Carbohydrates

 (‘Hydrates of carbon') or saccharides (Greek

meaning "sugar")
 MOST abundant of the biomolecules which
also include proteins , fats and nucleic acids
 Simple organic compounds that are
aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl
groups added, usually one on each carbon
atom that is not part of the aldehyde or
ketone functional group
 The basic carbohydrate unit is called
Monosaccharide
 The general formula of an unmodified
monosaccharide is (C·H2O)n, where n is any
number of three or greater
Sources

 Foods that are high in carbohydrates include

breads, pastas, beans, potatoes, bran, rice
and cereals.
Classification :

 The most useful Classification Scheme

divides the carbohydrates into groups
according to the number of individual simple
sugar units
 Monosaccharide
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides
 Number of Carbons
 Functional Groups
Structural Representation of
Carbohydrates
 Open Chain Structure

 Hemi-acetal Structure

 Haworth Structure
Open Chain Structure

 Long Straight chain form of carbohydrates

Hemi-acetal Structure

 The 1st Carbon in glucose condenses with the

–OH group of the 5th Carbon to form a ring
Haworth Structure

 Presence of a Pyranose Ring

Physical Properties

 Stereoisomerism : Same structural formula

but differ in spatial configuration
 With respect to the Penultimate Carbon atom
glucose has 2 stereoisomers D-glucose and
L-glucose

D-Glucose L-Glucose
 Optical Activity :
Rotation of Plane polarized light and
(+)glucose or (–)glucose respectively

 Diastereo Isomers :
Configural changes with regard to the C2 ,
C3 or C4 in glucose. Eg : Mannose ,
Galactose
 Anomerism :
Spatial configuration with respect to the first carbon
atom in Aldoses and the second in Ketoses
α-glucose has specific rotation of 112 and ß-glucose
has a rotation of 19.

Importance – In glucose estimation by GOD/POD , the

enzyme acts preferentially on the ß form. Hence
fresh glucose solutions give lower values.
Chemical Properties

 Ozazone formation with phenlyhydrazine

 Benedicts test
 Oxidation
 Reduction to Alcohols
Digestion of Carbohydrates
 Polysaccharides in the mouth are broken through
the introduction of amylase, a digestive enzyme in
saliva.
 The high acid content of the stomach inhibits
amylase activity, so carbohydrate digestion is
suspended in the stomach.
 Pancreatic amylase is secreted by the pancreas into
the duodenum and works with other enzymes to
complete the breakdown of carbohydrate into a
monosaccharide
 Is then absorbed into the surrounding capillaries of
the villi.
Nutrition

 Carbohydrates are not essential nutrients

 The body can obtain all its energy from
protein and fats
 Carbohydrates contain 3.75 Kilocalories
 An essential diet contains between 40-65% of
dietary energy from carbohydrates
Glycemic Index
 A measure of the effects of carbohydrates on
blood glucose levels.
 Carbohydrates that break down rapidly have
a high GI; Those that break down slowly,
releasing glucose gradually into the
bloodstream, have a low GI
 A lower glycemic response is often thought to
equate to a lower insulin demand, better
long-term blood glucose control and a
reduction in blood lipids.
Classification GI range Examples

Low GI >55 % most fruit and

vegetables, grainy
breads, pulses
Moderate GI 55 – 69 % wheat bread, whole
wheat products,
brown rice, orange
High GI 70 and corn flakes, baked
above potato, white bread
Functions of Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates spare protein from being used up
as an energy source.
 If there are not enough carbohydrates, then large
amounts of fat are used for energy. The body is not
able to handle this large amount so quickly, so it
accumulates ketone bodies
 Carbohydrate is necessary for the regulation of
nerve tissue and is the source of energy for the
brain.
 Some carbohydrates are high in fibre, which helps
prevent constipation
 Structural components