201 120 19 2.8 117.0 14.0 0.285
DIN 48201 150 37 2.25 147.1 15.7 0.228
DIN 48201 185 37 2.5 181.6 17.5 0.184
DIN 48201 240 61 2.25 242.5 20.2 0.138
DIN 48201 300 61 2.5 299.4 22.5 0.112
DIN 48201 400 61 2.89 400.1 26.0 0.084
DIN 48201 500 61 3.23 499.8 29.1 0.067
DC
St andard Design. of Al diamet er area diamet er at 20C
St rands (mm) (mm
2
) (mm) (Ohm/km)
CSA C49.1- M87 10 7 1.45 11.5 4.3 2.863
CSA C49.1- M87 16 7 1.83 18.4 5.5 1.788
CSA C49.1- M87 25 7 2.29 28.8 6.9 1.142
CSA C49.1- M87 40 7 2.89 46.0 8.7 0.716
CSA C49.1- M87 63 7 3.63 72.5 10.9 0.454
CSA C49.1- M87 100 19 2.78 115.1 13.9 0.287
CSA C49.1- M87 125 19 3.1 143.9 15.5 0.230
CSA C49.1- M87 160 19 3.51 184.2 17.6 0.180
CSA C49.1- M87 200 19 3.93 230.2 19.6 0.144
CSA C49.1- M87 250 19 4.39 287.7 22.0 0.115
CSA C49.1- M87 315 37 3.53 362.1 24.7 0.092
CSA C49.1- M87 400 37 3.98 460.4 27.9 0.072
CSA C49.1- M87 450 37 4.22 517.9 29.6 0.064
CSA C49.1- M87 500 37 4.45 575.5 31.2 0.058
CSA C49.1- M87 560 37 4.71 644.5 33.0 0.051
CSA C49.1- M87 630 61 3.89 725.0 35.0 0.046
CSA C49.1- M87 710 61 4.13 817.2 37.2 0.041
CSA C49.1- M87 800 61 4.38 920.8 39.5 0.036
CSA C49.1- M87 900 61 4.65 1035.8 41.9 0.032
CSA C49.1- M87 1000 91 4.01 1150.9 44.1 0.029
CSA C49.1- M87 1120 91 4.25 1289.1 46.7 0.026
CSA C49.1- M87 1250 91 4.49 1438.7 49.4 0.023
CSA C49.1- M87 1400 91 4.75 1611.3 52.2 0.021
CSA C49.1- M87 1500 91 4.91 1726.4 54.1 0.019
(c) CSA
(d) DIN
(e) NF
Tabl e 5.15 (cont ): Overhead l i ne conduct or dat a - al umi ni um al l oy.
7 3
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St randing and wire Sect ional area
St andard Designat ion
diamet er (mm) (mm
2
)
Alloy St eel Alloy St eel
NF C34- 125 PHLOX 116.2 18 2 19 2 56.5 59.7 116.2 14 0.591
NF C34- 125 PHLOX 147.1 18 2.25 19 2.25 71.6 75.5 147.1 15.75 0.467
NF C34- 125 PASTEL 147.1 30 2.25 7 2.25 119.3 27.8 147.1 15.75 0.279
NF C34- 125 PHLOX 181.6 18 2.5 19 2.5 88.4 93.3 181.6 17.5 0.378
NF C34- 125 PASTEL 181.6 30 2.5 7 2.5 147.3 34.4 181.6 17.5 0.226
NF C34- 125 PHLOX 228 18 2.8 19 2.8 110.8 117.0 227.8 19.6 0.300
NF C34- 125 PASTEL 228 30 2.8 7 2.8 184.7 43.1 227.8 19.6 0.180
NF C34- 125 PHLOX 288 18 3.15 19 3.15 140.3 148.1 288.3 22.05 0.238
NF C34- 125 PASTEL 288 30 3.15 7 3.15 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.142
NF C34- 125 PASTEL 299 42 2.5 19 2.5 206.2 93.3 299.4 22.45 0.162
NF C34- 125 PHLOX 376 24 2.8 37 2.8 147.8 227.8 375.6 26.4 0.226
diamet er (mm) (mm
2
)
DIN 48206 70/12 26 1.85 7 1.44 69.9 11.4 81.3 11.7 0.479
DIN 48206 95/15 26 2.15 7 1.67 94.4 15.3 109.7 13.6 0.355
DIN 48206 125/30 30 2.33 7 2.33 127.9 29.8 157.8 16.3 0.262
DIN 48206 150/25 26 2.7 7 2.1 148.9 24.2 173.1 17.1 0.225
DIN 48206 170/40 30 2.7 7 2.7 171.8 40.1 211.8 18.9 0.195
DIN 48206 185/30 26 3 7 2.33 183.8 29.8 213.6 19 0.182
DIN 48206 210/50 30 3 7 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.158
