1

Chng 1
C S TON V
CC K THUT CHNG MINH
2
1. C s ton
1.1 Logic
1.2 Tp hp
1.3 Hm
2. Gii thiu v chng minh hnh thc
2.1 Phng php chng minh suy din
2.2 Cc dng chng minh bng phng php suy din
2.3 Cc dng chng minh b sung
3. Chng minh qui np
3.1 Nguyn l th nht ca qui np ton hc
3.2 Nguyn l th hai ca qui np ton hc
3.3 Chng minh qui np c cu trc
3.4 Chng minh qui np tng h
4. Gii thiu l thuyt automata
4.1 Bng ch ci
4.2 Chui
4.3 Ngn ng
4.4 Bi ton
3
C s ton
4
Logic
Mnh : L mt pht biu ch ng (T) hoc sai
(F), khng th va ng, va sai.
Cc php ton logic:
Giao (.)
Hi (v)
Tuyn loi ()
Ko theo ()
Tng ng ()
Ph nh ()
5
Bng chn tr v quan h gia cc mnh
T T F F F F F
F T T T F T F
F F T T F F T
T T F T T T T
v . q p
Tng
ng
Ko
theo
Tuyn
loi
Hi Giao Mnh
6
Php ko theo p q:
Mnh p gi l gi thit.
Mnh q gi l kt lun.
Cc pht biu:
Nu p th q.
p ko theo q.
q vi iu kin l p.

7
Php tng ng p q:
(p q) . (q p)
Cc pht biu:
p nu v ch nu q
p l cn v i vi q
Nu p th q v ngc li
8
Tng ng logic ()
Hai mnh p v q gi l tng ng logic
(p q) nu p q l ng (T).
9
Chng minh
T T T T F F F
F F T F T T F
F T F F T F T
F F F F T T T
p v q q p
q p q p . v ) (
) ( q p v p q q p .
10
Bng cc tng ng logic
p v (q . r) (p v q) . (p v r)
p . (q v r) (p . q) v (p . r)
Lut phn phi
(p v q) v r p v (q v r)
(p . q) . r p . (q . r)
Lut kt hp
p v q q v p; p . q q . p Lut giao hon
Lut ph nh kp
p v p p; p . p p Lut ly ng
p v T T; p . F F Lut nut
p . T p; p v F p Lut ng nht
p p
11
Bng cc tng ng logic (tt)
Lut De Morgan
m rng
Lut De Morgan
q p q p . v ) (
q p q p v . ) (
n n
p p p p p p . . . v v v
2 1 2 1
) (
n n
p p p p p p v v v . . .
2 1 2 1
) (
12
Tp hp
Tp hp c dng nhm cc i tng li vi
nhau. Thng thng, cc i tng ny c chung
mt tnh cht/c im no .
V d:
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, }
C = {x | x l nhng s nguyn dng chn, nh
hn 100}.
D = C: tp rng. (D = { })
E = {C} E khng phi l tp rng.
13
Quan h gia cc tp hp
Tp con A _ B: {x e A: x e B}
Tp bng nhau A = B: {A _ B v B _ A}
Tp ly tha: Tp ly tha ca A, k hiu l 2
A
, l tp
ca tt c cc tp con ca A.
2
A
= {C, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}}
Tch Descartes: A B = {(x, y) | x e A v y e B}
V d: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}
A B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}
14
Cc php ton trn tp hp
Php giao (intersection):
A B = {x | x e A v x e B}
Php hi (union):
A B = {x | x e A hoc x e B}
Php hiu (difference):
A \ B = {x | x e A v x e B}
15
Cc hng ng thc tp hp
A (A B) = A; A (A B) = A Lut hp thu
A U = U; A U = A Vi tp v tr
Lut vi php b
Lut De Morgan
A C = A; A C = C Vi tp rng
A A = A; A A = A Lut ly ng
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Lut phn phi
A (B C) = (A B) C
A (B C) = (A B) C
Lut kt hp
A B = B A; A B = B A Lut giao hon
A A =
C = A A U A A =
B A B A = ) ( B A B A = ) (
16
K hiu m rng
= {x | -! i e [1, n] v x e A
i
}
= {x | i e [1, n] v x e A
i
}

