2009.06design Criteria For Infrastrcture Projects-Rev 02 Final June

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Guidance Document
Design Criteria for Infrastructure Projects
TheGreatSocialistPeoplesLibyanArabJamahiriya
HousingandInfrastructureBoard(HIB)
ProgramManagementDepartment(PMD)
RevisionNo.2
June2009

The Great Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Housing and Infrastructure Board
Program Management Department

Guidance Document
Design Criteria for Infrastructure Projects

Revision No. 02
June 2009

JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02

RevisionTracking
RevisionNo.: Description Date
RevisionNo.00 DRAFTVersion 01July08
RevisionNo.01 WorkingCopy 21Aug08
RevisionNo.02 WorkingCopy June2009

JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 I

Table of Cont ent s
ACRONYM S AND ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... I
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1
1 WATER DESIGN STANDARDS ........................................................................................ 1-1
1.1 OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1.1 OPERATION AND M AINTENANCE ASPECTS ........................................................................... 1-1
1.2 POTABLE WATER DEM AND .................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 WATER TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ................................................................ 1-3
1.3.1 RESERVOIR DESIGN ................................................................................................................. 1-3
1.3.2 GROUND LEVEL TANKS ........................................................................................................... 1-4
1.3.3 ELEVATED WATER TANKS ....................................................................................................... 1-4
1.3.4 TRANSPORT WATER LINES...................................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.5 DISTRIBUTION WATER LINES .................................................................................................. 1-8
1.3.6 FIRE HYDRANTS ..................................................................................................................... 1-10
1.3.7 LATERALS ............................................................................................................................... 1-10
1.3.8 BACKFLOW PREVENTION ...................................................................................................... 1-11
1.3.9 OPERATION AND M AINTENANCE ........................................................................................ 1-11
1.4 WATER WELL DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 1-11
1.5 SURFACE WATER, GROUND WATER, AND SEAWATER TREATM ENT ................................. 1-15
1.5.1 PURPOSE ................................................................................................................................ 1-15
1.5.2 WATER TREATMENT DESIGN CRITERIA ............................................................................... 1-17
2 SEWERAGE ................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 SEWER DESIGN CRITERIA ........................................................................................................ 2-1
2.1.1 SEWAGE FLOW ........................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.1.2 HYDRAULIC ANALYSES ............................................................................................................ 2-3
2.1.3 FLOW VELOCITIES.................................................................................................................... 2-4
2.1.4 DEPTH OF FLOW ...................................................................................................................... 2-4
2.1.5 PIPE GRADIENTS ...................................................................................................................... 2-5
2.1.6 PIPE M ATERIALS ...................................................................................................................... 2-6
2.1.7 M INIM UM COVER REQUIREM ENTS ....................................................................................... 2-6
2.1.8 UTILITY CROSSINGS ................................................................................................................. 2-6
2.1.9 M ANHOLES .............................................................................................................................. 2-7
2.2 PUM PING STATIONS ............................................................................................................... 2-8
2.2.1 PUM PING STATION TYPE ........................................................................................................ 2-8
2.2.2 PUM P SELECTION .................................................................................................................. 2-10
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 II
2.2.3 PUM PING STATION STRUCTURES ........................................................................................ 2-11
2.2.4 SURGE PROTECTION ............................................................................................................. 2-11
2.2.5 ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUM ENTATION SYSTEM S ................................................................ 2-11
2.2.6 ODOR CONTROL .................................................................................................................... 2-12
2.2.7 RISING M AINS ........................................................................................................................ 2-12
2.2.8 AIR VALVES AND WASHOUTS ............................................................................................... 2-12
2.2.9 EM ERGENCY POWER SUPPLY ............................................................................................... 2-13
2.2.10 PUM PING STATIONS OPERATIONS AND M AINTENANCE ................................................... 2-13
3 SEWAGE TREATM ENT .................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 PURPOSE .................................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.2 SEWAGE TREATM ENT DESIGN CRITERIA ............................................................................... 3-2
3.2.1 POPULATION AND GROWTH PROJECTIONS .......................................................................... 3-3
3.2.2 SEWAGE FLOW GENERATION................................................................................................. 3-3
3.2.3 SEWAGE LOADINGS ................................................................................................................ 3-4
3.2.4 DESIGN DISCHARGE QUALITY LIM ITATIONS ......................................................................... 3-4
3.3 SITE SPECIFIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 3-5
3.4 TREATM ENT PROCESS DESIGN CRITERIA .............................................................................. 3-6
3.4.1 LIQUID PROCESS ...................................................................................................................... 3-6
3.4.2 LIQUID PROCESS HYDRAULIC SYSTEM S ............................................................................... 3-10
3.4.3 BIOSOLIDS SYSTEM S ............................................................................................................. 3-11
3.4.4 PUM PS AND PIPING FOR TREATM ENT PLANTS .................................................................. 3-12
3.4.5 M ECHANICAL ODOR CONTROL SYSTEM S ............................................................................ 3-13
3.4.6 LAGOON TREATM ENT SYSTEM S .......................................................................................... 3-14
3.4.7 TERTIARY TREATM ENT FOR LAGOONS ................................................................................ 3-17
3.4.8 PACKAGE TREATM ENT PLANT .............................................................................................. 3-18
3.4.9 M OBILE PACKAGE TREATM ENT PLANT ............................................................................... 3-18
4 STORM WATER ............................................................................................................ 4-1
4.1 STORM WATER M ANAGEM ENT POLICY ................................................................................ 4-1
4.1.1 STORM WATER QUANTITY M ANAGEM ENT .......................................................................... 4-2
4.1.2 ENHANCING STORM WATER QUALITY .................................................................................. 4-2
4.2 STORM WATER DESIGN CRITERIA .......................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.1 DESIGN STORM ........................................................................................................................ 4-3
4.2.2 RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS ........................................................................................................... 4-6
4.2.3 RUNOFF VOLUM ES .................................................................................................................. 4-6
4.3 HYDRAULIC ANALYSES ............................................................................................................ 4-7
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 III
4.3.1 FLOW VELOCITIES.................................................................................................................... 4-7
4.3.2 CLEAR TIM ES ............................................................................................................................ 4-8
4.3.3 DEPTH OF FLOW ...................................................................................................................... 4-8
4.4 PIPE M ATERIALS ...................................................................................................................... 4-8
4.4.1 PIPE GRADIENTS ...................................................................................................................... 4-9
4.4.2 M INIM UM COVER REQUIREM ENTS ..................................................................................... 4-10
4.4.3 M ANHOLES ............................................................................................................................ 4-10
4.4.4 CONNECTION CHAM BERS..................................................................................................... 4-10
4.4.5 CATCH BASINS AND TRENCH DRAINS .................................................................................. 4-11
4.4.6 UTILITY CROSSINGS ............................................................................................................... 4-11
4.5 DETENTION PONDS (SEPARATE STORM DRAINAGE ONLY) ................................................ 4-11
4.5.1 POND INLET AND OUTLET STRUCTURES ............................................................................. 4-12
4.5.2 DISCHARGE CONTROL STRUCTURES .................................................................................... 4-12
4.5.3 POND DEPTH ......................................................................................................................... 4-12
4.5.4 DETENTION POND EM PTYING .............................................................................................. 4-13
4.5.5 DRY DETENTION PONDS ....................................................................................................... 4-13
4.5.6 WET DETENTION PONDS ...................................................................................................... 4-13
4.5.7 RETENTION PONDS ............................................................................................................... 4-14
4.5.8 BURIED DETENTION CHAM BERS .......................................................................................... 4-14
4.6 OIL-WATER SEPARATORS ..................................................................................................... 4-14
4.7 STORM WATER M ANAGEM ENT WITHIN AN AIRPORT ....................................................... 4-16
4.7.1 BIRD SCARE ............................................................................................................................ 4-16
4.8 GROUNDWATER DEWATERING ........................................................................................... 4-17
4.9 PUM PING STATIONS AND RISING M AINS ........................................................................... 4-17
4.9.1 PUM PING STATION TYPE ...................................................................................................... 4-17
4.9.2 WET WELL VOLUM E .............................................................................................................. 4-18
4.9.3 WET WELL DEPTH.................................................................................................................. 4-18
4.9.4 PUM P SELECTION .................................................................................................................. 4-19
4.9.5 PUM PING STATION STRUCTURES ........................................................................................ 4-19
4.9.6 SURGE PROTECTION ............................................................................................................. 4-19
4.9.7 ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUM ENTATION SYSTEM S ................................................................ 4-20
4.9.8 RISING M AINS ........................................................................................................................ 4-20
4.9.9 AIR VALVES AND WASHOUTS ............................................................................................... 4-20
4.9.10 EM ERGENCY POWER SUPPLY ............................................................................................... 4-21
4.9.11 RELIABILITY ............................................................................................................................ 4-21
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 IV
5 WATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION ............................................................... 5-1
5.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.1 IRRIGATION SUPPLY ................................................................................................................ 5-1
5.1.2 TRANSM ISSION NETWORK ..................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.3 DISTRIBUTION NETWORK ....................................................................................................... 5-2
5.1.4 IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY STANDARDS ........................................................................... 5-2
5.2 IRRIGATION DESIGN CRITERIA................................................................................................ 5-3
5.2.1 IRRIGATION DEM ANDS ........................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.2 DISTRIBUTION NETWORK ....................................................................................................... 5-4
5.2.3 FLOW M ETERS AND STRUCTURES ......................................................................................... 5-6
5.2.4 STORAGE .................................................................................................................................. 5-7
5.2.5 PUM PING STATIONS ............................................................................................................... 5-7
5.2.6 FIRE HYDRANTS ....................................................................................................................... 5-9
5.2.7 ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUM ENTATION SYSTEM S .................................................................. 5-9
6 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-FREE DESIGN ...................................................................... 6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.1 PURPOSE .................................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.1.2 APPLICATION ........................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.3 DEFINITION OF SIGNIFICANT RENOVATION .......................................................................... 6-1
6.1.4 M AINTENANCE ........................................................................................................................ 6-1
6.1.5 EM ERGENCY EVACUATION PLANNING .................................................................................. 6-1
6.2 EXTERIOR AREAS ..................................................................................................................... 6-2
6.2.1 PARKING AND DROP-OFF AREAS ........................................................................................... 6-2
6.2.2 WALKWAYS AND RAM PS ........................................................................................................ 6-6
6.2.3 ENTRANCES AND EXITS ......................................................................................................... 6-10
6.2.4 EXTERIOR AM ENITIES............................................................................................................ 6-13
6.3 INTERIOR AREAS .................................................................................................................... 6-13
6.3.1 STAIRS AND RAM PS .............................................................................................................. 6-13
6.3.2 LOBBIES AND CORRIDORS .................................................................................................... 6-15
6.3.3 ELEVATORS AND LIFTS .......................................................................................................... 6-15
6.3.4 INTERIOR DOORS AND DOORWAYS..................................................................................... 6-16
6.4 FACILITIES .............................................................................................................................. 6-18
6.4.1 WASHROOM S/ BATHROOM S/ TOILETS ................................................................................. 6-18
6.4.2 SHOWER AND BATH FACILITIES ........................................................................................... 6-20
6.4.3 DRINKING FOUNTAINS .......................................................................................................... 6-24
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 V
6.4.4 PUBLIC PAY TELEPHONES ..................................................................................................... 6-25
6.4.5 CONTROLS ............................................................................................................................. 6-25
6.4.6 SIGNAGE ................................................................................................................................ 6-26
6.4.7 TACTILE WARNINGS .............................................................................................................. 6-27
6.4.8 COUNTERS AND LINE UP GUIDES ......................................................................................... 6-29
6.4.9 PLACES OF ASSEM BLY ........................................................................................................... 6-29
6.4.10 ASSISTED LISTENING DEVICES .............................................................................................. 6-30
6.4.11 VISUAL AND AUDIBLE ALARM S ............................................................................................ 6-31
6.4.12 LIFE SAFETY ............................................................................................................................ 6-31
6.4.13 COOKING & LAUNDRY FACILITIES ........................................................................................ 6-31
7 SURVEYING STANDARDS .............................................................................................. 7-1
7.1 PURPOSE .................................................................................................................................. 7-1
7.2 HORIZONTAL CONTROL SURVEYS .......................................................................................... 7-1
7.2.1 DEFINITION .............................................................................................................................. 7-1
7.2.2 FIELD M ETHODS ...................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2.3 COORDINATE ADJUSTM ENT ................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3 VERTICAL CONTROL SURVEYS ................................................................................................ 7-2
7.3.1 DEFINITION .............................................................................................................................. 7-2
7.3.2 GPS NETWORK DESIGN EXAM PLE:......................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.3 BENCHM ARKS .......................................................................................................................... 7-4
7.4 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS ......................................................................................................... 7-5
7.4.1 DEFINITION .............................................................................................................................. 7-5
7.4.2 UTILITY SURVEYS ..................................................................................................................... 7-5
7.4.3 DIGITAL TERRAIN M ODEL (DTM ) ........................................................................................... 7-6
7.4.4 ROUTE SURVEY ........................................................................................................................ 7-6
7.4.5 CONSIDERATIONS - OTHER TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................ 7-7
7.4.6 WORK PRODUCT ..................................................................................................................... 7-7
7.4.7 INFORM ATION REQUIRED ...................................................................................................... 7-7
7.4.8 M ONUM ENTS .......................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.4.9 FIELD PROCEDURES ................................................................................................................. 7-8
7.4.10 TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES ..................................................................................................... 7-10
7.4.11 ELECTRONIC DATA ................................................................................................................ 7-10
7.4.12 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................................ 7-10
7.5 CONSTRUCTION STAKING ..................................................................................................... 7-11
7.5.1 FIELD M ETHODS .................................................................................................................... 7-11
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 VI
7.6 AS-BUILT SURVEYS ................................................................................................................ 7-11
7.6.1 DEFINITION ............................................................................................................................ 7-11
7.6.2 DELIVERABLE ......................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.7 SURVEY M AP CHECK LIST ...................................................................................................... 7-11
ATTACHM ENT 7-A ................................................................................................................................. 7-13
8 ROADWAY ................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1 HIGHWAY SYSTEM S ................................................................................................................ 8-1
8.1.1 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................... 8-1
8.1.2 FREEWAYS................................................................................................................................ 8-1
8.1.3 EXPRESSWAYS ......................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1.4 ARTERIALS ................................................................................................................................ 8-2
8.1.5 COLLECTORS ............................................................................................................................ 8-2
8.1.6 LOCAL ROADS .......................................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2 TRAFFIC .................................................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2.1 LEVEL OF SERVICE ................................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2.2 DESIGN VEHICLES .................................................................................................................... 8-3
8.3 SPEED ....................................................................................................................................... 8-4
8.3.1 DESIGN SPEED ......................................................................................................................... 8-4
8.3.2 POSTED SPEED ......................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.3.3 RAM PS...................................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.4 SIGHT DISTANCE ...................................................................................................................... 8-6
8.4.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD) .......................................................................................... 8-6
8.4.2 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (PSD) ............................................................................................ 8-8
8.4.3 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE..................................................................................................... 8-8
8.5 HORIZONTAL ALIGNM ENT ...................................................................................................... 8-9
8.5.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 8-9
8.5.2 TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVATURE ................................................................................... 8-10
8.5.3 M INIM UM CURVATURE ........................................................................................................ 8-14
8.5.4 SPIRAL CURVE TRANSITION .................................................................................................. 8-15
8.5.5 HORIZONTAL STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE .......................................................................... 8-17
8.5.6 SUPERELEVATION .................................................................................................................. 8-18
8.5.7 M INIM UM LANE WIDTH ON CURVES .................................................................................. 8-23
8.6 VERTICAL ALIGNM ENT .......................................................................................................... 8-24
8.6.1 GRADES .................................................................................................................................. 8-24
8.6.2 VERTICAL CURVES ................................................................................................................. 8-26
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 VII
8.6.3 COM BINING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNM ENTS .................................................. 8-30
8.6.4 VERTICAL CLEARANCES ......................................................................................................... 8-33
8.7 CROSS SECTION ELEM ENTS .................................................................................................. 8-34
8.7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................................ 8-34
8.7.2 TRAVEL LANES ....................................................................................................................... 8-34
8.7.3 SHOULDERS ........................................................................................................................... 8-35
8.7.4 CURBING ................................................................................................................................ 8-36
8.7.5 BORDERS, BUFFER STRIPS AND SIDEWALKS ....................................................................... 8-36
8.7.6 M EDIANS ................................................................................................................................ 8-36
8.7.7 CROSS SLOPES ....................................................................................................................... 8-38
8.7.8 SIDE SLOPES ........................................................................................................................... 8-38
8.7.9 DITCH SECTIONS .................................................................................................................... 8-38
8.7.10 RIGHT-OF- WAY LIM ITS .......................................................................................................... 8-39
8.7.11 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCES ................................................................................................... 8-40
8.7.12 OTHERS .................................................................................................................................. 8-41
8.8 GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANGES ....................................................................... 8-43
8.8.1 WARRANTS ............................................................................................................................ 8-43
8.8.2 INTERCHANGE TYPES ............................................................................................................ 8-44
8.8.3 INTERCHANGE ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 8-49
8.8.4 TRAFFIC LANE PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................... 8-50
8.8.5 LANE BALANCE ...................................................................................................................... 8-51
8.8.6 FREEWAY/ RAM P JUNCTIONS ............................................................................................... 8-54
8.8.7 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE ....................................................................................... 8-69
8.8.8 RAM P DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 8-72
8.8.9 SPACING OF RAM P TERM INALS ........................................................................................... 8-75
8.8.10 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 8-77
8.9 SUM M ARY OF DESIGN PARAM ETERS .................................................................................. 8-90
8.9.1 LOCAL ROADS AND STREETS ................................................................................................ 8-90
8.9.2 COLLECTORS .......................................................................................................................... 8-95
8.9.3 ARTERIALS ............................................................................................................................ 8-101
8.9.4 FREEWAYS/ EXPRESSWAYS ................................................................................................. 8-108
8.10 HIGHWAY FACILITIES .......................................................................................................... 8-114
8.10 .1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................................. 8-114
8.10 .2 PUBLIC TRANSPORT FACILITIES .......................................................................................... 8-115
8.10 .3 PARKING FACILITIES ............................................................................................................ 8-117
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 VIII
8.10 .4 SAFETY BARRIERS ................................................................................................................ 8-122
8.10 .5 IM PACT ATTENUATOR SYSTEM S ........................................................................................ 8-128
8.10 .6 TRAFFIC CALM ING ............................................................................................................... 8-130
8.11 INTERSECTIONS ................................................................................................................... 8-134
8.11 .1 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................. 8-134
8.11 .2 INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE ........................................................................................ 8-140
8.11 .3 INTERSECTION TURNS......................................................................................................... 8-149
8.12 ROUNDABOUTS ................................................................................................................... 8-181
8.12 .1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................................. 8-181
8.12 .2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................. 8-181
8.12 .3 GENERAL FEATURES OF A ROUNDABOUT ......................................................................... 8-182
8.12 .4 SPEEDS THROUGH THE ROUNDABOUT ............................................................................. 8-184
8.12 .5 DESIGN VEHICLE .................................................................................................................. 8-189
8.12 .6 INSCRIBED CIRCLE DIAM ETER ............................................................................................ 8-189
8.12 .7 CIRCULATING ROADWAY WIDTH ....................................................................................... 8-190
8.12 .8 ENTRY WIDTH ...................................................................................................................... 8-191
8.12 .9 ENTRY CURVES .................................................................................................................... 8-193
8.12.10 EXIT CURVES ....................................................................................................... 8-195
8.12.11 VERTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................. 8-197
8.12.12 VISIBILITY ............................................................................................................ 8-200
8.12.13 ENTRY CURBING ................................................................................................. 8-203
8.12.14 SAFETY AT ROUNDABOUTS ............................................................................... 8-204
9 FLEXIBLE PAVEM ENT DESIGN M ANUAL ........................................................................ 9-1
9.1 PURPOSE .................................................................................................................................. 9-1
9.2 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 9-1
9.3 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 9-1
9.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................... 9-1
9.5 PAVEM ENT TYPES ................................................................................................................... 9-2
9.6 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................... 9-2
9.7 PAVEM ENT DESIGN PROCESS................................................................................................. 9-3
9.7.1 COLLECT BASIC PROJECT DATA .............................................................................................. 9-3
9.7.2 DETERM INE THE PRELIM INARY SCOPE OF WORK ................................................................ 9-4
9.7.3 FRICTION .................................................................................................................................. 9-4
9.7.4 WIDENING AND CORRECTIVE WORK TO THE EXISTING PAVEM ENT ................................... 9-5
9.7.5 DETERM INE DBR...................................................................................................................... 9-5
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 IX
9.7.6 SUBM IT ALL PAVEM ENT DESIGN INFORM ATION ................................................................. 9-5
9.7.7 HIB REVIEWS SCOPE OF WORK .............................................................................................. 9-5
9.7.8 HIB REVIEWS DBR DETERM INATION ..................................................................................... 9-5
9.7.9 REQUEST LAB ANALYSIS FROM M ATERIALS LAB .................................................................. 9-9
9.7.10 USE DBR FROM PREVIOUS WORK .......................................................................................... 9-9
9.7.11 REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA SUBM ITTED .............................................................. 9-9
9.7.12 DESIGN ENGINEER CONDUCTS PAVEM ENT DESIGN ANALYSIS ........................................... 9-9
9.7.13 NEW/ RECONSTRUCTED PAVEM ENT ...................................................................................... 9-9
9.7.14 PAVEM ENT OVERLAYS ............................................................................................................ 9-9
9.7.15 COM BINATION (PAVEM ENT OVERLAY WITH WIDENING) ................................................... 9-9
9.7.16 SUBM IT PAVEM ENT DESIGN RECOM M ENDATION TO HIB ENGINEER ................................ 9-9
9.7.17 REVIEWS AND APPROVES ..................................................................................................... 9-10
9.8 NEW AND RECONSTRUCTED PAVEM ENT ............................................................................ 9-10
9.9 PAVEM ENT OVERLAYS .......................................................................................................... 9-25
9.10 RECYCLING ............................................................................................................................. 9-39
9.11 SKID RESISTANCE ................................................................................................................... 9-40
9.12 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 9-41
10 UNIFORM TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES ....................................................................... 10-1
10 .1 TRAFFIC CONTROL FOR WORK AREA (SUPPLEM ENTS) ...................................................... 10-1
10 .2 ROADWAY CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................. 10-1
10 .2.1 CORRIDOR AND NETWORK-WIDE CONSTRUCTIONS .......................................................... 10-1
10 .2.2 AUTHORITY ............................................................................................................................ 10-2
10 .3 TRAFFIC CONTROL ZONES .................................................................................................... 10-5
10 .3.1 APPLICATION ......................................................................................................................... 10-6
10 .3.2 GUIDELINE ............................................................................................................................. 10-6
10 .3.3 TRAFFIC M ANAGEM ENT PLANS ........................................................................................... 10-8
10 .3.4 COM PONENTS OF TEM PORARY TRAFFIC CONTROL ZONES............................................... 10-9
11 LANDSCAPE DESIGN CRITERIA .................................................................................... 11-1
11 .1 LANDSCAPE DESIGN CRITERIA .............................................................................................. 11-1
11 .1.1 LANDSCAPE AND PLANTING ................................................................................................. 11-1
11 .1.2 PLANTING ON PRIVATE DEVELOPM ENT PARCELS .............................................................. 11-3
11 .1.3 PLANTING ON PUBLIC STREETS AND STREETS WITHIN PRIVATE DEVELOPM ENTS .......... 11-5
11 .1.4 PLANTING ON PUBLIC PARKS AND LANDSCAPED OPEN AREAS ........................................ 11-6
11 .2 LANDSCAPING PLANS SUBM ITTALS REQUIREM ENTS ......................................................... 11-7
11 .3 LANDSCAPE GRADING PLAN................................................................................................. 11-8
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 X
11 .3.1 TREE AND PLANT M AINTENANCE ...................................................................................... 11-11
12 STREETSCAPE ............................................................................................................. 12-1
12 .1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 12-1
12 .2 GOOD DESIGN ....................................................................................................................... 12-1
12 .3 OVERARCHING OBJECTIVE.................................................................................................... 12-2
12 .4 PRINCIPLES............................................................................................................................. 12-2
12 .5 DESIGN GUIDELINES AND CRITERIA ..................................................................................... 12-4
12 .5.1 PLANTING REGIM ES .............................................................................................................. 12-4
12 .5.2 FOOTWAY LAYOUT ................................................................................................................ 12-5
12 .5.3 PAVING................................................................................................................................... 12-5
12 .5.4 STREET FURNITURE AND FEATURES .................................................................................... 12-7
12 .5.5 LIGHTING ............................................................................................................................... 12-7
12 .5.6 BENCHES ................................................................................................................................ 12-8
12 .5.7 PLANTERS ............................................................................................................................... 12-8
12 .5.8 PLAYGROUND EQUIPM ENT .................................................................................................. 12-8
12 .5.9 WATER FEATURES IN PUBLIC OPEN SPACES ....................................................................... 12-9
12 .5.10 SHADING STRATEGIES .......................................................................................... 12-9
12 .5.11 SIGNAGE ............................................................................................................... 12-9
12 .6 DELIVERING THE PRINCIPLES ................................................................................................ 12-9
13 BRIDGE INSPECTION................................................................................................... 13-1
13 .1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 13-1
13 .1.1 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 13-1
13 .1.2 AASHTO INSPECTION M ANUALS .......................................................................................... 13-2
13 .1.3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES ................................................................................................... 13-8
13 .2 QUALIFICATIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND DUTIES OF BRIDGE INSPECTION PERSONNEL13-9
13 .2.1 REQUIREM ENTS..................................................................................................................... 13-9
13 .2.2 BRIDGE INSPECTION PERSONNEL ...................................................................................... 13-10
13 .2.3 BRIDGE INSPECTIONS BY CONTRACTORS .......................................................................... 13-11
13 .2.4 USE OF THE CONTRACTOR POOL ....................................................................................... 13-12
13 .3 FIELD INSPECTION REQUIREM ENTS ................................................................................... 13-13
13 .3.1 TYPES OF BRIDGE INSPECTION ........................................................................................... 13-13
13 .3.2 INITIAL INSPECTIONS .......................................................................................................... 13-14
13 .3.3 ROUTINE INSPECTIONS ....................................................................................................... 13-14
13 .3.4 DAM AGE INSPECTIONS ....................................................................................................... 13-15
13 .3.5 IN-DEPTH INSPECTIONS ...................................................................................................... 13-15
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 XI
13 .3.6 SPECIAL INSPECTIONS ......................................................................................................... 13-24
13 .4 RATINGS AND LOAD POSTING ............................................................................................ 13-24
13 .4.1 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................... 13-24
13 .4.2 CONDITION RATINGS .......................................................................................................... 13-25
13 .4.3 APPRAISAL RATINGS ........................................................................................................... 13-27
13 .4.4 LOAD RATINGS .................................................................................................................... 13-31
13 .4.5 LEGAL LOADS AND LOAD POSTING .................................................................................... 13-37
13 .5 ROUTING AND PERM ITS ..................................................................................................... 13-43
13 .5.1 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................... 13-43
13 .5.2 ROLE OF INSPECTION ENGINEERS AND THE TRAFFIC AUTHORITIES .............................. 13-44
13 .5.3 PERM ITS ............................................................................................................................... 13-44
13 .5.4 EXAM PLE OF INVENTORY, OPERATING, AND PERM IT LOADS ......................................... 13-47
13 .6 BRIDGE PROGRAM M ING .................................................................................................... 13-51
13 .6.1 BASIS FOR BRIDGE REHABILITATION OR REPLACEM ENT ................................................. 13-51
13 .6.2 BRIDGE PROGRAM .............................................................................................................. 13-51
13 .6.3 SUFFICIENCY RATINGS ........................................................................................................ 13-53
13 .7 BRIDGE RECORDS ................................................................................................................ 13-57
13 .7.1 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................... 13-57
13 .7.2 DEFINITION OF TERM S ........................................................................................................ 13-58
13 .7.3 CONTRACTOR REQUIREM ENTS .......................................................................................... 13-60
13 .7.4 CODING GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................... 13-61
13 .7.5 FORM S ................................................................................................................................. 13-62
13 .7.6 CALCULATIONS .................................................................................................................... 13-65
13 .7.7 DATA SUBM ITTAL ................................................................................................................ 13-69
13 .7.8 THE BRIDGE FOLDER ........................................................................................................... 13-73
13 .8 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................. 13-75
14 ELECTRICAL ................................................................................................................ 14-1
15 TELECOM MUNICATION .............................................................................................. 15-1
16 GAS DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................................... 16-1
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 1