DIN 48206 230/30 24 3.5 7 2.33 230.9 29.8 260.8 21 0.145
DIN 48206 265/35 24 3.74 7 2.49 263.7 34.1 297.7 22.4 0.127
DIN 48206 305/40 54 2.68 7 2.68 304.6 39.5 344.1 24.1 0.110
DIN 48206 380/50 54 3 7 3 381.7 49.5 431.2 27 0.088
DIN 48206 450/40 48 3.45 7 2.68 448.7 39.5 488.2 28.7 0.075
DIN 48206 560/50 48 3.86 7 3 561.7 49.5 611.2 32.2 0.060
DIN 48206 680/85 54 4 19 2.4 678.6 86.0 764.5 36 0.049
(b) DIN
(c) NF
Tabl e 5.16: Overhead l i ne conduct or dat a al umi ni um
al l oy conduct ors, st eel re- i nf orced (AACSR)
diamet er (mm) (mm
2
)
ASTM B711 26 2.62 7 2.04 140.2 22.9 163.1 7.08 0.240
ASTM B711 26 2.97 7 2.31 180.1 29.3 209.5 11.08 0.187
ASTM B711 30 2.76 7 2.76 179.5 41.9 221.4 12.08 0.188
ASTM B711 26 3.13 7 2.43 200.1 32.5 232.5 13.08 0.168
ASTM B711 30 3.08 7 3.08 223.5 52.2 275.7 16.08 0.151
ASTM B711 26 3.5 7 2.72 250.1 40.7 290.8 17.08 0.135
ASTM B711 26 3.7 7 2.88 279.6 45.6 325.2 19.08 0.120
ASTM B711 30 3.66 19 2.2 315.6 72.2 387.9 22.08 0.107
ASTM B711 30 3.88 19 2.33 354.7 81.0 435.7 24.08 0.095
ASTM B711 30 4.12 19 2.47 399.9 91.0 491.0 26.08 0.084
ASTM B711 54 3.26 19 1.98 450.7 58.5 509.2 27.08 0.075
ASTM B711 54 3.63 19 2.18 558.9 70.9 629.8 29.08 0.060
ASTM B711 54 3.85 19 2.31 628.6 79.6 708.3 30.08 0.054
ASTM B711 54 4.34 19 2.6 798.8 100.9 899.7 32.08 0.042
ASTM B711 84 4.12 19 2.47 1119.9 91.0 1210.9 35.08 0.030
ASTM B711 84 4.35 19 2.61 1248.4 101.7 1350.0 36.08 0.027
(a) ASTM
Tot al
area
(mm
2
)
Approximat e
overall diamet er
(mm)
R
DC
at 20 C
(ohm/km)
Tot al
area
(mm
2
)
Approximat e
overall diamet er
(mm)
R
DC
at 20 C
(ohm/km)
Tot al
area
(mm
2
)
Approximat e
overall diamet er
(mm)
R
DC
at 20 C
(ohm/km)
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7 4
X
AC
at 50 Hz X
AC
at 50 Hz and shunt capacit ance
66kV 132kV
Sect ional R
DC
R
AC
at 3.3kV 6.6kV 11kV 22kV 33kV Flat Double Triangle Double Double Flat
area of (20C) 50Hz circuit vert ical vert ical t riangle circuit
aluminium @ 20C
X C X C X C X C X C X C X C
mm
2
/km /km /km /km /km /km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km
13.3 2.1586 2.159 0.395 0.409 0.420 0.434 0.445 8.7 0.503 7.6 0.513 7.4 0.520 7.3 0.541 7.0 0.528 7.2 0.556 6.8
15.3 1.8771 1.877 0.391 0.405 0.415 0.429 0.441 8.8 0.499 7.7 0.508 7.5 0.515 7.4 0.537 7.1 0.523 7.3 0.552 6.9
21.2 1.3557 1.356 0.381 0.395 0.405 0.419 0.430 9.0 0.488 7.8 0.498 7.7 0.505 7.6 0.527 7.2 0.513 7.4 0.542 7.0
23.9 1.2013 1.201 0.376 0.390 0.401 0.415 0.426 9.1 0.484 7.9 0.494 7.8 0.501 7.6 0.522 7.3 0.509 7.5 0.537 7.1
26.2 1.0930 1.093 0.374 0.388 0.398 0.412 0.424 9.2 0.482 8.0 0.491 7.8 0.498 7.7 0.520 7.3 0.506 7.5 0.535 7.1
28.3 1.0246 1.025 0.352 0.366 0.377 0.391 0.402 9.4 0.460 8.2 0.470 8.0 0.477 7.8 0.498 7.5 0.485 7.7 0.513 7.3