n
i
i
A
1 =

n
i
i
A
1 =

S i
i
A
e
= {x | -! i e S v x e A
i
}
17
Gin Venn
U
A
U
A
U
A B
18
Hm
nh ngha: Cho A v B l hai tp hp. Mt hm f
t A n B, k hiu f: A B, l s gn chnh xc
mt phn t ca B cho mi phn t ca A.
V d: f(a) = b nu b l phn t duy nht thuc B
c gn bi hm f cho phn t a thuc A.
19
f : A B th f cn c gi l mt nh x t A sang B
A l min xc nh ca f,
B l min gi tr ca f.
f(a) = b th
b l nh ca a,
a l nghch nh ca b.
Tp hp tt c cc nh ca cc phn t thuc A
gi l nh ca A qua f.
V d: f : Z Z
+
, f(x) = x
2
th:
Min xc nh ca f l Z
Min gi tr ca f l Z
+
nh ca min xc nh l tp cc s chnh phng.
V d: float Func(int x);
Min xc nh ca Func l tp cc s nguyn
Min gi tr ca Func l tp cc s thp phn.
20
Hm n nh: f gi l hm n nh (hay mt
mt) nu v ch nu f(x) = f(y) ko theo x = y vi
mi x v y thuc v min xc nh ca f.
Hm ton nh: f gi l hm ton nh t A n B
nu v ch nu vi mi phn t b thuc B, tn ti
mt phn t a thuc A vi f(a) = b.
Hm song nh: f gi l hm song nh nu n va
l n nh, va l ton nh.
Hm ng nht: Cho tp hp A. Hm ng nht
i
A
: A A l hm i
A
(x) = x vi x thuc A.
21
a
b
c
1
2
3
4
n nh, khng ton nh
a
b
c
1
2
3
d
Ton nh, khng n nh
a
b
c
1
2
3
d
Song nh
4
a
b
c
1
2
3
d
Khng ton nh, khng n nh
4
a
b
c
1
2
3
4
Khng phi l hm
22
Hm ngc: Gi f l mt song nh t A n B.
Hm ngc ca f (k hiu f
1
) gn mi phn t b
thuc B cho mt phn t duy nht a thuc A, sao
cho f(a) = b. Ta c f
1
(b) = a.
f
f
1
b = f(a) a = f
1
(b)
A B
23
Hm hp thnh: Gi g: A B v f: B C. Hp
thnh ca hm g v f, k hiu l fog, c nh
ngha bi: fog(a) = f(g(a))
g(a) a
A B
f(g(a))
C
g f
g f
fog
fog
24
V d: Gi f v g l hai hm t Z n Z vi:
f(x) = 2x + 3
g(x) = 3x + 2.
Xc nh fog v gof.
(fog)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3
= 6x + 7
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2
= 6x + 11
25
Gii thiu v chng minh hnh thc
26
Khi mt pht biu c a ra, ngi ta thng
hoi nghi v tnh ng ca n.
V d: Pht biu y l mt chng trnh my tnh
va vit xong. C hai cch chng minh tnh
ng ca chng trnh ny:
1. S dng chng minh hnh thc ca ton hc.
2. Thc hin chng trnh v xem kt qu.
Kh khn khi thc hin chng trnh:
- B test hon ho cho mi chng trnh.
- Chng trnh phc tp (vi nhng php lp v
qui, )
Vai tr ca chng minh hnh thc c th hin.
27
Phng php chng minh suy din
nh ngha: Chng minh suy din l dy tun t
cc suy lun ng, i t gi thit ban u n kt
lun cui cng. Mi suy lun ng l mt nguyn
l logic c tha nhn, mt kt lun c
khng nh tnh ng trc , hoc t hp ca c
hai yu t ny.
28
Nhiu nh l l cc mnh ko theo, nn k
thut chng minh ko theo l rt quan trng.
p q: Nu <gi thit p> th <kt lun q>
T y, ta c q l mt suy din t p.
V d: Pht biu Nu x 4 th 2
x
x
2
(*)
+ Gi thit p l x 4.
+ Kt lun q l 2
x
x
2