AcronymsandAbbreviations
2WLTL TwoWayLeftTurnLane
ADT AverageDailyTraffic
ANSI AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute
AOR ActualOxygenationRate
AWWA AmericanWaterWorksAssociation
CBD CentralBusinessDistrict
CD CollectorDistributor
CIE TheInternationalCommissiononIllumination
cm Centimeters
Cs carbonsteel
CT ContactTime
D nominalpipeDiameter
d Depth
DHV DesignHourlyVolume
DIP DuctileIronPipe
EWT ElevatedWaterTank
FAA FederalAviationAdministration
FRP FiberglassReinforcedPlastic
Fs sidefrictionfactor
GECOL GeneralElectricCompanyofLibya
GLT GroundLevelTanks
GMR GreatManmadeRiver
GRP GlassFiberReinforcedPlastic
GWA GeneralWaterAuthority
H Height
HDPE HighDensityPolyethylene
HI HydraulicInstitute
HIB HousingandInfrastructureBoard
ICD InscribedCircleDiameter
l/d/c litersperdaypercapita
km/h kilometersperhour
M Meters
m
3
cubicmeters
MCL MaximumContaminantLevel
mg/l milligramsperliter
Ml Milliliters
MLSS MixLiquorSuspendedSolids
Mm Millimeters
MPN MostProbableNumber
NPSHR NetPositiveSuctionHeadRequired
NTU NephelometricTurbidityUnit
pc/h passengercarsperhour
PCC PointofCompoundCurvature
PF PeakingFactor
PRD Perception/ReactionDistance
PSC PointofSpiraltoCurve
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 2