33.6 0.8535 0.854 0.366 0.380 0.390 0.404 0.416 9.4 0.474 8.1 0.484 7.9 0.491 7.8 0.512 7.5 0.499 7.7 0.527 7.2
37.7 0.7647 0.765 0.327 0.341 0.351 0.365 0.376 9.7 0.435 8.4 0.444 8.2 0.451 8.1 0.473 7.7 0.459 7.9 0.488 7.4
42.4 0.6768 0.677 0.359 0.373 0.383 0.397 0.409 9.6 0.467 8.3 0.476 8.1 0.483 7.9 0.505 7.6 0.491 7.8 0.520 7.3
44.0 0.6516 0.652 0.320 0.334 0.344 0.358 0.369 9.9 0.427 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.444 8.2 0.465 7.8 0.452 8.0 0.481 7.5
47.7 0.6042 0.604 0.319 0.333 0.344 0.358 0.369 9.9 0.427 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.444 8.2 0.465 7.8 0.452 8.1 0.480 7.6
51.2 0.5634 0.564 0.317 0.331 0.341 0.355 0.367 10.0 0.425 8.6 0.434 8.4 0.441 8.2 0.463 7.9 0.449 8.1 0.478 7.6
58.9 0.4894 0.490 0.313 0.327 0.337 0.351 0.362 10.1 0.421 8.7 0.430 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.459 7.9 0.445 8.2 0.474 7.7
63.1 0.4545 0.455 0.346 0.360 0.371 0.385 0.396 9.9 0.454 8.5 0.464 8.3 0.471 8.2 0.492 7.8 0.479 8.0 0.507 7.5
67.4 0.4255 0.426 0.344 0.358 0.369 0.383 0.394 10.0 0.452 8.5 0.462 8.3 0.469 8.2 0.490 7.8 0.477 8.1 0.505 7.6
73.4 0.3930 0.393 0.306 0.320 0.330 0.344 0.356 10.3 0.414 8.8 0.423 8.6 0.430 8.5 0.452 8.1 0.438 8.3 0.467 7.8
79.2 0.3622 0.362 0.339 0.353 0.363 0.377 0.389 10.1 0.447 8.7 0.457 8.4 0.464 8.3 0.485 7.9 0.472 8.2 0.500 7.6
85.0 0.3374 0.338 0.337 0.351 0.361 0.375 0.387 10.2 0.445 8.7 0.454 8.5 0.461 8.4 0.483 7.9 0.469 8.2 0.498 7.7
94.4 0.3054 0.306 0.302 0.316 0.327 0.341 0.352 10.3 0.410 8.8 0.420 8.6 0.427 8.4 0.448 8.0 0.435 8.3 0.463 7.8
105.0 0.2733 0.274 0.330 0.344 0.355 0.369 0.380 10.4 0.438 8.8 0.448 8.6 0.455 8.5 0.476 8.1 0.463 8.3 0.491 7.8
121.6 0.2371 0.237 0.294 0.308 0.318 0.332 0.344 10.6 0.402 9.0 0.412 8.8 0.419 8.6 0.440 8.2 0.427 8.4 0.455 7.9
127.9 0.2254 0.226 0.290 0.304 0.314 0.328 0.340 10.7 0.398 9.0 0.407 8.8 0.414 8.7 0.436 8.2 0.422 8.5 0.451 8.0
131.2 0.2197 0.220 0.289 0.303 0.313 0.327 0.339 10.7 0.397 9.1 0.407 8.8 0.414 8.7 0.435 8.3 0.421 8.5 0.450 8.0
135.2 0.2133 0.214 0.297 0.311 0.322 0.336 0.347 10.5 0.405 9.0 0.415 8.8 0.422 8.6 0.443 8.2 0.430 8.4 0.458 7.9
148.9 0.1937 0.194 0.288 0.302 0.312 0.326 0.338 10.8 0.396 9.1 0.406 8.9 0.413 8.7 0.434 8.3 0.420 8.6 0.449 8.0
158.7 0.1814 0.182 0.292 0.306 0.316 0.330 0.342 10.7 0.400 9.1 0.410 8.9 0.417 8.7 0.438 8.3 0.425 8.5 0.453 8.0
170.5 0.1691 0.170 0.290 0.304 0.314 0.328 0.340 10.8 0.398 9.1 0.407 8.9 0.414 8.8 0.436 8.3 0.422 8.6 0.451 8.0
184.2 0.1565 0.157 0.287 0.302 0.312 0.326 0.337 10.9 0.395 9.2 0.405 9.0 0.412 8.8 0.433 8.4 0.420 8.6 0.449 8.1
201.4 0.1438 0.144 0.280 0.294 0.304 0.318 0.330 11.0 0.388 9.3 0.398 9.1 0.405 8.9 0.426 8.5 0.412 8.8 0.441 8.2
210.6 0.1366 0.137 0.283 0.297 0.308 0.322 0.333 11.0 0.391 9.3 0.401 9.1 0.408 8.9 0.429 8.4 0.416 8.7 0.444 8.1
221.7 0.1307 0.131 0.274 0.288 0.298 0.312 0.323 11.3 0.381 9.5 0.391 9.3 0.398 9.1 0.419 8.6 0.406 8.9 0.435 8.3