29
V d: Nu x l tng bnh phng ca 4 s nguyn
dng th 2
x
x
2
.
V d ny cho thy vic chng minh din ra theo
mt chui cc bc.
Gi a, b, c, d l 4 s nguyn dng.
(4) v (*) 5
(1, 3) v t/c s hc 4
(2) v t/c s hc 3
Cho trc 2
Cho trc 1
Lp lun Pht biu
2 2 2 2
d c b a x + + + =
1 ; 1 ; 1 ; 1 > > > > d c b a
1 ; 1 ; 1 ; 1
2 2 2 2
> > > > d c b a
4 > x
2
2 x
x
>
30
Cc dng chng minh bng phng php suy din
Mnh p q ch sai khi:
<gi thit p> = T v
<kt lun q> = F.
Cc trng hp khc u ng.
Cc dng chng minh suy din ch yu da vo
c tnh ny.
31
Chng minh tm thng
Ch cn chng minh <kt lun q> = T th mnh
p q l ng.
V d: Mnh P(n) = Nu a, b e Z
+
v a > b th
a
n
> b
n
. Chng minh mnh ng vi P(0).
Chng minh: V a
0
= b
0
= 1 nn a
0
> b
0
. Vy, P(0)
ng.
32
Chng minh trc tip
Tnh ng ca mnh p q c th c chng
minh bng cch:
Nu <gi thit p> ng th <kt lun q> cng ng.
V d: Mnh Nu n l s l th n
2
cng l s l
Chng minh: Gi s n l s l.
Khi , n = 2k + 1 vi k l s nguyn.
Suy ra, n
2
= (2k + 1)
2
= 4k
2
+ 4k + 1
= 2(2k
2
+ 2k) + 1.
Vy, n
2
cng l s l.
33
Chng minh phn o (gin tip)
V nn tnh ng ca mnh
p q s c chng minh thng qua mnh :
V d: Mnh Nu 3n + 2 l s l th n cng l.
Chng minh: Gi s kt lun sai: n l chn.
Chng minh 3n + 2 cng l s chn.
Tht vy, n = 2k vi k l s nguyn.
Suy ra 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1) l
mt s chn.
p q q p
p q
34
Chng minh phn chng
p
Lin quan cht ch vi chng minh phn o.
Cc bc thc hin nh sau:
1. Gi s p v l ng (p ng)
2. Chng minh trc tip l ng, c
ngha l ng.
3. Mu thun vi gi thit ban u l p ng
4. Kt lun: p sai, c ngha l sai hay q
ng.
V d: Nu 3n + 2 l s l th n cng l.
Chng minh: Gi s 3n + 2 l s l v n l s
chn. Nh chng minh, nu n l s chn th
3n + 2 l cng s chn. iu ny l mu thun vi
gi thit ban u.
q q
p q
q q
35
Chng minh tng trng hp
(p
1
v p
2
v v p
n
) q (p
1
q) . (p
2
q) . (p
n
q)
V d: Mnh Nu s nguyn n khng chia ht cho 3 th n
2
mod 3 = 1.
Chng minh: <gi thit p> = n khng chia ht cho 3,
<kt lun q> = n
2
mod 3 = 1.
p tng ng vi p
1
v p
2
, trong p
1
= n mod 3 = 1 v p
2
=
n mod 3 = 2. Cn chng minh (p
1
q) v (p
2
q).
- Trng hp 1 (p
1
ng): n = 3k + 1 (k l s nguyn)
n
2
= (3k + 1)
2
= 9k
2
+ 6k + 1 = 3(3k
2
+ 2k) + 1
n
2
mod 3 = 1 hay p
1
q l ng.
- Trng hp 2 (p
2
ng): n = 3k + 2 (k l s nguyn)
n
2
= (3k + 2)
2
= 9k
2
+ 12k + 4 = 3(3k
2
+ 4k + 1) + 1
n
2
mod 3 = 1 hay p
2
q l ng.
Kt lun: (p
1
v p
2
) q ng hay p q ng.
36
Chng minh mnh tng ng (if-and-only-if)
p q [(p q) . (q p)]
chng minh dng nh l ny, ta thc hin theo
hai bc:
Chng minh phn if: if q then p v
Chng minh phn onlyif: if p then q
37
V d: Gi x l s thc. Khi , x = x( nu v ch nu
x l s nguyn.
Chng minh:
(If) Gi s x l s nguyn, phi chng minh x = x(.
Theo nh ngha ca hai ton t floor v ceiling, v x l
s nguyn nn x = x v x( = x. Suy ra, x = x(.
(Onlyif) Cho rng x = x( (i), chng minh x l s
nguyn.
Theo nh ngha ca ton t floor v ceiling, ta c:
x s x v x s x( (ii).
T (i) v (ii), ta c: x = x( = x. V x (hay x() lun l
s nguyn nn x phi l s nguyn.
38
M rng: nh l/mnh c dng: p
1
p
2
p
n
S dng tng ng logic chng minh
[p
1
p
2
p
n
]
[(p
1
p
2
) . (p
2
p
3
) . . (p
n
p
1
)]
39
V d: Chng minh rng nu n l s nguyn th 3 mnh
sau l tng ng:
(p
1
) n mod 3 = 1 hoc n mod 3 = 2.
(p
2
) n khng chia ht cho 3.
(p
3
) n
2
mod 3 = 1.
Cn chng minh cc mnh ko theo sau y l ng:
(p
1
p
2
), (p
2
p
3
) v (p
3
p
1
).
- p
1
p
2
: Gi s n mod 3 = 1 hoc 2, c ngha l n chia
cho 3 d 1 hoc 2 n khng chia ht cho 3.
- Chng minh p
2
p
3
: chng minh.
- p
3
p
1
: Chng minh ng hay Nu n mod 3 = 0
th n
2
mod 3 = 0. (Chng minh phn o)
Gi s n mod 3 = 0. iu ny c ngha l n chia ht cho 3,
hay n = 3k vi k l s nguyn. T y, n
2
= (3k)
2
= 3(3k
2
)
hay n
2
mod 3 = 0.
3 1
p p
40
Cc dng chng minh b sung
Chng minh tnh tng ng gia cc tp hp.
Chng minh bng phn v d.
41
Chng minh tnh tng ng gia cc tp hp
Gi E v F l hai tp hp. Nu E = F:
- Mi phn t trong tp E u c trong tp F v
ngc li, hoc
- Phn t x thuc E nu v ch nu phn t x thuc
F.
chng minh, thc hin 2 bc:
1. Nu x thuc E th x thuc F (E _ F)
2. Nu x thuc F th x thuc E (F _ E)
42
V d: Chng minh R (S T) = (R S) (R T)
Chng minh:
(Only-if) Gi s x e R (S T)
Chng minh x e (R S) (R T).
(4, 5), /n ca giao x e (R S) (R T) 6
(3) v t/c ca hi x e (R T) 5
(3) v t/c ca hi x e (R S) 4
(2) v /n ca giao x e R hoc (x e S v x e T) 3
(1) v /n ca hi x e R hoc x e (S T) 2
Gi thit x e R (S T) 1
Lp lun Pht biu
43
(If) Gi s x e (R S) (R T)
Chng minh x e R (S T).
(5) v /n ca hi x e R (S T) 6
(4) v /n ca giao x e R hoc x e (S T) 5
(2, 3) v t/c php hi x e R hoc (x e S v x e T) 4
(1) v /n ca giao x e (R T) 3
(1) v /n ca giao x e (R S) 2
Gi thit x e (R S) (R T) 1
Lp lun Pht biu
44
Chng minh bng phn v d
Mt nh l lun ng:
Cho mi trng hp.
Vi mi gi tr tham s u vo c th.
khng nh mt nh l l sai, ch cn a ra
mt trng hp khin cho nh l ny sai l .
Thng thng, chng minh mt pht biu
khng phi l nh l d hn chng minh n l
mt nh l.
45
Ton t mod:
Nu gi a, b l hai s nguyn dng th
- r = a mod b, vi r = [0, b - 1] v
- a = qb + r vi q l s nguyn xc nh.
V d: Pht biu Khng tn ti cp s nguyn
(a, b), sao cho: a mod b = b mod a.
Chng minh:
Thng qua tnh i xng, ch cn quan tm trng
hp a < b (i v tr ca a v b trong pht biu trn).
Tt nhin, cn phi xt trng hp a = b.
46
a mod b b mod a 5
(1), (2), (3) b mod a < a mod b 4
/n ca mod b mod a < a 3
/n ca mod a = a mod b 2
Gi thit a < b 1
Lp lun Pht biu
Tuy nhin, nu a = b th a mod b = b mod a (= 0).
Do , chng ta c phn v d cho nh l trn.
Phn v d: Cho a = b = 5, khi :
a mod b = b mod a = 0
Nh vy, tn ti cp s nguyn (a, b).
47
Chng minh qui np
48
Trong thc t, thng bt gp nhng biu thc
c pht biu nh sau:
S lng cc tp con ca tp {1, 2, , n} l 2
n
.
Vy, lm th no chng minh tnh ng n
ca cc pht biu trn?
2
) 1 (
1
+
=