PSD PassingSightDistance
PT PointofTangency
PVC PolyvinylChloride
Q Flow
RCP ReinforcedConcretePipe
ROW RightOfWay
rpm revolutionsperminute
RSR RapidSludgeReturn
SCADA SupervisoryControlAndDataAcquisition
SOR StandardOxygenationRate
SSD StoppingSightDistance
TDS TotalDissolvedSolids
TSE TreatedSewageEffluent
UI LongitudinalUniformityRatio
uPVC UnplasticisedPolyvinylChloride
USEPA UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
VCP VitrifiedClayPipe
WEF WaterEnvironmentFederation
WSP WeldedSteelPipe
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 INTRODUCTION1
Introduction
ThisDesignCriteriaforInfrastructurepresentsdesigncriteriaforwater,sewage,stormwater,barrier
free,surveying,roadways,pavementdesign,uniformtrafficcontroldevices,landscape,bridge
inspection,electrical,telecommunicationandgassystems.Thecriteriapresentedinthefollowing
sectionsareprovidedasthebasisforalldesignspreparedfortheLibyaHousingandInfrastructure
Board(HIB).
ThisdesigncriteriaispresentedtosupportthedesignintentoftheHIBinfrastructureplanning.
PlansandconstructiondocumentsforallsystemsshallbesubmittedtoHIBforreviewandapprovalat
designatedstagesoftheproject.Designsshallbeinaccordancewiththefollowingguidelinesandwith
allotherapplicablecriteriaandshallbecarriedoutusingapprovedmodelingsoftwareasnotedineach
section.Ifdeviationsarerequiredforspecialcases,HIBapprovalshallbeobtainedonacasebycase
basis.
ThesedesigncriteriashouldbeimplementedinconjunctionwiththeHousingandInfrastructureMaster
SpecificationsandStandardDetailsandtheDesignCriteriaforHousingProjects.Thegeotechnical
designcriteriafortreatmentplantsandpumpstationsshallbeinaccordancewiththeSection5.6ofthe
DesignCriteriaforHousingProjects.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 WATERDesignStandards11
1 WaterDesignStandards
1.1 Objectives
TheobjectiveoftheLibyaHousingandInfrastructureBoard(HIB)watersupplysystemistoprovidesafe,
potable,adequate,reliable,efficient,andeffectivewatersupplyfacilities.Waterserviceistobe
providedinaneconomicallyandenvironmentallysustainablemannerintermsofbothwatertreatment
andwaterdistribution.Theobjectiveofthewatertreatmentistoproduceandmaintainfinishedwater
qualitythatishygienicallysafeandaestheticallypleasing,inaneconomicmannerwhilecomplyingwith
waterqualitystandardsprovidedbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)and/ortheUnitedStates
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA).Theevaluationofwaterqualityshouldnotbelimitedtothe
treatmentfacilities,butshouldextendthedistributionsystemtothepointofconsumerconsumption.
Thedistributionsystemshouldmaintainadequatepressureandsafewaterquality,whilemeetingfire
protectionneeds.
SpecificgoalsoftheHIBare:
1. Providewatersources,watertreatmentplants,waterstoragefacilities,and
transmissionanddistributiondeliverysystemswithsufficientcapacitytosupplycurrent
andfuturewaterdemands;
2. Provideadequateandreliablewaterdistributionfacilities(supplymains,pumpstations,
servicereservoirs,transmission,anddistributionsystems)thatmeetpeakhour
demandsandsustainedperiodsofhighdemandwhilemaintainingadequatedelivery
pressuresandwaterquality.
3. Providealeveloffirefightingcapabilityadequateinrelationtotherecommendations
definedinthisdocument;
4. Maintainasafe,potable,adequate,andreliablewatersupplyforconsumers.
Thewatersystemdesignmustbecompatiblewiththeoverallcommunitymasterdevelopmentplan.
Thesystemlayoutshallbedesignedfor,andtakeintoaccount,waterquality,pressure,flowrate,and
longtermplanning.HydrauliccalculationsperformedbythedesignershallbesubmittedtoHIBfor
reviewandapprovalinsupportofthedesign.
1.1.1 OperationandMaintenanceAspects
Watersupplysystemsshouldbedesignedwithconsiderationofthesystemscurrentandfuture
operationandmaintenancerequirements.Theresultwillbeasystemthatcanbeeasilyand
economicallyoperatedandmaintainedusingstandardtechniquesandequipmentessentialforthe
reliabilityofthewatersystem.
1.2 PotableWaterDemand
Waterdemanddeterminationisthestartingpointforthedesignofwatersupplysystems.Water
demandistypicallybasedonpopulationdataandpopulationgrowthprojections,combinedwith
establishedvaluesofthewaterdemandpercapitaalongwiththespecificneedsoflargewaterusers.
Thewaterdemandpercapitaisusuallybasedonhistoricaldataandistypicallydependentonthesizeof
thecommunity.Smallercommunitywateruseispredominantlyresidential,whilelargercommunity
waterusecanincludesignificantrequirementsforcommercialandindustrialwaterdemand.For
smallercommunitieswithsignificantcommercialorindustrialcomponents,specialconsiderationshould
begiventothecommercialandindustrialwaterneeds.
Otherfactorsinwaterdemandcalculationsforfacilitiesdesignaretheseasonalanddailyvariationsin
demandwithparticularemphasisonmaximumdailydemand,maximumhourlydemand,andfire
fightingdemand.
Table11presentsthedemandcriteriaandkeyfactorsforuseinsizingthewatersupply,treatment,
anddistributionsystems.Watersystemsaretypicallydesignedtoserveboththecurrentandthe
projectedpopulationfor20to25yearsinthefuture.Tolimittheimmediatecapitalcosts,designsare
usuallypreparedforphasedimplementation,withsystemupgradesaddedasthedemandincreases
overtime.
Table11:CriteriaforEstablishingWaterDemand
Component DesignCriteria
Averagewater
demandm
3
/d
[Q
ave
]
(Waterdistribution
pipeleakage,pipe
flushing,lawn
irrigationetc.
included.)
AverageWaterDemand
Population[inhabitants] Demand[Q]
<3,000 Q=150l/d/c
3,00020,000 Q=180l/d/c
20,00050,000 Q=200l/d/c
50,000100,000 Q=250l/d/c
100,000500,000 Q=300l/d/c
>500,000 Q=350l/d/c
Maximumdaily
demandm
3
/d
[Q
maxd
=k
maxd
*Q
ave
]
MaximumDailyDemandFactor
Population[inhabitants] Factork
maxd
[]
<10,000 1.8
10,00030,000 1.5
30,000100,000 1.4
>100,000 1.3
MaximumPeak
hourdemandm
3
/h
[Q
hmax
=k
hmax
*Q
ave
]
MaximumHourDemandFactor
Population[inhabitants] Factork
hmax
[]
<10,000 3.0
10,00030,000 2.7
30,000100,000 2.5
>100,000 2.0
Firefightingdemand
Q
ff
[l/s]
Usinganysuitablefirefightingequation(i.e.AWWAM31DistributionSystem
RequirementsforFireFighting)withatotaldurationof4hours(assumetwofires
atthesametimewith2hourdurationeach).
Population[inhabitants] Q
ff
,FireDemand(l/s)
Upto10,000 20
10,00025,000 25
25,00050,000 30
50,000100,000 40
100,000200,000 45
greaterthan200,000 50
Minimumdemand
[Q
dmin
][Q
hmin
]
Q
dmin
=0.6to0. 7*Q
ave
Q
hmin
=0.3*Q
ave
1.3 WaterTransportandDistributionSystem
1.3.1 ReservoirDesign
ThissectionaddressesreservoirsizingofGroundLevelTanks(GLT)andElevatedWaterTanks(EWT).
Valuesfromthewaterdemandprojections,aspreviouslyaddressed,shallbeusedtocalculatethe
designcapacityoftheGLTandEWT.
1.3.2 GroundLevelTanks
GroundLevelTanksshallbedesignedtohandlestoragevolumeforthemaximumdaydemand.The
volumeshallbecalculatedusingthedifferencesbetweenthecumulativecurvesofconstantpumping
andhourlyconsumptionduringamaximumday.Firefightingvolumeshallalsobeaddedtothis
calculatedamountandcalculatedvolumesshallbebasedonthefollowingequation:
V=(Q
maxd
Qp)+80%offirefightdemand(assumetwofiresfor2hoursdurationeach)
Where:
V istheVolume(m
3
)
Q
maxd
isthemaximumdailydemand(m
3
/d)
Q
p
istheconstantwatersupplypumpingrate(m
3
/d)
WhenGLTisfilledfromawatertreatmentplant,Q
p
wouldbetheaveragetreatmentcapacityofthe
plant.WhentheGLTisfilledfromgroundwaterwells,Q
p
wouldbethewelloutputwiththelargestwell
outofservice.Whenthesupplyofwatertofillthetankisintermittent,thenQ
p
shouldbeconsideredto
bezero.Tanksfilleddirectlyfromthedistributionsystem,eitherfromadifferentpressurezoneorviaa
pressurereductionvalveshouldconsiderQ
p
tobezero.Thesetypesoftanksshouldbefilledinfour
hoursorlessduringtheearlymorninghourswhenotherdemandarelow.
Theminimumstoragecapacityforsystemsnotprovidingfireprotectionshallbeequaltotheaverage
dailyconsumption.Thisrequirementmaybereducedwhenthesourceandtreatmentfacilitieshave
sufficientcapacitywithstandbypowertosupplementpeakdemandsofthesystem.Groundlevel
storagetanksaregenerallyusedforstorageonlyandnotforsettinghydraulicgradientsinthesystem.
Thesetypesoftanksserveaswetwellsforboosterpumpsthatservethecustomersinaservicearea.If
anexistingreservoirisingoodconditionandabletohandletheproposeddesignstoragerequirements,
anewreservoirshallnotberequired.
Inaddition,theresidencetimeandinternalmixingintanksmustbeconsideredtoavoiddeadzones
wherestagnationmayoccurandtoprovideasufficientturnoverrateofthetankscontents.Ingeneral,
thetankscontentsshouldbereplenishedatleastonceevery3days.Wherepossible,separateinletand
outletpipesshouldbeprovidedforalltanks.
1.3.3 ElevatedWaterTanks
EWTshallbedesignedtoprovidestoragefor35%ofmaximumdaydemand.Thevolumeshallbe
calculatedusingthedifferencesbetweenthecumulativecurvesofconstantpumpingandhourly
consumptionduringamaximumday.Firefightingvolumeshallalsobeaddedtothiscalculatedamount.
Thegreaterofthetwocalculatedvolumesshallbeusedbasedonthefollowingequations:
V=(Q
maxh
Q
maxd
)+20%offirefightdemand(for4hours)or
V=(Q
maxh
Q
p
)+20%offirefightdemand(for4hours)
Where:
V istheVolume(m
3
)
Q
maxd
isthemaximumdailydemand(m
3
/h)
Q
maxh
isthemaximumhourlydemand(m
3
/h)
Qp istheconstantwatersupplypumpingrate(m
3
/h)
Elevatedwatertanksshallbedesignedsimilartogroundstoragetanksandareintendedtominimizethe
unusablestoragebelowtheminimumacceptablelevel.Theheight(h)oftheEWTshallbedesignedto
meetthewaterdistributionsystempressurerequirements,asdeterminedbythehydraulicmodelingof
thesystem.Inabsenceofmodeling,thefollowingcriteriamaybeused.Theminimumlevelinthetank
isbasedonprovidingaminimumpressureinthedistributionsysteminaccordancewiththefollowing:
Normaldemandsbasedonprovidingaminimumpressureequalto25matthehighestground
elevationwithintheserviceareaofthetank
Firefightingdemandsbasedonprovidingaminimumpressureequalto15matthehighest
groundelevationwithintheserviceareaofthetank
Volumesinthetankbelowtheminimumlevelforfirefightingareconsideredemergencyreservesand
mayrequiretemporarypumpingtobedelivered.Incaseswheresufficientlyhighgroundlevelsare
available,agroundstoragetankmaybeused.Ingeneral,elevatedtanksmaybeusedinconjunction
withsupplypumpsthatcanprovidemorethan65percentofthedemandinthetanksservicearea.
1.3.4 TransportWaterLines
Transportwaterlinesareintendedtodeliverwaterfromthemainsupplysourcetostoragereservoirs
anddistributionnetworks.Theselinesarenotintendedtodistributewaterdirectlytoservice
connections.Deliverypressuresshallbemaintainedbypressuresustainingvalvesatgroundreservoirs
andbythehydrostaticheadatelevatedwatertanks.
NetworkAnalyses
Networkanalysesofthewatersystemshallbeperformedtoensurethatanadequateandsafewater
supplyisavailabletoallconsumersconnectedtothesystemforalldefinedmodesofoperation.The
systemshallbesizedinaccordancewiththedesignparameterslistedinTable12.
Table12.TransportWaterLineDesignParameters
TRANSPORTWATERLINES
DesignFlow
Q
des
(averageflow)
Usethegreaterofthefollowingvalues:
Q
des
=Q
ave
,v=1.0m/s,or
Q
des
=Q
maxd
,v=2.5m/s
MinimumPressure
5m(0.5bar)abovethehighestpointinsystem(providedthereareno
customersservicedbythisline)
MaximumOperating
Pressure
100m(10bar)
TRANSPORTWATERLINES
DesignMaximum
Pressure
MaximumExpectedOperatingpressurex2+waterhammerallowanceof70m
(7bar)
MinimumVelocity 0.6m/s
MaximumVelocity 2.5m/s
Materials
1
150mm400mm:PVCorHDPE
>400mm:DIP,FRPorHDPE
RoughnessCoefficient
Perpipespecificationsandformulas.NottoexceedaHazenWilliams
roughnesscoefficientof140
1
Considerationmustbetakenforaggressivesoilconditionsandeconomicalcomparison.
Fittings
Thefollowingfittingsshallbeincludedalongthewatertransportlinesforfacilitatingtheoperation,
control,andmaintenance:
1. Airrelease,Air/Vacuum,CombinationAirandVacuumreliefValves:Airreleaseand
vacuumreliefvalvesareoftenneededalongtransmissionmains.Airreleasevalvesshall
beprovidedatsummitsalongthepipeprofileandalonglongstretcheswithuniform
slopetopurgeoutaccumulatedairinthepipesystem.Airmustbebledslowlyfrom
highpointstoprevent(1)airbindingand(2)thereductionofthecrosssectionofthe
pipeathighpoints.Combinationairreleasevalvesareusedtoventlargequantitiesof
airfromthepipelinewhenthepipeinbeingfilledaswellasreleasingthesmall
quantitiesofaccumulatedairduringnormaloperations.Air/vacuumvalvesareusedto
preventexcessivelylowpressureswhenthepumpheaddropsquickly(asinpower
failures)topreventcolumnseparationandatextremehighpointsinpipelinesto
preventpotentialpipelinecollapseduetovacuum.Vacuumreliefvalvescanbeaslarge
asonesixthofthediameterofthetransmissionmain,whereasairreleasevalvesmay
beassmallasonefiftiethofthediameterofthepipe.Theselectionofthesizesof
thesevalvesshallbeinaccordancewithAWWAsManualofWaterSupplyPracticeM51
AirRelease,Air/Vacuum&CombinationAirValves.
2. Acombinationofairandvacuumvalvesshallbeprovidedatappropriatelocationsfor
quickairentryorventtopreventcavitationsandfacilitatequickfillingofthepipe.In
general,airvalvesaretobeinstalledatcrestpoints,changeinelevationsandincaseof
constantrisingmainshavingmoderateslope,atamaximumspacingof500mto750m.
3. Washoutvalves:Thesevalveswillbeprovidedatlowpointsorsagsalongthepipe
profile.Thesevalvesfacilitateflushing,repairormaintenanceofthepipewherever
necessary.Incaseswherethestaticheadonthesevalvesexceeds15m,properenergy
dissipationdevicesanderosioncontrolshallbeprovided.
4. Isolatingvalves:Thelocationofthesevalvesshallconsidertheprofileofthepipeline
andthelocationofwashoutandairvalves.Isolatingvalvesshallbeprovidedata
maximumdistanceofevery2to3kilometers.
5. IsolatingValveswithdiametersmallerthan300mmshallbegatevalvesandlarger
diametershallbebutterflyvalves.
6. NonReturnValves(CheckValves):Thesevalveswillbeprovidedinthepumpstationto
preventareverseflowintothepumpsandshallbeofnoiselessnonslamtype.
7. TappingSleevesandtees:Thesefittingsareusedtoaddbranchesforthepipeline.In
general,tappingsleevesshallnotbeusedwherethebranchsizeisgreaterthanorequal
toonehalfofthemainpipediameter.Insuchcases,standardteesshouldbeused.
Thepressureratingsofallfittingsshallequalorexceedthemaximumdesignpressurerequirementfor
thepipeline.
Alltransportlinevalvesnotlocatedinapumpstationstructureshallbeinstalledinsidereinforced
concretevalvechambers.
SuctionPipes
Suctionpipediametersshallbesizedwithdueregardforthepumpingnetpositivesuctionhead
requirement(NPSH
R
),andshallgenerallyprovideforaflowvelocity,v10.0m/s.
Pumps
Pumpcapacityshallbedesignedtomeettherequiredwaterdemand,Q,andtotaldynamichead,H.
Elevatedwatertanksprovideabufferforconstantspeedpumps.Fordistributionsystemswithoutan
elevatedwatertank,avariablerunningspeeddriveisrequiredtoallowthepumpingratetomaintaina
constantdischargepressureasthesystemdemandsareprovided.
Thefollowingfittingsshallbeprovidedwitheachpump:
1. Isolationvalves(oneprovidedupstreamanddownstreamofeachpumptoprotect
pumpsandallassociatedfittings)
2. Nonreturnvalveorahydraulicallyactuatedcontrolvalvedesigntoclosemoreslowly
thananonreturnvalve.Ifahydraulicallyactuatedcontrolvalveisused,aspecial
hydraulictransientanalysismustbeperformedtodemonstratethatexcessivesurge
pressureswillbecontrolled.Thesevalveshallbeplaceddirectlydownstreamofthe
pumps
3. Flowmeter(downstreamofpump)
4. Pressuregage(downstreamofpump)
5. Samplingtap(downstreamofpump)
6. Airvalveondischargepressuremain(downstreamofpump)
EmergencyPowerSupply
Allpumpingstationsshallbeprovidedwithbackup,dieselenginedrivenelectricalpowergenerators
sizedtopower100percentoftheratedpumpingstationpowerdemand.
Reliability
Forreliability,provideinstalledsparesforallrotatingequipmentshallbeprovidedtoprovide
N+1reliability(duplicateoflargestpump).Allequipmentshallbesuppliedwiththemanufacturers
requiredspareparts.
1.3.5 DistributionWaterLines
Distributionwaterlinesshallprovideservicetocommercialandresidentialdevelopments.Distribution
lines,sizedaccordingtocalculateddemand,aredividedintothreecategories:MainLines,Secondary
Lines,andLaterals.
DistributionLinesNetworkAnalyses
Networkanalysesofthewatersystemshallbeperformedtoensurethatanadequateandsafewater
supplyisavailabletoallconsumersconnectedtothesystemforalldefinedmodesofoperation.The
systemshallbeindesignedinaccordancewiththehydraulicdesignparameterslistedinTable13.
Table13.DistributionWaterLineDesignParameters
DISTRIBUTIONWATERLINES
SecondaryLine MainLine
LineDiameterSize <200mm
>200 mm
(Allwaterlinesusedforfirefightingshallbeatleast200mm)
DesignFlow
Q
des
(averageflow)
Usethegreaterofthefollowingvalues:
Q
des
=Q
ave
xK
hmax
Q
des
=Q
maxd
+Q
ff
MinimumPressureHead 15m(1.5bar)
MaximumPressureHead 60 m(6.0bar)
MinimumDesignVelocity 0.1m/s 0.6 m/s
MaximumDesignVelocity 1.5m/s 2.5m/s
Materials
1
PVC,HDPE
150 mm 400 mm:PVC,HDPE
>400mm:DuctileIron
Gradient Notlessthan0.1%
DISTRIBUTIONWATERLINES
SecondaryLine MainLine
RoughnessCoefficient Perpipespecificationsandformulas
1
Considerationmustbetakenforaggressivesoilconditionsandeconomicalcomparison.
Alignment
Fordistributionsystemsdownstreamofreservoirs,aloopedratherthanbranchedlayoutshouldbe
usedtoprovidemorethanonesupplyrouteondistributionsystemswhereverpossible.Thevalve
arrangementshallbedesignedtolimittheareaneedingtobeshutdownwhenisolatingandrepairing
anysectionofwaterlineisnecessary.
Deviationofapipelinearoundanobstructioncanbeachievedbydeflectionatpipejointsorin
combinationwithbendsorconnectors.Thedeflectionanglepermittedataflexiblejointshallbein
accordancewiththepipemanufacturersrecommendation.Forlayingplasticpipesoncurves,minimum
radiiaretobeasperpipemanufacturersrecommendations.Ifdeflectionofjointsdoesnotprovidethe
necessarydeviation,bendsandotherfittingsshallbeused.
PipeCoverandPlacement
Thepipecoverdepthmustfollowthepipemanufacturersrecommendationsandprotection
requirementsormeetthefollowingcriteria(whicheverisgreater):
PipeUnderTraffic:CoverDepth1.0m(Pipethicknessdesignshallconsiderthemaximumexpected
trafficloadingonthepipeline).
PipeOutsideTraffic:CoverDepth0.8m
Anypipeplacedlessthantheminimumcoverrequirementsshallbeencasedinconcrete.
Waterlinesshallbeplacedaminimumof3mhorizontallyfromanyexistingorproposedgravitysewer
line,stormwaterline,septictankorsubsoiltreatmentsystem.Thehorizontaldistanceshallbe
measuredfromtheoutsideedgeofthewaterlinetotheoutsideedgeofthelineorstructure.
Waterlinescrossingaboveorbelowsewerlinesshallbeplacedaminimumof0.5mapartvertically.
Theverticaldistanceshallbemeasuredfromtheoutsideedgeofthewaterlinetotheoutsideedgeof
thesewerline.Afulllengthsectionofthewaterlineshallbeplacedatthecrossingsoastomaximize
thedistanceofthejointsfromthesewerline.Whenthewaterlineisplacedbelowthesewerline,the
waterlineshallbeencasedinconcreteforatotallengthof3mcenteredonthecrossingpoint.
ThrustBlocks
Thrustoranchorblocksofplainorreinforcedconcrete,whichhavebeendesignedtoresistunbalanced
hydraulicforces,shallbeprovidedatallbends,tees,tapers,inlinestopvalvesanddeadends.Thrust
blocksshallbedesignedaccordingtothewaterlinepressureandsoilhorizontalbearingcapacity.
Valves
Isolationvalvesshallbelocatedapproximatelyevery500mandshallalsobelocatedneareachtee
connection.Thefollowingvalvetypesshouldbeusedfordifferentwaterlinediameters:
<200mm:Gatevalveusingundergroundinstallationwithspindleandsurfacebox
200mm(ortwoormorevalvesareinagroup):Gatevalveinachamber
300mm:Butterflyvalve
400mm:Bypassvalve
1.3.6 FireHydrants
Therequirementforwaterforfirefightingpurposesshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithlocal
regulationsandInfrastructureDesignCriteria.
Locationoffirehydrantsshallavoidlotentrancesandobstructiontopedestrianmovementorgenerally
beplacedatthecornerofstreetintersectionsandpropertycorners.Criteriaforfirehydrantassembly
spacingareasfollows:
1. LimitedAccessRoads(RingRoads),300monalternatingsidesoftheroad
2. DividedRoadsWithMediansorBarrierDividers,75monalternatingsidesoftheroad
3. 2LaneLocalRoads,150m
4. 2LaneResidentialRoads,120m
5. Hydrantsshallbelocatedatamaximumspacingof150minsinglefamilyresidential
areas,120minmultiplefamilyareas,and75mincommercial,schoolandindustrial
areas.
6. Hydrantlocationshallbesuchthatthedistancetoanybuildingdoesnotexceed75m
andnotlessthan12m.
7. Hydrantshallbelocatedwithin2.5moffinishedcurbingontheendofpavedsurface.
Distancesshallbemeasuredalongroadcenterlineorfirelane.Hydrantassembliesshallbelocated
withinpublicroadrightsofwayunlessotherwiseapprovedbythefiredepartment.
Firehydrantsleadsshallbeaminimumof150mmdiameter.Hydrantsshallnotbeconnectedto
pipelineslessthan200mmindiameter.Hydrantsshallbedrybarreltypewithisolationvalves.
Hydrantsmayalsobeusedforoperationalpurposes,suchasfilling,draining,venting,andflushingofthe
watermain.Theserequirementsaretobeconsideredwhileselectinglocationandtypeofhydrants.
1.3.7 Laterals
Laterals(houseconnections)shallbedesignedtoprovideaflowequalto0.3l/s.Themaximumvelocity
shallbenogreaterthan1.0m/s.Eachhouseconnectionmustbeinstalledwithaflowmeterusedto
measuretheamountofwatersupplied.Nohouseconnectionsshallbemadetowaterlineswith
diametergreaterthan300mm.
PipematerialshouldbePEexceptinrockysoilwheregalvanizedsteelpipeorcoppermaybeused.IfPE
pipeisusedinrockysoil,thepipemustbeprotectedbya200mmthicksandlayeronallsides.For
copperpipe;solders,flux,andpipefittingscontainingleadshallnotbeallowed.
1.3.8 BackflowPrevention
Backflowpreventionshallbeprovidedtoeliminateanyconnectionbetweenthewaterdistribution
systemandanysystemofpipes,pumps,hydrants,ortanksthathavethepotentialtoallow
contaminatedmaterialsintothedrinkingwatersupply.Topreventcrosscontaminationofdrinking
water,suitablebackflowpreventiondevicesmustbeinstalled.Backflowpreventiondevicesshall
complywithappropriateAWWAstandard.
1.3.9 OperationandMaintenance
FollowtheguidelinesincludedinAWWAStandardG20004:AWWAStandardforDistributionSystems
OperationandManagement.
1.4 WaterWellDesign
Groundwateristhetypicalwatersupplysourceforcommunitiesandsettlementsnotservedbythe
GreatManmadeRiver(GMR)watersupply.Forthesecurityandreliabilityofwatersupplytothese
communitiesandsettlements,itisimportantthatwatersupplywellsbeconstructedtoanacceptable
standardofreliabilityandperformance.Aseriesofdesigncriteriahavebeenestablishedforpotable
watersupplywellsinLibya.
Table14:WaterWellDesignCriteriapresentsthedesigncriteriagoverningthedesignand
constructionofpotablewatersupplywells.
Table14:WaterWellDesignCriteria
ApprovalofNewWells AllnewwellsandwelldesignsshouldbeapprovedbytheGeneralWater
Authority(GWA).
Designlife Normally25years,exceptifusedasatemporarysource.Wellsdeeperthan
350mshouldbedesignedfor50years.
Numberofwells Minimumoftwowellspersettlement,exceptwherethereisareliable
alternativebackupsourceofwater.Thenumberofwellsshouldbesufficient
tosatisfywaterdemandevenwhenthereareinterruptionsdueto
maintenance.Thenumberofwellsshouldallowformeetingtheaverage
dailydemandwiththelargestcapacitywelloutofservice.
Depthofwells Ideallywellsshouldpenetratetheentireaquifer,exceptwherethereare
financialconstraints(e.g.deepKiklahaquifer)oradeteriorationofwater
qualitywithdepth.Thefinaldrilldepthshouldbesufficienttoprevent
possiblecaveinbeforetheplacementofscreensandcasing.
Distancebetweenwells Tobedeterminedbyhydrogeologicalstudies,basedonpumpingtestsin
existingwells.Thedistanceshouldbesufficienttominimizeinterference
effectsbetweenadjacentwells.
Drillingdiameter Shouldbesufficienttoallowaminimumof5cmgapbetweentheborehole
andthecasing/screenforplacingthegravelpackandcementgrout.
Casing/screenmaterial Choiceofmaterialshouldbebasedontechnicalconstraints(welldepth,
aquiferandgroundwatercharacteristics),andeconomicanalysis.Corrosive
resistantmaterials[e.g.glassfiberreinforcedplastic(GRP),polyvinylchloride
(PVC),unplasticisedpolyvinylchloride(uPVC),stainlesssteel(SS),etc.]tobe
usedinareasofaggressivegroundwater.
Cementgrout Onlyneatcementgrouttobeused(nosand/gravel).
Wellhead Aconductorcasingofminimumlength6mgroutedintopositiontoavoid
surfacecontaminationofthewell.Aconcreteprotectionpadofminimum
1mhigharoundthetopofthewellhead,ofwhich0.75misbelowground
level.Thetopofthecasingshouldextendminimum0.8maboveground
level.Thecasingshouldbelockedshut/spotweldedaftercompletionto
avoidcontamination/vandalismofthewell.
DisinfectionofWells Allwellsshouldbedisinfectedaftercompletionbychlorination(sodium
hypochloriteorcalciumhypochlorite)ataconcentrationnolessthan10mg/L
asfreechlorinefor24hrs.Thewellsshouldthenbepurgedbypumpingto
wasteuntilthepresenceofchlorineisreduced,asverifiedthroughtestingor
untilthewaternolongersmellsofchlorine.Notethatthepresenceof
chlorineingroundwaterwilltendtooxidizemetalssuchasironand
manganese,creatingdarkparticulatesinthepumptowastewater.Flushing
shallcontinueuntiltheseparticulatesareremoved.
WellHeadProtection Thewellshouldbeprotectedbyawellhousethatalsocontainsthecontrol
panel.Anareaof15mradiusaroundthewellshouldbefenced.Inareasof
shallowaquifers,nowaterdegradationactivitiessuchasagriculturetobe
allowedina120mradius.Nocesspoolsorseptictankswithin60daytravel
timeasdefinedbyhydrogeologicalstudies.Nouseofdangerouschemicals
(e.g.pesticides)withinthecatchmentzoneofthewellasdefinedby
hydrogeologicalstudies.
PumpingTests Allproductionwellsshouldbetestedby:
- Avariabledischargeratepumpingtest(min4stepsofmin60minutes
each).
- Aconstantdischargeratepumpingtest(ratebasedonresultsofvariable
ratetest).Thelengthofthetesttobedecidedbasedonaquifer
characteristicsandsizeofsettlementtobesupplied.Minimumlengthis
24hoursforsmallsettlements(<1000population),72hours(100010,000
population),120hours(>10,000population).Inunconfinedaquifers,the
pumpingtestmustbelongenoughtoincludedelayedyield,andthefinal
drawdowncurve.
- Arecoverytest(continueduntilaminimum95%recoveryisreached,
minimumtestdurationis24hours)
Duringthepumpingtestshydrochemicalparameters(including,ata
minimum,pH,TemperatureandConductivity)shouldbemonitoredatregular
intervals.
WaterAnalysis WaterqualitytobeanalyzedforallparametersintheLibyanStandardNo.82
andasincludedherein.
Pumpcapacity/type Pumpcapacitytobechosenbasedonwellcompletionreportandcalculated
usingresultsofpumpingtests.Thecapacityshouldnotexceed70%ofthe
maximumpumpingtestrate.Pumpmaterialshouldbebasedontechnical
constraintsandeconomicanalysis.Corrosiveresistantmaterialstobeusedin
areasofaggressivegroundwater.Aggressivegroundwatersareusuallyvery
lowalkalinityandorlowTDSwaters.Theseconditionsgenerallydonotexist
inLibya.
PumpSettingDepth Thepumpsettingdepthiscalculatedbasedonthepumpingtestresults,and
allowingforadeclineinthewatertableduetothepumpingfromthewell,
andadjacentwells.Asafelymarginof5mshouldbeaddedtothisdepth.
RisingMain Sizeisdeterminedbypumpcharacteristics.
Risingmainmaterialshouldbebasedontechnicalconstraintsandeconomic
analysis.Corrosiveresistantmaterialstobeusedinareasofaggressive
groundwater.
Dippertube Allproductionwellsmusthavea1"(25mm)dippertube,toenablewater
levelstobemeasuredusinganelectronicwaterleveldipper.Thedippertube
canbehangingseparatelyfromtherisingmain(e.g.GIpipe),orattachedtoit
ifitisflexible(e.g.PVC/PETtube).Thedippertubeshouldextendto
minimum10mbelowtheexpectedwaterlevelduringmaximumpumping
rate.Corrosiveresistantmaterialstobeusedinareasofaggressive
groundwater.
Records Arecordoftheconstructiondetailsshallbepreparedforallproductionwells.
Recordedinformationmustincludewelllocation;boreholediameterand
depth;wellcasingdetails(diameters,materials,schedules,anddepthsofall
permanentcasings);wellscreendetails(diameters,materials,opening
widths,anddepths);depthofgroutedandsandpackedintervals;original
yield/drawdown;originalwaterlevel.
SurfaceFittings Minimumcontrolsatthesurfaceareflowcontrolvalve,flowmeter,pressure
gauge,nonreturnvalve,samplingtap.
Monitoring Allwellstobemonitoredonatleastamonthlybasisforpumpingwater
levels,wellyieldandwaterquality(minimummeasurement=conductivity).
Recordtobekeptofdailypumpinghoursanddailytotalflowsforeachwell.
Emergencypowersupply Iftheexistingpowersupplyisunreliablesome/allofthewellsinawellfield
shouldhaveaccesstoanemergencypowersourcesuchasastandby
automaticswitchovergenerator.
PumpProtection Thepumpsshouldbeprotectedbyelectriccutoffswitches.Allpumpsshould
haveprotectionfromelectricalandhydraulicsurges.
Spareparts Fullstockofsparepartstobeavailablesothatinterruptionsinthesupplyfor
maintenanceworksareminimized.
Decommissioningofold
wells
Wellstobepluggedatdepthwithcement/bentoniteiftheytraversemore
thanoneaquifer.Backfillingofthewellwithnoncontaminatedmaterialsand
protectionbyasurfacecementorbentoniteplugoverthetop10mofthe
well.
Protectionagainst
voltagefluctuations
Protectionagainstvoltagefluctuationsbyelectricalsurgeprotectorsis
essentialforeachwell.Tosupportthemonitoringandoperationsystemand
toavoidelectricalproblems,thebestprotectionsystemsshouldbeapplied
suchas:
- Protectionagainstoverload
- Protectionagainstshortcircuit
- Protectionagainstprolongedstart
- Earthfaultprotection
- Temperatureprotection
Voltageprotection(protectionagainstphaseloss,protectionagainstphase
unbalanceandphasesequenceprotection)
1.5 SurfaceWater,GroundWater,andSeawaterTreatment
1.5.1 Purpose
ThepurposeoftheDesignCriteriaistoestablishthecommoncriteriafortheprocessdesignofLibyaHIB
watertreatmentplants.Followingisalistofgoalsandobjectivesforwatertreatmentplantdesign.
1. Treatmentplantsforaveragedailydemandlessthan10,000m
3
/dayshallbedesigned
basedonthecharacteristicsofthespecificwatersupply.Typesofprocessandgeneral
sizingcriteriaarepresentedinthisdocument.
2. Watertreatmentplantdesignisdependentonthequantityandqualityofwatertobe
treatedtomeetfinishedwatercriteriasuitableforpotablewaterconsumption.
3. Plantbuildingsshallbearchitecturallydesignedstructureswithadequateheating,
ventilating,andairconditioningsystems.Thebuildingsshallbeconstructedofconcrete
ormasonrywithconcreteroofs.
4. Alltreatmentfacilitiesshallbeequippedwithautomaticchangeoverdieselgenerators
suitablysizedtooperatethewatertreatmentfacilityataveragedemandandtomeet
peakelectricalload.
5. AlltreatmentprocessesshallbedesignedforN1redundancy,meaningthatthefacility
shallbeabletoprovidethemaximumdailydemandwithoneprocesstrainoutof
service.
6. Surfacewatertreatmentplantsshallconsistoftypicalconventionaltreatmentprocesses
suchasrapidmix/coagulation,flocculation,sedimentation,filtration,disinfectionand
fluoridation,meetinggenerallyaccepteddesignstandards(i.e.,HealthResearch
IncorporatedRecommendedStandardsforWaterWorks,2007)
7. Groundwatertreatmentplantsshallconsistofprocessesbasedontreatingconstituents
inthegroundwater.ForLibya,thetypicalconstituentsareiron,manganese,andhigh
totaldissolvedsolids(TDS).
8. ElectricalandMechanicalReliabilitystandardsshallbeequivalenttoUnitedStates
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA)ReliabilityClassII.
9. Allplantprocessbasins,walkways,andstairwaysshallbeequippedwitharailingsystem
designedwithathreerails,andtoeplate.Thedesignshallbebasedonequivalent
standardsestablishedbytheOccupationalHealth&SafetyAdministration(OSHA)or
NationalExaminationBoardOccupationalHealth&Safety(NEBOSH).
10. Pipegalleriesandbelowgradepumproomsshallbeventilatedinaccordancewith
normalpracticetoreducemoisturebuildupandpotentialfortoxicgasbuildup.
11. AllplantsshallbeequippedwithaSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA)
systemtofacilitateprocesscontrolandmonitoringofthefacility.Flowmetersshallbe
providedtomonitorrawwater,individualfilteredwater,andfinishedwater.
12. Watertreatmentplantswillhavecontinuousonlinemonitoringofrawwater
temperature,flow,turbidity,andpH;individualfilteredwaterturbidityandflowfilter
headloss;finishedwatertemperature,turbidity,pH,andchlorineresidual.Plantsshall
alsobeequippedwithlaboratoryequipmentformonitoringwaterqualityofgrab
samplesthroughoutthetreatmentprocess.
13. Processdesignshallconsideroverallwaterconservation.Conservationofrawwater
supplycanbeachievedthroughthetreatmentandrecycleofspentfilterbackwash
water.Conservationoffinishedwatersupplyforfilterbackwashcanbeachieved
throughtheuseofacombinedairandwaterbackwashsystem.
14. LowPressureMembranefiltrationwithairbackwashcanbeconsideredasan
alternativetoconventionalwatertreatmentwithappropriatepretreatmentunitsahead
ofthemembranefiltrationunits.
15. Alltreatmentplantsshallhaveprimarydisinfectionwitheitherultravioletdisinfection
forpathogensandchlorineforviruses,orchlorinationalone.Theprimarydisinfection
shallsatisfythevirusandGiardiainactivationrequirementsasestablishedbytheCT
productmethod(USEPASurfaceWaterTreatmentRule).Secondarydisinfectionshallbe
providedviachlorinationformaintainingfreechlorineresidualinthedistribution
systemofnotlessthan0.2mg/Lasfreeavailablechlorine.
16. Waterstoragefacilitiesshallbesizedtomeettherequiredcontacttime(CT)priorto
distributiontothefirstcustomerdownstreamofthewatertreatmentplant,unlessthe
watertreatmentplantisthefirstcustomer.Ifthewatertreatmentplantisthefirst
customer,thenprovideCTpriortosendingthewaterbackintothewatertreatment
plant.
17. Alltreatmentplantsshallbesuppliedwiththerequiredservicevehicles,operationand
maintenancemanualsandsoftware,recommendedsparepartsfor2years,workshop
andtrainingoflocalstaff,specialtoolsforequipmentmaintenance,laboratoryforthe
requiredrawandtreatedwaterqualityanalyses,andotherfacilitiesasrequired.
18. Alltreatmentplantsshallbedesignedtoallowforeaseofoperationandmaintenance,
whichthecontractorshallprovideforaperiodoftwoyearsfollowingasuccessful
commissioning.OperationandMaintenanceactivitiesshallincluderoutine,periodic,
andpreventivetasks,detaileddailyrecordingofoperationsactivities,materialsused,
etc.asrecommendedbythecontractororequipmentmanufacturers,andasindicated
intheequipmentoperationandmaintenancemanuals.
1.5.2 WaterTreatmentDesignCriteria
PopulationandGrowthProjections
PopulationandgrowthprojectionsshallbebasedonthesaturatedpopulationoftheThirdGeneration
MasterPlanareawiththewatersupplysourcesandtreatmentcapacityaccordingtoprojected
populationto2025.
WaterDemand
Watertreatmentplantsshallbedesignedconsideringaveragedailydemandandmaximum
instantaneousdailydemand.Theplanthydraulicsshallbedesignedformaximumdailydemandand
futureexpansion.Themaximumdailydemandforsmallresidentialareascanrangefrom1.0to2.0
timestheaveragedailydemand.Storagecapacityatwatertreatmentplantsshallbedeterminedbased
ondemandinthedistributionsystem,thewaterneedattheplantsuchasbackwashing,servicewaterat
theplantsite,andforallowingadequatecontacttimefordisinfection.Ataminimum,theplantshould
have10percentofitsdailycapacityavailableforstorageoverandabovethevolumeneededforinternal
usesanddisinfection.Fireflowdemandisnotincludedinthetypicalcalculationsforaverageand
maximumdailywaterdemands,butshouldbeincludedwhensizingfinishedwaterstoragefacilities.
FinishedorTreatedWaterQuality
Finishedortreatedwatermustmeetwaterqualitystandardswithmeanconcentrationsatorbelowthe
followingmaximumcontaminantlevels(MCLs)aslistedinTable15.Table15alsolistsavailable
treatmenttechnologiesthatarecommonlyeffectiveatreducingcontaminantsofconcern.Itshouldbe
notedthatcombinationsofunitprocessesmayberequired.Thesourcewatermustbesampledforthe
constituentsbelowinordertoestablishtheappropriatetreatmenttechnology.