230.9 0.1249 0.126 0.276 0.290 0.300 0.314 0.326 11.2 0.384 9.4 0.393 9.2 0.400 9.0 0.422 8.6 0.408 8.9 0.437 8.3
241.7 0.1193 0.120 0.279 0.293 0.303 0.317 0.329 11.2 0.387 9.4 0.396 9.2 0.403 9.0 0.425 8.5 0.411 8.8 0.440 8.2
263.7 0.1093 0.110 0.272 0.286 0.296 0.310 0.321 11.3 0.380 9.5 0.389 9.3 0.396 9.1 0.418 8.6 0.404 8.9 0.433 8.3
282.0 0.1022 0.103 0.274 0.288 0.298 0.312 0.324 11.3 0.382 9.5 0.392 9.3 0.399 9.1 0.420 8.6 0.406 8.9 0.435 8.3
306.6 0.0945 0.095 0.267 0.281 0.291 0.305 0.317 11.5 0.375 9.7 0.384 9.4 0.391 9.2 0.413 8.7 0.399 9.1 0.428 8.4
322.3 0.0895 0.090 0.270 0.284 0.294 0.308 0.320 11.5 0.378 9.6 0.387 9.4 0.394 9.2 0.416 8.7 0.402 9.0 0.431 8.4
339.3 0.085 0.086 0.265 0.279 0.289 0.303 0.315 11.6 0.373 9.7 0.383 9.5 0.390 9.3 0.411 8.8 0.398 9.1 0.426 8.5
362.6 0.0799 0.081 0.262 0.276 0.286 0.300 0.311 11.7 0.369 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.386 9.4 0.408 8.9 0.394 9.2 0.423 8.5
386.0 0.0747 0.076 0.261 0.275 0.285 0.299 0.311 11.8 0.369 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.386 9.4 0.407 8.9 0.393 9.2 0.422 8.6
402.8 0.0719 0.073 0.261 0.275 0.285 0.299 0.310 11.8 0.368 9.9 0.378 9.6 0.385 9.4 0.407 8.9 0.393 9.2 0.422 8.6
428.9 0.0671 0.068 0.267 0.281 0.291 0.305 0.316 11.5 0.374 9.7 0.384 9.4 0.391 9.2 0.413 8.7 0.399 9.0 0.428 8.4
448.7 0.0642 0.066 0.257 0.271 0.281 0.295 0.306 11.9 0.364 10.0 0.374 9.7 0.381 9.5 0.402 9.0 0.389 9.3 0.418 8.7
456.1 0.0635 0.065 0.257 0.271 0.281 0.295 0.307 12.0 0.365 10.0 0.374 9.7 0.381 9.5 0.403 9.0 0.389 9.3 0.418 8.7
483.4 0.0599 0.061 0.255 0.269 0.279 0.293 0.305 12.0 0.363 10.0 0.372 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.401 9.0 0.387 9.4 0.416 8.7
494.4 0.0583 0.060 0.254 0.268 0.279 0.293 0.304 12.1 0.362 10.0 0.372 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.400 9.0 0.387 9.4 0.415 8.7
510.5 0.0565 0.058 0.252 0.266 0.277 0.291 0.302 12.1 0.360 10.1 0.370 9.8 0.377 9.6 0.398 9.1 0.385 9.4 0.413 8.7
523.7 0.0553 0.057 0.252 0.266 0.277 0.291 0.302 12.1 0.360 10.1 0.370 9.8 0.377 9.6 0.398 9.1 0.385 9.4 0.413 8.7
Tabl e 5.17: Feeder ci rcui t s dat a - overhead l i nes
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X
AC
at 60 Hz X
AC
at 60 Hz and shunt capacit ance
66kV 132kV
Sect ional R
DC
R
AC
at 3.3kV 6.6kV 11kV 22kV 33kV Flat Double Triangle Double Double Flat
area of (20C) 60Hz circuit vert ical vert ical t riangle circuit
aluminium @ 20C
X C X C X C X C X C X C X C
mm
2
/km /km /km /km /km /km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km
13.3 2.1586 2.159 0.474 0.491 0.503 0.520 0.534 8.7 0.604 7.6 0.615 7.4 0.624 7.3 0.649 7.0 0.633 7.2 0.668 6.8
15.3 1.8771 1.877 0.469 0.486 0.498 0.515 0.529 8.8 0.598 7.7 0.610 7.5 0.619 7.4 0.644 7.1 0.628 7.3 0.662 6.9