=
n n
i
n
i
2
1
) 1 2 ( n i
n
i
=

=
49
Chng minh: 0 + 1 + 2 + + n = n(n + 1)/2
n = 0: 0 = 0(0 + 1)/2
n = 1: 0 + 1 = 0(0 + 1)/2 + 1 = 1(1 + 1)/2
n = 2: 0 + 1 + 2 = 1(1 + 1)/2 + 2 = 2(2 + 1)/2
n = 3: 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 = 2(2 + 1)/2 + 3 = 3(3 + 1)/2
V tin trnh ny c th lp v hn nn cng thc ng
vi mi n > 0.
Tin trnh ny c th lp v hn, nhng lp ci g?
Trong trng hp tng qut, i vi bt c gi tr k > 1,
cng thc tnh n = k + 1 s c hnh thnh t
cng thc tnh n = k.
n = (k + 1):
0 + 1 + 2 + + (k + 1) = (0 + 1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
= k(k + 1)/2 + (k + 1) = (k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)/2
cng thc ng vi mi n > 0.
50
Nguyn l th nht ca qui np ton hc
ch ra tnh ng ca pht biu P(n), vi n l
mt s nguyn dng, s dng chng minh qui
np vi hai bc thc hin:
Bc c s: Khng nh P(n
0
) ng, vi n
0
= 0
hoc n
0
= 1 hoc mt gi tr cao hn, nu nh
pht biu P l sai vi nhng s nguyn nh hn.
Bc qui np: i vi s nguyn bt k n n
0
,
nu P(n) l ng th chng minh P(n + 1) cng
ng.
51
V du: Vi mi n 0,
Bc c s: Cho n = 0. Theo nh ngha ca du
, khi cn trn nh hn cn di th tng s bng
0. Hai v ca biu thc bng nhau.
Bc qui np: Gi s ng vi n 0
6
) 1 2 )( 1 (
1
2
+ +
=

=
n n n
i
n
i
6
3 2
6
) 1 2 )( 1 (
2 3
1
2
n n n n n n
i
n
i
+ +
=
+ +
=

=
6
6 13 9 2
6
) 1 ) 1 ( 2 )( 1 ) 1 )(( 1 (
2 3
1
1
2
+ + +
=
+ + + + +
=

+
=
n n n n n n
i
n
i
6
6 13 9 2
) 1 (
6
3 2
) 1 (
2 3
2
2 3
2
1
2
1
1
2
+ + +
= + +
+ +
= + + =

=
+
=
n n n
n
n n n
n i i
n
i
n
i
52
V d: Nu x 4 th 2
x
x
2
.
Chng minh:
Bc chng minh c s s bt u t x = 4
(pht biu s sai khi x < 4).
Bc c s: Nu x = 4 th 2
4
= 16, cn 4
2
= 16.
Bc qui np: Gi s x bt k v x 4, tha bt
ng thc 2
x
x
2
.
Chng minh: 2
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
2
.
2
(x + 1)
= 2 2
x
2 x
2
(Gi thit: 2
x
x
2
)
Tip tc chng minh 2x
2
(x + 1)
2
khi x 4.
Sau mt s thao tc, ta c bt x 2 + 1/x.
y l bt ng v v tri ti thiu bng 4, v phi
ti a l 2.25.
Kt lun: 2
(x + 1)
(x + 1)
2
.
53
V d: Xt on m gi sau v chng minh rng gi tr
c in ra l x
n
, vi mi n > 0.
y = 1;
For i = 1 to n
y = y * x;
Write(y);
Chng minh: Gi P(n) l gi tr ca y sau n ln lp.
Chng minh rng P(n) ng vi mi n > 0.
Bc c s: Nu n = 0 th vng lp khng thc hin
y = 1 = x
0
.
Bc qui np: Gi s sau n = k bc lp, y = x
k
.
Chng minh sau (k + 1) bc lp, gi tr ca y l x
k+1
.
R rng, trc khi bc vo vng lp th k + 1, gi tr
ca y l x
k
. Khi thc hin bc lp th k + 1:
y = y * x = x
k
* x = x
k+1
54
V d: Chng minh nh lut De Morgan tng qut.

n
k
k
n
k
k
A A
1 1 = =
=
Trong , A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
l nhng tp con ca tp
v tr U v n > 2.
Chng minh: Gi P(n) l ng thc trn.
Bc c s: Chng minh P(2) ng
2 1 2 1
A A A A =
55
Bc qui np: Gi s P(n) ng.

n
k
k
n
k
k
A A
1 1 = =
=
Chng minh P(n + 1) ng.