Table15:TreatedWaterQualityParameters
ContaminantMicrobials MCL AvailableTreatmentTechnologies
(1)
Turbidity
Finishedwater<0.3NTUin95%of
measurements
Nottoexceed1NTUatanytime
Inline,direct,orconventional
filtration.Orlowpressuremembranes
UForMF.Groundwatersourcesthat
meetturbidityandotherstandards
mayrequirenotreatmentthroughunit
processes.
TotalColiforms(including
fecalcoliformandE.Coli)
Nomorethan5%positivesamplesin
distributionsystempermonth
Primarydisinfectionforsurfacewater
systems,andmaintaindistribution
systemresidual>0.2mg/lfree
availablechlorine.Groundwater
systemmayalsoberequiredto
chlorinatetocomplywithMCL
dependingonsourcewaterquality.
GiardiaandViruses
Achieve3logand4logremoval
respectively
Forsurfacewatersystemsusing
conventionalfiltration,provide0.5log
removalofGiardiathroughprimary
disinfection.Fordirectfiltration,
provide1loginactivationofGiardia
throughprimarydisinfection.For
groundwatersystems,provide4log
removalofvirusespriortofirstuser
throughchlorination,ifgroundwater
showsevidenceoffecalcontamination
ofsource
.(2)
ContaminantInorganic
Chemicals
MCL
AvailableTreatmentTechnologies
(1)
Antimony 0.006mg/L Granularactivatedcarbon