21.2 1.3557 1.356 0.457 0.474 0.486 0.503 0.516 9.0 0.586 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.606 7.6 0.632 7.2 0.616 7.4 0.650 7.0
23.9 1.2013 1.201 0.452 0.469 0.481 0.498 0.511 9.1 0.581 7.9 0.593 7.8 0.601 7.6 0.627 7.3 0.611 7.5 0.645 7.1
26.2 1.0930 1.093 0.449 0.466 0.478 0.495 0.508 9.2 0.578 8.0 0.590 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.624 7.3 0.608 7.5 0.642 7.1
28.3 1.0246 1.025 0.423 0.440 0.452 0.469 0.483 9.4 0.552 8.2 0.564 8.0 0.572 7.8 0.598 7.5 0.582 7.7 0.616 7.3
33.6 0.8535 0.854 0.439 0.456 0.468 0.485 0.499 9.4 0.569 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.589 7.8 0.614 7.5 0.598 7.7 0.633 7.2
37.7 0.7647 0.765 0.392 0.409 0.421 0.438 0.452 9.7 0.521 8.4 0.533 8.2 0.541 8.1 0.567 7.7 0.551 7.9 0.585 7.4
42.4 0.6768 0.677 0.431 0.447 0.460 0.477 0.490 9.6 0.560 8.3 0.572 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.606 7.6 0.589 7.8 0.624 7.3
44.0 0.6516 0.652 0.384 0.400 0.413 0.429 0.443 9.9 0.513 8.5 0.525 8.3 0.533 8.2 0.559 7.8 0.542 8.0 0.577 7.5
47.7 0.6042 0.604 0.383 0.400 0.412 0.429 0.443 9.9 0.513 8.5 0.524 8.3 0.533 8.2 0.558 7.8 0.542 8.1 0.576 7.6
51.2 0.5634 0.564 0.380 0.397 0.409 0.426 0.440 10.0 0.510 8.6 0.521 8.4 0.530 8.2 0.555 7.9 0.539 8.1 0.573 7.6
58.9 0.4894 0.490 0.375 0.392 0.404 0.421 0.435 10.1 0.505 8.7 0.516 8.5 0.525 8.3 0.550 7.9 0.534 8.2 0.568 7.7
63.1 0.4545 0.455 0.416 0.432 0.445 0.462 0.475 9.9 0.545 8.5 0.557 8.3 0.565 8.2 0.591 7.8 0.574 8.0 0.609 7.5
67.4 0.4255 0.426 0.413 0.430 0.442 0.459 0.473 10.0 0.543 8.5 0.554 8.3 0.563 8.2 0.588 7.8 0.572 8.1 0.606 7.6
73.4 0.3930 0.393 0.367 0.384 0.396 0.413 0.427 10.3 0.496 8.8 0.508 8.6 0.516 8.5 0.542 8.1 0.526 8.3 0.560 7.8
79.2 0.3622 0.362 0.407 0.424 0.436 0.453 0.467 10.1 0.536 8.7 0.548 8.4 0.556 8.3 0.582 7.9 0.566 8.2 0.600 7.6
85.0 0.3374 0.338 0.404 0.421 0.433 0.450 0.464 10.2 0.534 8.7 0.545 8.5 0.554 8.4 0.579 7.9 0.563 8.2 0.598 7.7
94.4 0.3054 0.306 0.363 0.380 0.392 0.409 0.423 10.3 0.492 8.8 0.504 8.6 0.512 8.4 0.538 8.0 0.522 8.3 0.556 7.8
105.0 0.2733 0.274 0.396 0.413 0.426 0.442 0.456 10.4 0.526 8.8 0.537 8.6 0.546 8.5 0.572 8.1 0.555 8.3 0.590 7.8
121.6 0.2371 0.238 0.353 0.370 0.382 0.399 0.413 10.6 0.482 9.0 0.494 8.8 0.502 8.6 0.528 8.2 0.512 8.4 0.546 7.9
127.9 0.2254 0.226 0.348 0.365 0.377 0.394 0.408 10.7 0.477 9.0 0.489 8.8 0.497 8.7 0.523 8.2 0.507 8.5 0.541 8.0
131.2 0.2197 0.220 0.347 0.364 0.376 0.393 0.407 10.7 0.476 9.1 0.488 8.8 0.496 8.7 0.522 8.3 0.506 8.5 0.540 8.0
135.2 0.2133 0.214 0.357 0.374 0.386 0.403 0.416 10.5 0.486 9.0 0.498 8.8 0.506 8.6 0.532 8.2 0.516 8.4 0.550 7.9
148.9 0.1937 0.194 0.346 0.362 0.375 0.392 0.405 10.8 0.475 9.1 0.487 8.9 0.495 8.7 0.521 8.3 0.504 8.6 0.539 8.0
158.7 0.1814 0.182 0.351 0.367 0.380 0.397 0.410 10.7 0.480 9.1 0.492 8.9 0.500 8.7 0.526 8.3 0.509 8.5 0.544 8.0