1
1
) 4 (
1
1
) 3 (
1
1
) 2 (
1
1
) 1 ( 1
1
+
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
= =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
k
k n
n
k
k n
n
k
k n
n
k
k
n
k
k
A A A A A A A A
(1) nh ngha qui.
(2) nh lut De Morgan c s.
(3) Gi thit qui np.
(4) nh ngha qui.
56
Nguyn l th hai ca qui np ton hc
Trong mt s trng hp, vic chng minh qui
np ch c th thc hin bi tin trnh tng qut
hn, bao gm 2 bc sau:
Chng minh P(n
0
) ng.
Chng minh php ko theo
[P(n
0
) . P(n
0
+ 1) . . P(n)] P(n + 1) ng
vi mi n nguyn dng bt k v n n
0
.
Khi chng minh P(n + 1), cn s dng tnh ng
ca tt c cc pht biu P(n
0
), P(n
0
+ 1), , P(n),
thay v ch s dng duy nht P(n).
57
V d: P(n): Nu n 3 th n c th c vit nh l
tng ca khng/nhiu s 3 v s 5.
Chng minh:
Bc c s: P(8), P(9) v P(10) ng.
Bc qui np: Gi s n 10 v mi P(k) ng, vi
10 s k s n. Chng minh P(n + 1) ng.
Th thut: Tr i 3 t (n + 1).
Gi s n 2 8 v P(n 2) ng. Khi :
(n 2) = 3a + 5b vi a, b l nhng s nguyn.
P(n + 1) l n + 1 = (n 2) + 3 = 3a + 5b + 3
= 3(a + 1) + 5b.
Vy, P(n + 1) cng c biu din bng khng/nhiu
s 3 v s 5.
58
V d: P(n): Nu n l s nguyn ln hn 1 th n c th
vit di dng tch ca cc s nguyn t.
Chng minh:
Bc c s: P(2) ng v 2 l tch ca chnh n.
Bc qui np: Gi s mi P(k) ng, vi 2 s k s n.
Chng minh P(n + 1) ng.
Nu (n + 1) l s nguyn t th P(n + 1) hin nhin ng.
Ngc li: (n + 1) l hp s. Nh vy, c th vit (n + 1)
= a b vi 2 s a, b s n. Theo gi thit qui np, a v b
c th c vit thnh tch ca cc s nguyn t. Nh
vy, (n + 1) cng c th c vit di dng tch ca
cc s nguyn t.
59
V d: P(n): Mi tp con khc rng ca tp s t
nhin cha s n u c mt gi tr nh nht.
Chng minh:
Bc c s: P(0) ng v 0 l s t nhin nh nht.
Mi tp con cha s 0 u tha mn pht biu c gi
tr nh nht.
Bc qui np: Gi s mi P(k) ng, vi 0 s k s n.
Chng minh P(n + 1) ng.
Gi A l tp s nguyn cha phn t (n + 1).
Nu mi phn t khc trong A u ln hn gi tr (n +
1) th chnh (n + 1) l gi tr nh nht trong A.
Ngc li, A phi cha mt s nguyn k no vi
k s n. Theo gi thit qui np (P(k)), A phi cha mt
gi tr nh nht.
60
Chng minh qui np c cu trc
Trong l thuyt automata, c mt s cu trc c
nh ngha theo kiu qui, v d nh l cu trc
cy hay biu thc.
nh ngha qui gm 2 bc:
Bc c s: vi mt/nhiu cu trc c bn c
nh ngha.
Bc qui np: nhng cu trc phc tp hn c
xy dng t nhng cu trc trc .
61
V d: nh ngha qui ca mt cy.
Bc c s: Mt nt n (cng) l cy.
Bc qui np: Nu T
1
, T
2
, , T
k
l cy th cy mi
s c xy dng nh sau:
1. Bt u vi 1 nt R, ng vai tr gc ca cy.
2. Thm vo tt c cc cy T
1
, T
2
, , T
k
.
3. Thm cc cnh ni t nt R n cc nt gc
ca cc cy (con) T
1
, T
2
, , T
k
.
62
V d: nh ngha biu thc bng qui, s dng
cc ton t + v , ton hng gm ch s v bin.
Bc c s: Bt c mt s hay mt bin (n s)
u l biu thc.
Bc qui np: Nu E v F l biu thc th E + F,
E F v (E) cng l biu thc.
63
Gi P(X) l mt nh l pht biu v cu trc X,
vn c nh ngha theo kiu qui.
chng minh P(X) ng, s dng Chng minh
qui np c cu trc, bao gm:
Bc c s: Chng minh P(X) ng cho cu trc
c s X.
Bc qui np: Cu trc X c hnh thnh bng
qui t Y
1
, Y
2
, , Y
k
. Gi s cc pht biu P(Y
1
),
P(Y
2
), , P(Y
k
) l ng. Chng minh tnh ng
ca P(X).
Kt lun: Pht biu P(X) ng cho tt c X.
64
V d: S nt trn cy nhiu hn s cnh 1 n v.
Chng minh: P(T): Nu T l mt cy v T c n nt, e
cnh th n = e + 1.
Bc c s: T l cy c duy nht 1 nt. Khi , n = 1
v e = 0.
Bc qui np: Gi T l cy c xy dng bng
qui, c nt gc R v k cy con T
1
, T
2
, , T
k
. Gi s
cc pht biu P(T
i
) ng vi i = 1, 2, , k. Nh vy,
nu T
i
c n
i
nt v e
i
cnh th n
i
= e
i
+ 1.
Tng s nt ca cy T l:
N
= 1 + n
1
+ n
2
+ + n
k
.
Tng s cnh ca cy T l:
E
= k + e
1
+ e
2
+ + e
k
.
Cn chng minh l:
N
= 1 +
E
Thay th tng n
i
bng (e
i
+ 1) vo biu thc tnh
N
:

N
= 1 + (e
1
+ 1) + (e
2
+ 1) + + (e
k
+ 1)
= 1 + k + e
1
+ e
2
+ + e
k
= 1 +
E
.
65
V d: P(G): Mi biu thc c s lng du m v
ng ngoc bng nhau.
Chng minh: Qui c rng, pht biu P(G) ng vi
biu thc G c nh ngha bng qui.
Bc c s: Nu G ang c nh ngha mc c
s th G l s hoc bin. Nhng biu thc ny c 0
du m ngoc v 0 du ng ngoc bng nhau.
Bc qui np: C 3 lut m biu thc G c th c
xy dng t , thng qua bc qui np:
G = E + F
G = E F
G = (E)
66
Gi s P(E) v P(F) ng. C ngha l:
- E c n du m ngoc v n du ng ngoc,
- F c m du m ngoc v m du ng ngoc.
T y, c th tnh c du m v ng
ngoc trong G cho tng trng hp.
- Nu G = E + F: G c (m + n) du m ngoc v
(m + n) du ng ngoc, vi n t E v m t F.
- Nu G = E F: G c (m + n) du m ngoc v
(m + n) du ng ngoc, vi n t E v m t F.
- Nu G = (E): G c (1 + n) du m ngoc v (1 +
n) du ng ngoc, vi n t E.
Trong c 3 trng hp, s lng du m v ng
ngoc trong G lun bng nhau.
67
Chng minh qui np tng h
C trng hp, cn chng minh mt nhm cc
pht biu bng qui np. y l dy cc pht biu
c kt hp bi php ..
V du: Nhm cc pht biu P
1
(n), P
2
(n), , P
k
(n)
s c biu din bng mt pht biu duy nht:
P
1
(n) . P
2
(n) . . P
k
(n).
C th tn ti mt s pht biu c lp, i hi cn
c chng minh ring trong c bc c s ln
bc qui np.
68
V d: Xt my o A trong hnh, vn m phng mt
cng tc. Khi n nt, trng thi s chuyn qua li
gia on v off. Cng tc bt u trng thi off.
P
1
(n): A trng thi off sau n ln n nu v ch
nu n chn.
P
2
(n): A trng thi on sau n ln n nu v ch
nu n l.
Nhn xt: P
1
hm P
2
v ngc li, v n khng th
va l chn, va l l.
off on
push
push
Start
69
Chng minh:
V c 2 pht biu, m mi ci li cn phi chng
minh c hai hng (tnh cht ca iff) nn thc s
phi xt 4 trng hp cho mi bc chng minh
c s ln qui np.
70
Bc c s: Chn n = 0.
[P
1
, if] 0 l mt s chn. Chng minh, sau 0 ln n,
A nm trng thi off (lun tha mn v trng thi
khi u ca A l off).
[P
1
, only-if] Gi thit A trng thi off sau 0 ln n.
Chng minh 0 l s chn (hin nhin).
[P
2
, if] Gi thit 0 l mt s l, chng minh pht
biu P
2
ng. V gi thit sai nn P
2
lun ng.
[P
2
, only-if] Gi thit l A vo trng thi on sau 0
ln n. Chng minh 0 l s l. Gi thit sai v
chuyn sang trng thi on cn n t nht 1 ln
pht biu ko theo ny ng.
71
Bc qui np: Gi s P
1
(n) v P
2
(n) ng.
Chng minh: P
1
(n + 1) v P
2
(n + 1).
1. [P
1
(n + 1), if] Gi thit (n + 1) chn. Chng minh A dng
tt off sau (n + 1) ln n. V n l nn phn if ca P
2
(n)
khng nh A dng tt on. Tn ti duy nht mt cung t tt
on sang tt off nn ln n th (n + 1), A s i vo tt off.
2. [P
1
(n + 1), only-if] Gi thit A tt off sau (n + 1) ln n.
Chng minh (n + 1) chn. R rng, ch c th i vo tt off
nu A ng tt on trc v n 1 ln nn t gi thit, A
phi tt on sau n ln n. Phn only-if ca P
2
(n) kt lun
rng n l s l (n + 1) l s chn.
3. [P
2
(n + 1), if] Ging phn (1), ch thay i gia P
1
v P
2
,
l v chn.
4. [P
2
(n + 1), only-if] Ging phn (2), ch thay i gia P
1
v
P
2
, l v chn.
72
Gii thiu l thuyt automata
73
Bng ch ci
Bng ch ci (E) l tp hu hn khc rng ca cc
k hiu.
V d:
E = {0, 1}: bng ch ci nh phn.
E = {a, b, , z}: bng ch ci ca cc k t
Latin.
E = Tp ca cc k t ASCII.
74
Chui
Chui (w) l dy hu hn gm cc k hiu c
ly t bng ch ci (E).
V d: 100110 hay 1111 l chui c xy dng
t bng ch ci nh phn E = {0, 1}.
Chui rng
L chui khng cha k hiu. Chui rng c th
c xy dng t bt c bng ch ci no.
Chiu di ca chui
L s lng ca cc v tr (ni xut hin cc k
hiu) trong chui.
K hiu chiu di ca chui w l |w|.
75
Ly tha ca bng ch ci
Gi E l bng ch ci th E
k
l tp hp ca tt c
cc chui c chiu di k.
V d: E
0
= {}, ng cho mi bng ch ci E.
Nu E = {0, 1} thi:
E
1
= {0, 1},
E
2
= {00, 01, 10, 11},
E
3
= {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111}
Chu : Phn bit gia E (bang ch cai) va E
1
.
E
*
: Tp cua tt ca cac chui (vi chiu dai bt ky)
m cc k hiu to chui thuc bng ch ci E.
V du: {0, 1}
*
= {, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, }.
E
*
= E
0
E
1
E
2