Arsenic 0.01mg/l
Oxidationandthencoagulationwith
ferricsulfateoralum(pHdependent)
Asbestos
7millionfibers/liter
(longerthan10m)
Coagulation/filtration
Barium 2mg/L Limesofteningorionexchange
Beryllium 0.004mg/L Chemicalprecipitation

Cadmium 0.005mg/L
Ferricsulfatecoagulationorlime
softening
Chromium(total) 0.1mg/L
Ferricsulfatecoagulationorlime
softening
Copper
1
1.3mg/L Ferricsulfatecoagulation
Cyanide(asfreecyanide) 0.2mg/l GACandchemicaloxidation
Fluoride 4mg/L Chemicalprecipitationorionexchange
Mercury 0.002mg/L
Ferricsulfatecoagulation
GAC
Nitrate 10(asNitrogen) Ionexchangeornanofiltration
Nitrite 1(asNitrogen) Ionexchangeornanofiltration
Selenium 0.05mg/L
Ferricsulfatecoagulation,
orIonexchange,
orreverseosmosis
Thallium 0.002mg/L
Chemicalprecipitationfollowedby
filtration
ContaminantOrganic
Chemicals
MCL
(1)
Syntheticorganic
Chemicals(SOCs)and
VolatileOrganic
Compounds(VOCs)
ComplywiththeUSEPADrinking
WaterContaminantsandMaximum
ContaminantLevels
Generally,aeration,airstripping,GAC
adsorption,orcombinationsthereof
arerequired.Advancedoxidationmay
berequiredforcertaincompounds.
(1)
Othertreatmenttechnologiesmayalsoapply.Itmaybenecessarytoinstallmultipleunitprocessesdepending
onsourcewaterquality.
(2)
Conventionalfiltrationisdefinedashavingthefollowingunitprocesses:Coagulation(i.e.,chemicalmixing),
flocculation,sedimentation,andfiltration.Directfiltrationconsistsofcoagulation,flocculation,andfiltration.In
linefiltrationconsistsofcoagulationandfiltration.
SecondaryMaximumContaminantLevels(MCLs)areprovidedinTable16.Thesecontaminantsare
notconsideredtopresentarisktohumanhealthatthemaximumlevelsgiveninthetable,butare
relatedtotheaestheticqualityofthewater.Ifthesecontaminantsarepresentatthelevelsabovethese
standards,thecontaminantsmaycausethewatertoappearcloudyorcolored,ortotasteorsmellbad,
resultinginasignificantnumberofconsumercomplaints.
Table16:SecondaryMaximumContainmentLevels
Contaminant SecondaryMCL NoticeableEffectsabove
theSecondaryMCL
Aluminum 0.05to0.2
mg/L*
coloredwater Coagulation&clarification
Chloride 250mg/L saltytaste Reverseosmosis
Color 15colorunits visibletint Conventionalordirectfiltration