170.5 0.1691 0.170 0.348 0.365 0.377 0.394 0.408 10.8 0.477 9.1 0.489 8.9 0.497 8.8 0.523 8.3 0.507 8.6 0.541 8.0
184.2 0.1565 0.157 0.345 0.362 0.374 0.391 0.405 10.9 0.474 9.2 0.486 9.0 0.494 8.8 0.520 8.4 0.504 8.6 0.538 8.1
201.4 0.1438 0.145 0.336 0.353 0.365 0.382 0.396 11.0 0.466 9.3 0.477 9.1 0.486 8.9 0.511 8.5 0.495 8.8 0.529 8.2
210.6 0.1366 0.137 0.340 0.357 0.369 0.386 0.400 11.0 0.469 9.3 0.481 9.1 0.489 8.9 0.515 8.4 0.499 8.7 0.533 8.1
221.7 0.1307 0.132 0.328 0.345 0.357 0.374 0.388 11.3 0.458 9.5 0.469 9.3 0.478 9.1 0.503 8.6 0.487 8.9 0.522 8.3
230.9 0.1249 0.126 0.331 0.348 0.360 0.377 0.391 11.2 0.460 9.4 0.472 9.2 0.480 9.0 0.506 8.6 0.490 8.9 0.524 8.3
241.7 0.1193 0.120 0.335 0.351 0.364 0.381 0.394 11.2 0.464 9.4 0.476 9.2 0.484 9.0 0.510 8.5 0.493 8.8 0.528 8.2
263.7 0.1093 0.110 0.326 0.343 0.355 0.372 0.386 11.3 0.455 9.5 0.467 9.3 0.476 9.1 0.501 8.6 0.485 8.9 0.519 8.3
282.0 0.1022 0.103 0.329 0.346 0.358 0.375 0.389 11.3 0.458 9.5 0.470 9.3 0.478 9.1 0.504 8.6 0.488 8.9 0.522 8.3
306.6 0.0945 0.096 0.320 0.337 0.349 0.366 0.380 11.5 0.450 9.7 0.461 9.4 0.470 9.2 0.495 8.7 0.479 9.1 0.514 8.4
322.3 0.0895 0.091 0.324 0.341 0.353 0.370 0.384 11.5 0.453 9.6 0.465 9.4 0.473 9.2 0.499 8.7 0.483 9.0 0.517 8.4
339.3 0.0850 0.086 0.318 0.335 0.347 0.364 0.378 11.6 0.448 9.7 0.459 9.5 0.468 9.3 0.493 8.8 0.477 9.1 0.511 8.5
362.6 0.0799 0.081 0.314 0.331 0.343 0.360 0.374 11.7 0.443 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.463 9.4 0.489 8.9 0.473 9.2 0.507 8.5
386.0 0.0747 0.076 0.313 0.330 0.342 0.359 0.373 11.8 0.443 9.8 0.454 9.6 0.463 9.4 0.488 8.9 0.472 9.2 0.506 8.6
402.8 0.0719 0.074 0.313 0.330 0.342 0.359 0.372 11.8 0.442 9.9 0.454 9.6 0.462 9.4 0.488 8.9 0.472 9.2 0.506 8.6
428.9 0.0671 0.069 0.320 0.337 0.349 0.366 0.380 11.5 0.449 9.7 0.461 9.4 0.469 9.2 0.495 8.7 0.479 9.0 0.513 8.4
448.7 0.0642 0.066 0.308 0.325 0.337 0.354 0.367 11.9 0.437 10.0 0.449 9.7 0.457 9.5 0.483 9.0 0.467 9.3 0.501 8.7
456.1 0.0635 0.065 0.305 0.322 0.334 0.351 0.364 12.0 0.434 10.0 0.446 9.7 0.454 9.6 0.480 9.0 0.463 9.4 0.498 8.7
483.4 0.0599 0.062 0.306 0.323 0.335 0.352 0.366 12.0 0.435 10.0 0.447 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.481 9.0 0.465 9.4 0.499 8.7
494.4 0.0583 0.060 0.305 0.322 0.334 0.351 0.365 12.1 0.435 10.0 0.446 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.480 9.0 0.464 9.4 0.498 8.7
510.5 0.0565 0.059 0.303 0.320 0.332 0.349 0.362 12.1 0.432 10.1 0.444 9.8 0.452 9.6 0.478 9.1 0.462 9.4 0.496 8.7
523.7 0.0553 0.057 0.303 0.320 0.332 0.349 0.363 12.1 0.432 10.1 0.444 9.8 0.452 9.6 0.478 9.1 0.462 9.4 0.496 8.7
Tabl e 5.17 (cont ): Feeder ci rcui t s dat a - overhead l i nes
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Conductor size mm
2
25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400 *500 *630 *800 *1000 *1200 *1600