E
+
= E
*
\ E
0
: tp khng cha chui rng.
76
Php ni chui
Gi x, y l chui. Chui xy k hiu php ni hai
chui.
Nu x = a
1
a
2
a
i
v y = b
1
b
2
b
j
th:
xy = a
1
a
2
a
i
b
1
b
2
b
j
,
yx = b
1
b
2
b
j
a
1
a
2
a
i
.
Ch :
i vi chui w, w = w = w.
l phn t ng nht (trung ha) i vi php
ni chui (ging nh s 0 i vi php cng s
hc).
77
Ngn ng
nh ngha: Nu E l bng ch ci, L _ E
*
th L l
mt ngn ng trn E.
Ngn ng l tp hp ca cc chui c ly ra
t E
*
.
Khng nht thit, mi chui trong mt ngn ng
trn E phi cha y cc k hiu c trong E.
Cc ngn ng, d cha bn trong lng v hn
cc chui, th nhng chui ny u c xy
dng t bng ch ci E hu hn v c nh.
78
Ngn ng ca cc chui c s lng s 0 v s
1 bng nhau: L = {, 01, 10, 1001, 1100, }
Cc chui nh phn biu din s nguyn t:
L
p
= {10, 11, 101, 111, 1011, }
{0
i
1
j
| 0 i < j}: ngn ng bao gm cc chui c
khng/nhiu k hiu 0 v theo sau l mt/nhiu
k hiu 1. S lng k hiu 1 nhiu hn s
lng k hiu 0 t nht 1 n v.
l ngn ng rng, c trn mi bng ch ci.
{}: l ngn ng ch bao gm mt chui rng ,
c c trn mi bng ch ci. Ch l {}.
V d:
79
Bi ton
Bi ton/vn (problem) l vic ch ra mt chui
cho c thuc v ngn ng c th no khng.
Gi E l bng ch ci v L l ngn ng trn E. Bi
ton ca ngn ng L l: Cho chui w thuc E
*
, w
c thuc ngn ng L khng.
V d: Xt ngn ng L
p
. Chui w e {0, 1}
*
. Vy,
chui s nh phn w biu din s nguyn t hay
khng.
Nu w = 0011001 th w e L
p
.
Nu w = 11101 th c cu tr li, cn phi c
thm nhng thng tin khc h tr.