Corrosivity Noncorrosive metallictaste;corroded
pipes/fixturesstaining
pHadjustmentorsequestration
Fluoride 2.0mg/L toothdiscoloration Chemicalprecipitationorionexchange
Foamingagents 0.5mg/L frothy,cloudy;bittertaste;
odor
Iron 0.3mg/L rustycolor;sediment;
metallictaste;reddishor
orangestaining
Oxidationandfiltration
Manganese 0.05mg/L blacktobrowncolor;black
staining;bittermetallic
taste
Oxidationandfiltration
Odor 3TON
(thresholdodor
number)
"rottenegg",mustyor
chemicalsmell
Powderedorgranularactivatedcarbon
pH 6.58.5 lowpH:bittermetallic
taste;corrosion
highpH:slipperyfeel;soda
taste;deposits
pHadjustment
Silver 0.1mg/L skindiscoloration;graying
ofthewhitepartoftheeye
Coagulationwithferricsulfateoralum,
orlimesoftening
Sulfate 250mg/L saltytaste Limesofteningorreverseosmosis
TotalDissolved
Solids(TDS)
500mg/L hardness;deposits;colored
water;staining;saltytaste
Limesofteningforhardnessreduction
(Ca,Mg,andsulfates)orreverse
osmosisforsodium,chloride,nitrates
Zinc 5mg/L metallictaste Coagulation
*mg/Lismilligramsofsubstanceperliterofwater
Theavailabletreatmenttechnologiesforremovalofsecondarycontaminantsvary.Manysecondary
contaminantscanberemovedthroughconventionalprocesses.
TreatmentProcessOperations
Table17listsbasicdesigncriteriaforspecificunittreatmentprocessoperations:
Table17:TreatmentProcessOperations
BASICTREATMENTPROCESSOPERATIONS
RapidMix
DesignFlow MaximumDailyFlow
AllowableTypes
VerticalShaftMechanicalMixing,JetMixers,StaticMixers,or
Inlinemixers
VelocityGradient,G 600100secs
1
HydraulicRetentionTime 30secformechanicalmixing
RecommendedPretreatmentChemicalsforreductionof:
Turbidity
AluminumSulphate,FerricorFerrousSulfateorFerricChloride,
Polyaluminumchloride,flocculantaidpolymer
Metals
Ferricsulphate,Limesoftening,SodiumHydroxideforph
adjustment
Hardness Limeand/orLime/SodaAshtoelevatepHto10.5
GeneralPretreatmentrequirementaheadof
ReverseOsmosisMembranes(alsoconsultwith
ROsystemsupplier)
Sulfuricacidand/orantiscalant
Flocculation
DesignFlow MaximumDailyFlow
Flowthroughvelocity 0.15m/minto0.50m/min
DetentionTime 2030minutestotalthroughminimumoftwostages
AllowableMixingDevices
Axialflowpropellersorturbines,flatbladeturbines,
reciprocatingunits(walkingbeam)
VelocityGradient,G 7010sec
1
,taperedflocculation(diminishingG)preferred
PlainSedimentationBasins
NumberofUnits 2minimum
DesignFlow
MaximumDailyDemand
AverageDailyDemand(oneunitoutofservice)
DetentionTime
4hours
2hours(limesodasoftening)
Surfaceloadingrate 1.22m/hr
WeirOverflowRate 250m
3
perdaypermeterofweirlength
FlowthroughVelocity 0.15m/min
MinimumSidewaterDepth 3 m
Freeboard 0.5 m
AbsorptionClarifiers(orotherhighrateclarifiers)
DesignSize
SizedbyManufacturer(Typicallysmallerfootprintthan
ConventionalSedimentationBasin.SuitableforInfluent
Turbiditieslessthan30NTU)
TubeorPlateSettlers
DesignSize SizedbyManufacturer
ApplicationRate
<4.8m/hrfortubessettlers
<1.2m/hrforplatessettlers(basedon80%oftheprojected
horizontalplatearea
GranularMediaFilters
NumberofUnits 2minimum
DesignFlow MaximumDailyDemand(withoneunitoutofservice)
FilterMedia
DualMedia(Anthracite,Sand),Monomedia(sandoranthracite)
orGranularActivatedCarbon(GAC)
LoadingRate 4.9to9.8m/hr(24gpm/sf)
MediaDepth 1 2 mdependingonwaterquality
Underdrains
CeramicPerforatedBlocks,nozzlesandfalsefloordecking,
foldedsteelplate,
Backwashrates Upto49m/hrdependingontemperatureandmedia
Backwashbedexpansion 2030%
Surfacewashrate
1.22to9.76m/hrdependingonarmdiameterandnozzle
orientation
Airwashrate 37to91m/hrair
FinishedWaterClearwell
DesignFlow
MaximumDailyDemand
Includesystemstorageandfirefightingdemandsifnotprovided
indistributionsystem.
ProcessFunctions
ChlorineContactTimeneededforC(t)(seebelow)plus2
BackwashCyclesforallFilterandProcessUnitsRequiringWater
Backwash
Disinfection
DesignFlow MaximumDailyDemandandlowesttemperature
MinimumContactTime
BasedoneffectiveContacttimetimesconcentration[C(t)]
required.Theeffectivecontacttimeisafractionofthe
theoreticalcontacttime.Thisfractionisdependenton:
baffling,finishedwaterpH,finishedwaterchlorineresidual,
watertemperature,maximumflowandminimumclearwell
depth
InternalBafflingDimensionRatio 10Lengthto1Width
FilterControlValves
Purpose RegulateFilterFeedandBackwashOperation
AllowableValveType ElectricallyOperatedButterflyValve
BackwashPump
Capacity Capableofsupplying40m
3
/hr/m
2
offilterarea
AllowableType
VerticalTurbinePumpsSizedtoCreate30%Expansionofthe
FilterBed.
Variablespeeddrives.
ElevatedStorageTanksufficienttoholdatleast2backwash
cycleswithaminimumlevelsufficienttoprovidedrivingheadto
furnishdesignbackwashflowrate.
Otherunitprocessesthataretypicallyincludedareusedinsolidshandlingapplications.Thismay
includegravitythickeners,lagoons,dewateringequipment,andsolidsdrying.
TreatmentPlantLayout
Atypicalconventionalwatertreatmentplantcanbeconfiguredforacampusstylelayoutwithseparate
buildingsandstructuresforeachtreatmentprocessorcanbeacompactdesignwithsharedwall
construction.Thelayoutofthefacilityisbasedontheavailabilityoflandandtheexistingtopography.
DesalinationPlants
Therearetwoprincipaltypesofdesalinationplantprocesses,membranedesalinationincluding
electrodialysisreversal,nanofiltration,andreverseosmosis;andthermalmethodsincludingmultistage
flashdistillation,multipleeffectdistillation,andvaporcompression.Thesetypesofplantsmaybeused
forseawater,brackishwaterinestuariesorinshallowaquifersnearshorelines.Forbothdesalination
processes,seawaterintakepointsmustbelocatedinacurrentenvironmentthatisdirectedseaward.
Theintakelinemustbesituatedatadepthtopreventinterferencewithshippingoperationsand
designedtopreventfishfromenteringtheintake.
ReverseOsmosis(orHighPressureMembraneProcess)
Pretreatmentunitsmayberequiredpriortothereverseosmosisprocesstoconditionthewaterbefore
beingtreatedbythemembranes.Chlorine,phosphorus,andironsubstantiallyshortenthemembrane
lifeandmustberemovedpriortomembranetreatment.Organicsmustnotbeappliedtothe
membranesbecausetheycausebiofoulingandwillalsoshortenmembranelife.
ReverseOsmosisMembranesarespiralwoundmembranesofferedbynumerousmanufacturers
worldwide.ForMediterraneanseawaterwithatotaldissolvedsolidsestimatedat30,000mg/l,these
membranesaredesignedtooperateatoperationalpressuresupto60bar.
Figure11:Typicaltreatmentprocessforseawaterdesalinationisillustratedbelow.
MultiEffectDesalination(Distillation)
Distillationusesheatexchangerstoheatthewatertobetreatedtoaboilingpoint.Waterisboiledoff
oftheexchangerandbasedthoughacondensingunitthatproducesfinishedwaterfreeofpathogens.
Onlyresidualchlorinationofthefinishedwaterisrequired.
BrineDisposal
Bothtypesofdesalinationplantsproducebrinewastethatis30to60percentofthewaterflow.Brine
shouldbecapturedinpercolationorevaporationponds.Forspecialconditions,brinemaybe
dischargedbacktothesea.Thesedischargepipelinesmustbedesignedwithsimilarconsiderationsas
theintakeline.Thedischargepipemustterminateinanareawherecurrentsflowawayfromthe
shorelineandawayfromtheplantintakescreeningsystem.
PipeMaterials
Table18listswatertreatmentplantpipecomponentsandthecorrespondingallowablematerial:
Table18:PipeMaterialsforWaterTreatmentPlants
PipeComponent AllowableMaterial
AirPurgableInletandBrine
OutletScreens
5mmOpeningSize,316stainlesssteel
316StainlessSteelWedgewireScreen
ScreenHydraulicsDesignedfor50%Obstruction
Inlet/BrineOutletPipe
(materialdependentuponsize)
FiberglassReinforcedPlastic(FRP)perAWWAC950(requiresballastingoranchorstoprevent
flotation)
HighDensityPolyethylene(HDPE)perAWWAC901andC906(requiresballastingoranchors
topreventflotation)
DuctileIron(perANSI/AWWAC151/A21.5)
PolyvinylChloride(PVC)(perAWWAC900)
UndergroundSitePipe
MechanicalJointPressureClass350DuctileIronPipe(perANSI/AWWAC151/A21.5)
PrecastConcreteCylinderPipe(forpipeslargerthan1200mm)perAWWAstandardsC300,
C301,C302,C303,andC304)
InPlantMechanicalProcessPipe Pressureclass350DuctileIronPipewith125psiFlanges
ChemicalFeedLines NonCorrosiveHighDensityPolyethylene
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SEWERAGE21
2 Sewerage
Thissectionpresentsstandarddesigncriteriaforseweragesystems.
Thecriteriapresentedhavebeenstandardizedtoreflecttypicalinstallations.Itisunderstoodthat
certainsituationsmayrequiredeviationfromthecriteriaherein.
2.1 SewerDesignCriteria
Seweragesystemsincludecollectionofwastewaterfromeachsource,transport,includingpumping
stations,deliverytoatreatmentfacility,treatment,anddisposalofsolidsgeneratedduringthe
treatmentprocess.StorageandhandlingofTreatedSewageEffluent(TSE)isconsideredpartofthe
irrigationsystemandiscoveredinSection4.0.
Ingeneral,sewercapacityshouldbedesignedfortheestimatedultimatecontributingpopulationand
thefullexpecteddevelopmentofindustrialandcommercialareas.
2.1.1 SewageFlow
Forcommunitywidedesignaveragewastewaterflowsaredeterminedas80%ofthedesignaverage
waterdemand.Table21listsaveragewaterandwastewaterflowratesbasedoncommunity
populationsize.
Table21WastewaterUnitFlowRates
Population
[Inhabitants]
AveragePotable
WaterDemand[Q]
Domestic
SewageFlow[Q]
AverageWaterDemand
m
3
/d[Q
ave
]
(Waterdistributionpipe
leakage,pipeflushing,
lawnirrigationetc.
included.)
<3,000 Q=150l/d/c Q=120l/d/c
3,00020,000 Q=180l/d/c Q=145l/d/c
20,00050,000 Q=200l/d/c Q=160l/d/c
50,000100,000 Q=250l/d/c Q=200l/d/c
100,000500,000 Q=300l/d/c Q=240l/d/c
>500,000 Q=350l/d/c Q=280l/d/c
DesignpeakhourlysewageflowsshallbecalculatedbyusingaPeakingFactor(PF)forallsewageflows
fromaknownorassumedtributarypopulation,basedontheBabbittFormula,asfollows:
PF=4.25(Population1000)
1/6
ThePFshallbeusedtoprojectpeakhourlysewageflowsfromtributaryareaswithcontributing
populationequaltoorgreaterthan500persons,upto90,000persons.Fortributaryareaswithfewer
than500persons,analternativemethodofestimatingpeakflowsisallowable.
Forexample,thepeakingfactorforapopulationof3,000usingtheBabbittFormulaisPF=3.5
Forpopulations90,000andabove,orsewageflowsof18,000m
3
/dorgreater,thepeakingfactorshall
neverbelessthan2.0.
Forconcentratedcommercialandlightindustrialarea,Table22presentsflowratesforselected
commercialactivities.
Table22LandUseBasedFlowsforSewerage
Type/Activity Unit UnitFlowRate
(l/unit/day)
SchoolKindergarten
Child
Employee
25
50
SchoolDailySchool
Student
Employee
40
50
Institutesandmediumschools Student
Employee
50
50
Universitiesandhigher Student
Employee
60
50
InternQuarters Resident 120
Institutionswithbeds(otherthan
hospitals)
Employee
Bed
50
200
HospitalPsychological Employee
Bed
60
300
HospitalMedical Employee
Bed
60
400
SeniorCareResidence Employee
Resident
100
400
CareHouses(economy) Employee
Resident
60
120
PublicAdministrativeBuildings Person 50
Campswithtoilet&shower Person 200
MuseumsandMonument
Buildings
Visitor
Employee
10
50
Mosques Person 30
SportsClub(withtoiletsonly) Member 50
Type/Activity Unit UnitFlowRate