Series Resistance R (/km) 0.927 0.669 0.494 0.342 0.247 0.196 0.158 0.127 0.098 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.042
3.3kV Series Reactance X (/km) 0.097 0.092 0.089 0.083 0.08 0.078 0.076 0.075 0.073 0.072 0.071 0.088 0.086
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.059 0.067 0.079 0.09 0.104 0.111 0.122 0.133 0.146 0.16 0.179 0.19 0.202
6.6kV Series Reactance X (/km) 0.121 0.113 0.108 0.102 0.096 0.093 0.091 0.088 0.086 0.085 0.083 0.088 0.086
11kV Series Reactance X (/km) 0.128 0.119 0.114 0.107 0.101 0.098 0.095 0.092 0.089 0.087 0.084 0.089 0.086
Series Resistance R (/km) - 0.669 0.494 0.348 0.247 0.196 0.158 0.127 0.098 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.042
22kV Series Reactance X (/km) - 0.136 0.129 0.121 0.114 0.11 0.107 0.103 0.1 0.094 0.091 0.096 0.093
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.053 0.057 0.065 0.072 0.078 0.084 0.091 0.1 0.109 0.12 0.128 0.141
Series Resistance R (/km) - 0.669 0.494 0.348 0.247 0.196 0.158 0.127 0.098 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.042
33kV Series Reactance X (/km) - 0.15 0.143 0.134 0.127 0.122 0.118 0.114 0.109 0.105 0.102 0.103 0.1
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.042 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.059 0.063 0.068 0.075 0.081 0.089 0.094 0.103
Series Resistance R (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0387 0.031 0.0254 0.0215
66kV* Series Reactance X (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.117 0.113 0.109 0.102
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.079 0.082 0.088 0.11
Series Resistance R (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0387 0.031 0.0254 0.0215
145kV* Series Reactance X (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.13 0.125 0.12 0.115
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.053 0.06 0.063 0.072
Series Resistance R (/km) 0.0487 0.0387 0.0310 0.0254 0.0215 0.0161 0.0126
245kV* Series Reactance X (/km) 0.145 0.137 0.134 0.128 0.123 0.119 0.113
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.044 0.047 0.05 0.057 0.057 0.063 0.072
Series Resistance R (/km) 0.0310 0.0254 0.0215 0.0161 0.0126
420kV* Series Reactance X (/km) 0.172 0.162 0.156 0.151 0.144
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.04 0.047 0.05 0.057 0.063
For aluminium conductors of the same cross-section, the resistance increases by 60-65 percent, the series reactance and shunt capacitance is virtually unaltered.* - single core cables in trefoil.
Different values apply if laid in spaced flat formation.
Series Resistance - a.c. resistance @ 90C. Series reactance - equivalent star reactance.
Data for 245kV and 420kV cables may vary significantly from that given, dependent on manufacturer and construction.
Table 5.18: Characteristics of polyethylene
insulated cables (XLPE)
Conductor Size (mm
2
)
10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400 *500 *630 *800 *1000
Series Resistance R (/km) 2063 1289 825.5 595 439.9 304.9 220.4 174.5 142.3 113.9 87.6 70.8 56.7 45.5 37.1 31.2 27.2
3.3kV Series Reactance X (/km) 87.7 83.6 76.7 74.8 72.5 70.2 67.5 66.6 65.7 64.7 63.8 62.9 62.4 73.5 72.1 71.2 69.8
Susceptance C (mS/km)
Series Resistance R (/km) 514.2 326 206.4 148.8 110 76.2 55.1 43.6 35.6 28.5 21.9 17.6 14.1 11.3 9.3 7.8 6.7
6.6kV Series Reactance X (/km) 26.2 24.3 22 21.2 20.4 19.6 18.7 18.3 17.9 17.6 17.1 16.9 16.5 18.8 18.4 18 17.8
Series Resistance R (/km) - 111 0.87 0.63 0.46 0.32 0.23 0.184 0.15 0.12 0.092 0.074 0.059 0.048 0.039 0.033 0.028
11kV Series Reactance X (/km) - 9.26 0.107 0.1 0.096 0.091 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.08
Series Resistance R (/km) - - 17.69 12.75 9.42 6.53 4.71 3.74 3.04 2.44 1.87 1.51 1.21 0.96 0.79 0.66 0.57
22kV Series Reactance X (/km) - - 2.89 2.71 2.6 2.46 2.36 2.25 2.19 2.11 2.04 1.97 1.92 1.9 1.84 1.8 1.76
Series Resistance R (/km) - - - - 4.19 2.9 2.09 0.181 0.147 0.118 0.09 0.073 0.058 0.046 0.038 0.031 0.027
33kV Series Reactance X (/km) - - - - 1.16 1.09 1.03 0.107 0.103 0.101 0.097 0.094 0.09 0.098 0.097 0.092 0.089
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.104 0.116 0.124 0.194 0.151 0.281 0.179 0.198 0.22 0.245
Cables are of the solid type, 3 core except for those marked *. Impedances at 50Hz frequency
Table 5.19: Characteristics of paper insulated cables

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5 . 2 5 REFEREN CES
5.1 Physi cal si gni f i cance of sub- subt r ansi ent
quant i t i es i n dynami c behavi our of synchronous
machi nes. I.M. Canay. Proc. IEE, Vol . 135, Pt . B,
November 1988.
5.2 I EC 60034- 4. Met hods f or det er mi ni ng
synchronous machi ne quant i t i es f rom t est s.
5.3 IEEE St andards 115/ 115A. IEEE Test Procedures
f or Synchronous Machi nes.
5.4 Power Syst em Anal ysi s. J.R.Mor t l ock and
M.W.Humphr ey Davi es (Chapman & Hal l ,
London).
Conduct or size (mm
2
)
3.3kV
R /km X /km
16 1.380 0.106
25 0.870 0.100
35 0.627 0.094
50 0.463 0.091
70 0.321 0.086
95 0.232 0.084
120 0.184 0.081
150 0.150 0.079
185 0.121 0.077
240 0.093 0.076
300 0.075 0.075
400 0.060 0.075
*500 0.049 0.089
*630 0.041 0.086
*800 0.035 0.086
*1000 0.030 0.084
3 core Copper conduct ors, 50Hz values.
* - single core cables in t ref oil
Tabl e 5.20: 3.3 kV PVC i nsul at ed cabl es
Tabl e 5.21: OHL capabi l i t i es
Volt age Level
Surge Impedance Volt age Drop Indicat ive Thermal
Cross Sect ional Conduct ors
Loading Loading Loading
U
n
kV U
m
kV
Area mm
2
per phase
MVA MWkm MVA A
30 1 0.3 11 2.9 151
50 1 0.3 17 3.9 204
11 12 90 1 0.4 23 5.1 268
120 1 0.5 27 6.2 328
150 1 0.5 30 7.3 383
1 1.2 44 5.8 151
50 1 1.2 66 7.8 204
24 30 90 1 1.2 92 10.2 268
120 1 1.4 106 12.5 328
150 1 1.5 119 14.6 383
50 1 2.7 149 11.7 204
33 36
90 1 2.7 207 15.3 268
120 1 3.1 239 18.7 328
150 1 3.5 267 21.9 383
90 1 11 827 41 268
66 72.5
150 1 11 1068 59 383
250 1 11 1240 77 502
250 2 15 1790 153 1004
150 1 44 4070 85 370
250 1 44 4960 115 502
132 145 250 2 58 7160 230 1004
400 1 56 6274 160 698
400 2 73 9057 320 1395
400 1 130 15600 247 648
220 245 400 2 184 22062 494 1296
400 4 260 31200 988 2592
400 2 410 58100 850 1296
380 420
400 4 582 82200 1700 2590
550 2 482 68200 1085 1650
550 3 540 81200 1630 2475

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters Ofpower System Plant

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Equivalent Circuits and Parameters Ofpower System Plant

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Int roduct ion 5.

The damper wi ndi ng(s) i s subj ect ed t o t he f ul l ef f ect of

p/f where p i s eart h resi st i vi t y (ohms/ cm

Fi gure 5.15: Transmi ssi on ci rcui t equi val ent s

ABC, and gi vi ng t he di st ance of each

3E i s t he vol t age bet ween phases and 2Z i s t he

Tabl e 5.12: GMR f or al umi ni um conduct or st eel

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