(l/unit/day)
SportsClub(withtoiletsand
shower)
Employee
Member
50
200
CulturalClub(withtoiletsonly) Employee
Visitor
50
10
RecreationalClub(withtoilets
only)
Employee
Visitor
50
25
Factories&Commercial Variesaccordingto
industrytype
Parks(withtoiletsonly) Employee
Visitor
50
10
Offices(withtoiletsonly) Employee
Visitor
50
10
Hotels Room
Employee
380
50
ExhibitionHalls Employee
Visitor
50
20
Airport Passenger
Employee
18
54
Petrol(Fuel)Stations Car 100
Forothercommercialandindustrialsewageflowprojection,adetailedevaluationisrequiredbytypeon
acasebycasebasissubjecttooccupancyregulations.
2.1.2 Hydraulicanalyses
Hydraulicanalysesshallbecarriedoutusingapprovedcomputermodelingsoftware.Acceptablemodels
areInfoworks,SewerCAD,MouseModel,InfoSewer,andotherequivalentcommerciallyavailable
models.
RoughnesscoefficientsbasedonthepipematerialasshowninTable23shallbeused.Theroughness
coefficientisameasureofthevariationandmagnitudeofprotuberancesontheinteriorsurfaceofthe
pipe.Theroughnessthereforeisafunctionofthepipematerial,age,andcondition.Poorpipe
conditionsaretobeassumedforsewagesystemdesigns.
Table23TypicalRoughnessCoefficients
PipeMaterial
ManningsCoefficient,n
Normal Maximum
uPVC 0.010 0.013
GRP 0.010 0.013
HDPE 0.010 0.018
RCP 0.012 0.016
DIPwith
mortarlining
0.012 0.016
2.1.3 FlowVelocities
Thedesignflowvelocitylimitsarelistedbelow.
Table24MinimumandMaximumVelocitiesinSewerPipes
PipeDescription
MinimumVelocity
(m/s)
MaximumVelocity
(m/s)
DesignVelocity
(m/s)
Gravitypipe 0.5 2.5 0.75
Pressurepipe 0.6to1.0 2.5 1.5
2.1.4 DepthofFlow
Thefollowingtableshowstherecommendeddepthofflowingravitysewerlines.Theratiod/Disthe
ratiooftheflowdepth(d)tothenominalpipediameter(D).
Table25MinimumandMaximumDepthofFlowinSewersatPeakFlows
Description Maximum(d/D) Minimum(d/D)
Trunksewerlines 0.75 0.50
Mainandlateralsewerlines 0.85 0.50
2.1.5 PipeGradients
Inordertoachievetherequiredminimumvelocityinsewerlines,pipesshouldbedesignedbyobserving
theminimumgradientslistedinthetablebelow.
Table26PipeGradients
PipeDiameter
(mm)
MinimumGradient (m/m)
(Velocity0.75m/s)
200 0.00500
250 0.00370
315 0.00270
400 0.00200
500 0.00150
600 0.00120
700 0.00100
800 0.00085
900 0.00070
1000 0.00060
1100 0.00055
1200andlarger 0.00050
2.1.6 PipeMaterials
Sewerpipematerialshavebeenselectedtobeconsistentwithlocalstandardpractices,basedon
economicsandlocalavailability.Thefollowingmaterialsshallbeusedforvariouspipesizes:
(1) Forsewermainsequaltoorlessthan315mmindiameter,uPVCshallbeused.For
sewermainslargerthan315mmindiameter,GRPshallbeused.Othercorrosion
resistantmaterials,suchasPVCgreaterthan315mm,highdensitypolyethylenepipe
(HDPE)orvitrifiedclaypipe(VCP)maybeconsidered.
(2) Forpressuremains,GRP,HDPEorPVCshallbeused.DIPwithmortarliningorceramic
epoxyliningmaybeconsideredforspecialcircumstances.
2.1.7 MinimumCoverRequirements
Theminimumcoverrecommendedis1.2mabovethepipecrown,inordertoprotectfromexternal
loads.Iftheavailablecoverislessthan1.2m,thenadditionalprotectionsuchasfullconcrete
encasementortheuseofconcreteprotectionslabsshallbeprovided.Inspecialareaswithheavy
loading,specificprotectionmayberequiredbasedonstructuralevaluations.
Theactualcoverrequiredforconstructionandaccessmaybegreaterthanthatrequiredsolelyfor
structuralintegrity.Forexample,theminimumcoverrequiredbythephysicaldimensionsofatypical
accessmanholeis2mabovethepipecrown.However,forsmallpipeslessthanorequalto315mmin
diameter,therequiredcovermaybelessthan1.2m.Ifinspectionchambersareinstalledratherthan
manholes,1.0mofcoverwillsuffice.
Themaximumcoverdepthrecommendedisapproximately10m.Thismaximumdepthisconsistent
withtypicalpipeinstallationstandardsandmanufacturerrecommendations.Shouldtheactualcoverbe
greaterthan10m,pipematerialsandloadsshouldbeevaluatedandahigherstrengthclassofpipe
utilized.
Forpipesinstalledatlessthantheseminimumvaluesoratexcessivedepths,concreteencasementmay
berequiredtoprotectthepipefromdamage.Alternativesofdifferentpipesizeatadifferentslope
shouldbeconsideredbeforedesigningthepipelinesoutsideofthespecifieddepthranges.
Inallcases,thepipeminimumandmaximumdepthsshallbeinconformancewiththepipe
manufacturersrecommendations
2.1.8 UtilityCrossings
UtilitycrossingsforthisprojectshallfollowtheguidelinesshowninTable27.
Table27UtilityCrossingsforSewerPipes
Parameter MinimumCriteria
VerticalClearance - 50cm;iflessthan50cm,useconcretesaddleandprovide
concreteencasementtofirstjointoneachsideofcrossing
HorizontalClearance - 3.0m
- Whereavailablecorridorspaceislimited,minimumclearancemay
bereducedto1.2massumingstructurescanoverlapintoadjacent
corridors.
- Ifinsametrench,placeotherutilityonseparatebenchon
undisturbedsoilabovesewageline
PotableWaterLines Alwaysplacesewagelinesbelowpotablewaterlines
Pipesshallbealignedtocrossunderroadsat90degreesorperpendiculartotheroad.
2.1.9 Manholes
Manholesarerequiredtoprovideaccesstothesewermains.Theyarealsoprovidedateachchangein
direction(verticalorhorizontal),changeindiameter,andconnectionoftwoormorelines.Sewage
manholesaretobeinstalledamaximumof100mapart.Sewagemanholesshallbeconstructedof
reinforcedconcretewithGRPliningforcorrosionprotection.Thesestructuresshallbecircularinshape
anddesignedinaccordancewiththestandardsprovidedinTable28.
Table28SewerManholeDesignCriteria
Description Standard
MaximumSpacingbetween
manholes
100m
Benching Minimum0.50mwidthonatleastonesideofflowchannel.Ladder
stopstobeincorporatedintosurface.
ManholeAccess Accessbyelectricwinchandtripodorportableladder.Ladderstops
tobeincorporatedinbenchingforemergencyaccess.Nobuiltin
ladderrungsorpermanentladders.
ManholeFrameandCover Circularopening0.60mminimumdiameter.Coverandframetobe
machinedandtaggedtopreventrocking.Allcoversandframesin
roadwaystoberatedformaximumvehicleloads.
AccessShaft Diameter1.0m
Length2.5mmaximum
Description Standard
Barrel Diameter1.5mexceptasotherwisenoted.Basedonpipediameter
plusminimumbenchingof0.5mononeside
SafetyChains Provideonallmanholeswithpipediameter600mmorlarger
MaterialsofConstruction:
AccessShaft
TopSlab
Barrel
BottomSlab
Benching
Lining
ExteriorCorrosionProtection
MassConcrete(noreinforcement)
Reinforcedconcrete
MassConcrete(noreinforcement)
Reinforcedconcrete
Granolithicconcretebase
GRPfactoryfabricatedandhandlayupseams.
Bituminousimpregnatedmembranewithflexiblefabric
Testing HydrostaticandInfiltration(asspecified)
Alternativemanholedesignsarerequiredwheretherearemultiplepipelinecrossings.
Ingeneral,gravitysewersalignmentshallbeadjustedsuchthatallmanholesarelocatedoutsideof
vehiculartravellanes.Wherespaceforconstructioncorridorsislimited,manholesmaybeplacedin
pavedshoulders.
2.2 PumpingStations
Pumpingstationsarerequiredwhenseweragecollectionnetworkdepthsexceedthepracticalor
economicconstructabilitylimit.Seweragefacilitieswilltypicallyconsistofgravitydrivensystems;
however,duetotopographyandtheneedtolimitsewerdepthstoapracticalmaximum,pumping
stationsmayneedtobeincludedinthesystem.
AllsewagepressurepipeswithinthesitelimitsofthepumpingstationshallbeGRPwithminimumpipe
stiffnessof10,000N/m
2
.FoulairpipesmaybeeitheruPVCorGRP.
2.2.1 PumpingStationType
Thedesignphilosophyincludestheminimizationofthetotalnumberofsewagepumpingstationsinthe
collectionsystem.Wherepumpingisrequired,thenumberoftimesagivenflowispumpedshouldalso
beminimized.
Threetypesofsewagepumpingstationsshallbeused:(1)submersiblestationsforsmalltomediumsize
facilities,(2)wetwelldrywellstationsforlargefacilities,and(3)screwpumpstationsinsituations
wheretherequiredheadisjusttoliftintoahigherelevationgravityflowpipe.
Pumpingstationsshallbedesignedtohandleflowsgreaterthanorequaltotheprojectedpeakinfluent
flowratewhichisdeterminedbyapplyingthePeakingFactortotheaverageflow.Peakflowsshallbe
validatedusinghydraulicmodelingsoftwarewithaccuratemodelingoftheactualsewercollection
system.
Wetwellsizingisafunctionoftheincomingflow,thecontrolstrategyforthestation,theselected
pumps,whethersinglespeedorvariablespeeddrive,andthenumberofstartsperhourpermissiblefor
thepumps.Recommendedcyclingfrequencydependsonthetypeofpumpbeingused,themotorsize,
andpumpoperatingefficiency.Fordesignpurposes,submersiblepumpingstationsshallhavea
minimumcycletimeof6minutesoramaximumof10startsperhour.Pumpcontrolsshallbebased
primarilyonwaterelevationsinthewetwellofthestation.Asupervisorycontrolanddataacquisition
(SCADA)systemshallbeusedtoensureappropriatecyclingofindividualpumpsbasedonruntimes.
Constantspeedpumpoperationshallbebysimplestartstopswitchesactuatedbywetwellelevation
withseparatefloatswitchesforhighandlowwetwellalarmsandshutoff.Variablespeedpumpsshould
beprovidedtomaintainasetwaterlevelinthewetwell.
2.2.1.1 WetWellVolume
Forconstantspeedpumps,wetwellvolumeiscalculatedbasedoncyclingfrequencywheninflowtothe
stationis50percentofthepumpingratewithasinglepumpoperating.
Thewetwellvolumeshallbecalculatedfromthebasicformula:
CT = [V/(DQ)+(V/Q)]
where
D = Pumprate(m
3
/min.)
Q = Inflowrate(m
3
/min.)
CT = cycletime(min.)
V = volume(m
3
)
Sinceminimumcycletimeisofconcern(Q=D/2),theformulareducestoV=CTxQ/4.
2.2.1.2 WetWellDepth
Theoperatingdepthofwetwellisafunctionofthefollowing:
1. Requiredsubmergencetopreventvortexinginthepumpsuctionpipingorthepump
inlet,whichmaycauseunbalancedloadingonimpellers&bearings,therebyreducing
pumplife.
2. TheNetPositiveSuctionHeadRequired(NPSHR)plusa1.5metermargin.TheNPSHRis
basedontheparticularpump,impellerselection,andrequirementsprovidedbythe
pumpmanufacturer.
3. Priming:Theminimumwetwelllevelmustbeset150mmabovethetopofthepump
volute.
4. Theelevationofinfluentsewershallbedesignedtopreventturbulenceandair
entrainmentinthewetwell.
5. Highliquidlevelinthewetwellshallbesetat0.8timestheinletpipediameterabove
theinvert.Thisallowstheinletpipetobeemptiedfrequently,preventingbuildupof
settledmaterialinthegravityinletpipes.
Therequiredsubmergencereferstominimumliquidlevelaboveaverticalpumpinlet,flareinlet,or
fitting,andabovethecenterlineoftheflareifpositionedhorizontally.
Theminimumsubmergencedetermination,priming,andNPSHRshallbeverifiedduringthewetwell
sizing.
2.2.2 PumpSelection
Pumpselectionshouldbemadetooptimizeconditionsovertheminimum,average,andmaximum
projectedrangeofflows.Selectionismadetominimizeholdingtimesinthewetwellbeforepumping
andtomaximizeefficiency.Actualpumpselectionismadeafterasystemheadcapacitycurveis
developedfortheproposedinstallation.Thefollowingaretobeconsidered:
1. Requiredrangeofflows
2. Rangeoffrictioncoefficientvaluesforoldandnewpipe
3. Rangeofstatichead,notethatthehighwetwellelevationistobeusedforthepump
designratingpoint
4. NumberofpumpsbasedonpumpselectionPORandAOR
5. Numberofstandbypumps
6. Operatingandcontrolstrategy
7. Efficiency
8. Potentialforupgradingcapacity
Allpumpingstationsshallhaveaminimumoftwopumps.Thepumpsshallbeleadlagdesignwitheach
pumpautomaticallyalternatingasleadpump.Withthisoperation,bothpumpswillaccumulate
approximatelythesamenumberofrunhoursovertime.Atwopumpsystemmustbedesigned
mechanicallyandelectricallyforthesecondpumptooperateinparallelwiththeleadpump.
Ifscrewpumpsareused,aminimumoftwopumpsshallbeinstalled.Screwpumpsautomaticallypump
withavariableoutputtomatchtheincomingflow(uptoamaximumcapacity).Pumpselectionis
primarilyafunctionofnumberofpumps,pumpmaximumcapacity,numberofflights,andlift.
2.2.3 PumpingStationStructures
Pumpingstationstructuresshallbedesignedtoensureasafeworkingenvironmentforoperationand
maintenancestaff,aswellastomaximizeperformanceandtominimizeconstructionandoperation
costs.Thefollowingshallbeincorporated:
1. Wetwellsshallbeisolatedfromdrywellsand/orsuperstructuresbyimpermeablewalls.
2. Independentventilationsystemsforshallbeusedforthewetwellandthedrywellto
meetapplicablestandards.
3. Provisionsshallbemadetofacilitateremovingpumps,motors,andothermechanical
andelectricalequipment.
4. Suitable,separate,andsafemeansofaccessshallbeprovidedtodrywellsandtowet
wells.
5. Wetwellsandpumpsuctioninletsshallbeconfiguredtominimizeturbulence.Trench
typewetwellsshallbeused.
6. Aminimumoftwowetwellsshallbeusedexceptforpumpingsystemswithacapacity
lessthan35L/secorselfcleaningtrenchwetwellifapproved
7. Wetwellcontrolsshallbeoftheencapsulatedfloattypeasaminimum.More
sophisticatedcontrolmaybeconsidered.Inallcases,controlsensorsshallbelocated
awayfromturbulenceofincomingflowandpumpsuction.Wherefloatsareusedthey
mustbeinstalledonaType316Lstainlesssteelpipe.Nohangingfloatsareacceptable.
8. Allpumpingstationsshallprovideavalvedconnectionpointdownstreamofthepump
isolationvalvestoallowtemporarybypasspumping
9. WetwellsshallbeGRPlinedwithfactoryfabricatedmaterials
2.2.4 SurgeProtection
Surgescanbegeneratedinthesewageforcemainfollowingpowerfailures,pumpstarting,orstopping
andsuddenvalveoperations.Theneedforsurgelimitingequipmenttoprotecttheforcemaindueto
possibletransientpressurevariationshallbeconsidered.Thecalculationofsurgeshallbecarriedoutby
appropriatemethodsandusingtherelevantgeneralequationsandsurgeflowcalculationsoftware
accordingtotheconditionsspecifiedbythedesignerandbasedonthemostunfavorableoperating
conditions.Wheresurgeprotectionisfoundtobenecessary,thedesignershallsizeandspecifythe
appropriatesurgeprotectionequipment.Surgetanksarethepreferredmethodandcanbebladder
tanksorairtanks.
2.2.5 ElectricalandInstrumentationSystems
Allpumpingstationsshallbedesignedandconstructedbasedoninternationalprinciples.Thefollowing
provisionsshallbeincluded:
1. Supplyandcontrolcircuitsshallallowfordisconnectionfromoutsidethewetwell.
Terminalsandconnectorsshallbeprotectedfromcorrosionthroughproperlocation
and/ortheuseofwatertightseals.Separatestrainrelief.
2. Properlysealedmotorcontrolpanelsshallbeprovided.
3. Groundfaultinterruptionprotectionshallbeprovided.
4. Powercordsshallbedesignedforflexibilityandserviceabilityunderconditionsofextra
hardusageandsuchthatfieldconnectionsarefacilitated.
5. Eachsewagepumpingstationshallhaveaflowmeterwithinstantaneousflowindicator.
Instrumentationsystemsshallbeconsistentwithotherexistingsystemsandintegratedintothesystem
widecentralizedoperationalmanagementsystem(SCADAcontrolsystem).
TheSCADAsystemshallbecompatiblewiththeexistingcontrolandmonitoringsystems.Typically,the
SCADAsystemwillbemonitoredandcompiledatthemainmastersystemlocations,althoughremote
stationsmayalsobeincorporatedintothesystem.
2.2.6 OdorControl
Odorcontrolmeasuresshallbeprovidedtoensurethatnoxiousgasesandodorsareinconcentrations
lowerthanthedetectionlevel.Chemicalodorcontrolsystemsshallcompriseofchemicalscrubbers
withpackedcountercurrentorcrosscurrent,twoorthreestagechemicaltypeand/orabulkactivated
carbondeodorizer.Biofilterodorcontrolisalsoacceptableandpreferableinlocationswherechemical
replacementmaynotbereliable.Ventilationshallbedesignedforonecompleteairchangeperhour
consistent.Ventilationofsubmersiblepumpwetwellsshallbeaminimumof12airchangesperhour.
2.2.7 RisingMains
Risingmainsshallbesizedtomaintainvelocitieswithanacceptablerangeforavarietyofflow
conditions.Risingmainpipediametersshallnotbelessthan200mm.Selectionofthediameteris
dependentonthemaximumandminimumflowratesrequiredthroughthepipe,andthecharacteristics
ofthepipe(length,material,androute).Theheadlossinthesystemshouldbeminimized.
Minimumandmaximumvelocitiesforsewerrisingmainshavebeenestablishedas0.6to1.0and
2.5m/s,respectively,withatargetdesignvelocityof1.5m/s.Themaximumvelocityrestrictionis
relatedtominimizingtheeffectsofscourontheinteriorofthepipeaswellasminimizationoffriction
headlosses.Thedesignvelocityisbasedontheabilitytoresuspendsettledsolidswithintherising
main.Theminimumvelocitymustbeachievedwithonlyonepumpinoperationsincethiswillbethe
conditionduringlowflowperiods.
2.2.8 AirValvesandWashouts
Theraisingmainsshallbeequippedwiththefollowingvalvesforfacilitatingtheoperation,control,and
maintenance:
1. AirandVacuumValves:Thesevalvesshallbeprovidedatsummitsalongthepipe
profileandalonglongstretcheswithuniformslopetopurgeoutaccumulatedairinthe
pipesystem.Airreleaseandvacuumreliefvalvesareoftenneededalongtransmission
mainsandmaysometimesbeunavoidableinsewageforcemains.Airmustbebled
slowlyfromhighpointstoprevent(1)airbindingand(2)thereductionofthecross
sectionofthepipeathighpoints.Vacuumconditionsmustbepreventedwhenthe
pumpheaddropsquickly(asinpowerfailures)topreventcolumnseparationandat
extremehighpointsinpipelinestopreventpotentialpipelinecollapseduetovacuum.
Vacuumreliefvalvescanbeaslargeasonesixthofthediameterofthetransmission
main,whereasairreleasevalvesmaybeassmallasonefiftiethofthediameterofthe
pipe.
general,airvalvesaretobeprovidedatcrestpoints,changesinelevationsandincase
ofconstantrisingmainshavingmoderateslope,atamaximumspacingof600m.
necessary.
5. IsolatingValveswithdiametersmallerthan300mmshallbesolidwedgeordouble
revolvingdiscgatevalvesandlargerdiametershallbeeccentricplugvalvesordouble
revolvingdiscgatevalves.
6. NonReturnValves:Thesevalveswillbeprovidedinthepumpingstationtopreventa
reverseflowintothepumpsandshallberubberflappertypewithpositionindication
andbackflowdevice.
Allvalvesnotlocatedinapumpingstationstructureshallbeinstalledinsidereinforcedconcretevalve
chambers,consistingofanaccessmanhole,vent,aladder,andasump.
2.2.9 EmergencyPowerSupply
Allpumpingstationsshallbeprovidedwithbackup,enginedrivenelectricalpowergeneratorssizedto
power100percentoftheratedpumpingstationcapacity.
2.2.10 PumpingStationsOperationsandMaintenance
1. Pumpingstationbuildingsshallbearchitecturallydesignedstructureswithadequate
heating,ventilating,andairconditioningsystems.Prefabricatedstructuresshallnotbe
allowed.Allbuildingsshallbeofconcreteormasonryconstruction.
2. ElectricalandMechanicalReliabilitystandardsshallbeequivalenttoUSEPAReliability
ClassII.
3. Allpumpingstationwetwells,walkways,andstairwaysshallbeequippedwitharailing
systemdesignedwiththreerailsandatoeplate.Thedesignshallbebasedon
standardsestablishedbytheUSOccupationalHealth&SafetyAdministration(OSHA)or
UKNationalExaminationBoardinOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NEBOSH).
4. Pipegalleriesandbelowgradepumproomsshallbeforceventilated(poweredinand
out)sufficientlytominimizepotentialfortoxicgasbuildup.Unlessotherwisedirected,
allbuildingsandstructuresshallcomplywithUSNationalFireProtectionAssociation
820standards.
5. AllpumpingstationsshallbeequippedwithaSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition
(SCADA)systemtofacilitatecontrolandmonitoringofthefacility.Fullautomationshall
beprovidedwherepumpsorequipmentaremodulatedbyremotecontrolinputs.
6. Allpumpingstationsshallbesuppliedwiththerequiredservicevehicles,operationand
andtrainingoflocalstaff,specialtoolsforequipmentmaintenance,andotherfacilities
asrequired.
7. Allpumpingstationsshallbedesignedtoallowforeaseofoperationandmaintenance,
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SEWAGETreatment31
3 SewageTreatment
3.1 Purpose
ThepurposeoftheprincipalDesignCriteriaistoestablishthecommoncriteriafortheprocessdesignof
LibyaHIBsewagetreatmentplants.Followingisalistofgoalsandobjectivesforthesetreatmentplant
projects.Contractorsshallprovideevidenceofcompliancewitheachoftheseobjectivesintheir
proposals.
1. Sewagetreatmentplantprocessesshallbebasedonthefollowingflowcriteria:
(a) Upto2,000m
3
/d:Aeratedlagoons(AL)orStabilizationPonds(SP)
(b) 2,001to12,000m
3
/d:ExtendedAeration(EA)
(c) 12,001to50,000m
3
/d:OxidationDitches(OD)
(d) Over50,000m
3
/d:ConventionalActivatedSludge(CAS)
2. CASsewagetreatmentplantsshallhavewasteactivatedsludge(WAS)thickeningwith
gravitybeltthickenerspriortoanaerobicdigestionofWASandprimarysludge.Final
dewateringshallbewithbeltfilterpresses.
3. EAandODplantswith30daysolidsretentiontimecanbeconstructedwithoutformal
sludgedigestionsystems.Withsolidsretentiontimes<30daysEA,andODplantswill
requireprethickeningofsludgewithpicketfencethickenerspriortoaerobicsludge
digestion,andfinalsludgedryingbedsforplantsizeslessthan20,000m
3
/dayorbelt
filterpressdewateringforplantsizes>20,000m
3
/day.WheretheSTPislocatedclose
topopulatedareas,beltfilterpressesmaybeusedtoeliminatetheriskofodorsfrom
thesludgedryingbeds.
4. Plantbuildingsshallbearchitecturallydesignedstructureswithadequateheating,
ventilating,andairconditioningsystems.Prefabricatedstructureswillnotbeallowed.
Allbuildingsshallbeofconcreteormasonryconstruction.
5. AllEA,OD,CAS,andALmechanicaltreatmentfacilitiesshallbeequippedwithautomatic
switchingdieselgeneratorssuitablysizedtooperatethesewagetreatmentplantat
designpeakflowsandloadingsandtosatisfypeakelectricalloadforalloperating
equipment,lights,andcontrols.
6. Allplantswithanaerobicdigestionshallhavedualfuelgeneratorstoallowtheuseof
digestergasforpowergenerationattheplant.
7. ElectricalandMechanicalReliabilitystandardswillbeequivalenttoUSEPAReliability
ClassII.Biologicalreactorsandclarificationshallhaveaminimumoftwotanksforeach
processcomponent.Forallfacilitieslargerthan15,000m
3
/day,fulltreatmentshallbe
providedwithanyoneprocesstankoutofservice.Noprocessesshallbebypassed
underanyreliabilitycondition.
8. Allplantprocessbasins,walkways,andstairwaysshallbeequippedwitharailingsystem
designedwiththreerailsandatoeplate.Thedesignshallbebasedonstandards
establishedbytheUSOccupationalHealth&SafetyAdministration(OSHA)orUK
NationalExaminationBoardinOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NEBOSH).
9. Pipegalleriesandbelowgradepumproomsshallbeforceventilated(poweredinand
out)sufficientlytominimizepotentialfortoxicgasbuildup.Unlessotherwisedirected,
allbuildingsandstructuresshallcomplywithUSNationalFireProtectionAssociation
820standards.
10. AllplantsshallbeequippedwithaSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA)
systemtofacilitateprocesscontrolandmonitoringofthefacility.Fullautomationshall
beprovidedwhereprocessesorequipmentaremodulatedbyinputsfromfield
instruments.
11. WaterreusewillbeplannedforallsewagetreatmentplantsinLibya,unlessspecifically
indicatedotherwise.Alltreatmentfacilitiesshallbeequippedwitheffluentfiltrationby
discfilters,continuousbackwashsandfiltersormembranefilters.
12. Eachplantshallbeequippedwithaplantwatersystemforwashdownpurposes,and
otheruses.Thesystemshouldbeanonpotablewatersystemusingfilteredtreatment
planteffluentasawatersource.Thesystemshallincludeahydropneumaticsystem
usingeitherairtanksandcompressorsorbladdertanks
3.2 SewageTreatmentDesignCriteria
Minimumnumberofprocessunits:Treatmentplantsshallberequiredtohavethefollowingminimum
numberofprocessunitsorunitoperation.
CoarseScreensforplantsover2000m3/day:(Minimum2activeandonebypass)
FineScreens:2minimum
Travelingbridgetyperectangularaeratedgritchambers:Singlegritchamberfor
lagoonsandpackagetreatmentplants<2000m
3
/dayandtwoparallelgritchambersfor
EA,OD,andCASsewagetreatmentplants.
Conventionalvelocitycontrolledgritchambers(SP):2minimum
PrimaryClarifiers(CAS):2minimum
AerationTanks(CAS,OD,EAplants):2minimum
Filterdiscchambersorconcretefilterchambers:2minimum
Pumpandairblowersystemswillhaveonestandbyunitequalinsizetothelargest
pumporairblowerinthesystem
1. Alltreatmentplantsshallbesuppliedwiththerequiredservicevehicles,operationand
andtrainingoflocalstaff,specialtoolsforequipmentmaintenance,laboratoryfor
sewageandsludgetesting,andotherfacilitiesasrequired.
2. Alltreatmentplantsshallbedesignedtoallowforeaseofoperationandmaintenance,
3. TheTreatmentplantswillbespecificallydesignedtotreattowaterreusestandard
qualityandmonitoredforperformancedaily.
4. Alltreatmentplantprocesseswillbedesignedinsuchamannerthatdischargequality
willbemaintainedwithserviceoutageinanyofthemajorequipmentgroupings
includingpumps,airblowers,andmechanicalmixers,sludgethickeninganddewatering
devices.Foreachsurfaceaeratorandaeratormixerthereshallbeoneextramixerin
eachaerationbasinoraerobicdigestertoassurecompliancewithoneslowspeedline
shaftaeratororaeratormixeroutofservice.
3.2.1 PopulationandGrowthProjections
PopulationandgrowthprojectionsshallbebasedonthesaturatedpopulationoftheSecondGeneration
(orThirdGeneration)MasterPlanareawithsourcesandrequirementaccordingtoprojectedpopulation
till2025.
3.2.2 SewageFlowGeneration
Sewagetreatmentplantsshallbedesignedtoaccommodateboththeaveragedailyflowandpeak
hourlyflow.Treatmentplanthydraulicsystemsshallbedesignedtoaccommodatethepeakhourly
flow.Thepeakhourlyflowcanrangefrom2.0to4.0timestheaveragedailyflowrateofthefacility.
ThepeakflowfactorshallbebasedontheBabbittformulalistedinSection2andascalculatedbelowin
Table31.Forpopulationsabove90,000,themaximumdesignflowshallbebasedona2.0peaking
factor.Forpopulationslessthan1,500,thedesignpeakflowshallbebasedonapeakingfactorof4.0.
Thefollowingtablepresentsabasisforcalculatingdesignflowsforsewagefacilitiesthatinclude
pipelines,pumpingstations,andsewagetreatmentplants.
Table31.CalculatedPeakFlowFactorsforSpecificPopulations
Population SewageFlow PeakFlowFactor
<1,500 Q<220m
3
/d 4.0
2,000 Q=290m
3
/d 3.78
5,000 Q=725m
3
/d 3.25
10,000 Q=1450m
3
/d 2.90
20,000 Q=4,000m
3
/d 2.58
Population SewageFlow PeakFlowFactor

50,000 Q=10,000m
3
/d 2.21
90,000 Q=18,000m
3
/d 2.00
3.2.3 SewageLoadings
Table32liststypicalsewageloadingvaluesforplanninganddesignpurposes.Wheneverpossible,
laboratoryanalysisofthesewageshallbemadetoestablishactualvaluesfordesign.
Table32.TypicalSewageLoadingValues
Parameter Value
BOD
5
60g/capday
TSS 80g/capday
NH3 10g/capday
TP 1.2g/capday
COD 150g/capday
pH 6.57.5
TKN 13g/capday
FOG 30g/capday
3.2.4 DesignDischargeQualityLimitations
Table33listssewagedesigndischargequalitylimitationvalues:
Table33:SewageDischargeQualityLimitations
Parameter Value
BOD
5
10mg/l
TSS 10mg/l
NH
3
1mg/l
TP 10mg/l
pH 6.09.0
TN 20mg/l
FOG 5mg/l
TotalColiform MPN<23/100ml
3.3 SiteSpecificDesignConsiderations
Sewagetreatmentplantsshallbesitedforfullaccesstoallprocessunits,equipment,andancillary
facilities.Followingisalistofconsiderationsinsitespecifictreatmentplantdesign.
1. Altitudeofsite.Thisisimportanttoproperlydesignbiologicalandoxygentransfer
systemsinactivatedsludgesewagetreatmentplants.Aerationcompressorsshallbe
sizedfortheratioofactualoxygenationratetostandardoxygenationrate.Standard
oxygenationratesassumeoperationatsealeveland20degCwatertemperature.
2. Proximitytofloodplains.Treatmentsitesmustnotbevulnerabletofloodingand
shouldbespecificallydesignedtooperateandremaininregulatorycomplianceduring
floodeventsasgreatasthatwitha4percentprobability(25yearflood).Forevents
withlessthan1percentprobabilityofoccurrenceinanygivenyear(100yearflood),
treatmentfacilitiesshallbeprotectedfromdamageduringtheflood,butarenot
requiredtomeeteffluentqualitylimitations.
3. Temperatureofinfluentsewage.Watertemperaturegreatlyinfluencesthebiological
reactionsthatoccurintheactivatedsludgeaerationbasins.Higherwatertemperatures
(upto35degC)providehigherbiologicalkinetics.Atlowwatertemperatures(below
20degC),bacterialgrowthishindered.Processcalculationsshallbeperformedforthe
maximummonthlyaveragewatertemperatureandminimummonthlyaveragewater
temperature.
4. Availabilityofprocessequipment.Allequipmentshallbeprovidedbyvendorswhocan
readilyservicetheirequipmentinstallationsinLibya.Whilelimitedequipmentis
producedinLibya,itispreferablethatequipmentbeprovidedwherespareor
replacementpartscanbedeliveredwithintwobusinessdays.
5. Ambientconsiderations.Withpotentialfordustandsandstormsandambient
temperaturesashighas50degreesC,certainprocessequipmentincludingdrypit
pumps,aerationblowers,chemicalfeedsystemsandgenerators,shallbeplacedin
ventilatedbuildings.Forinstallationsinthecoastalareas,shadestructuresmaybe
allowediftheyhavebarriersprotectingtheequipmentfromwindstorms.
6. Proximityofpopulation.Sewagetreatmentplantsshallbesitedsuchthattheyarea
minimumdistanceof1000mfrompopulatedareas.Ifthiscannotbeaccomplished
becauseofsiteavailability,treatmentplantdesignshallincludemechanicalodorcontrol
measuresthatcanincludecontainmentandodorscrubbingofoffgasesfromplant
pumpingstations,headworkssystems,primaryclarifiers,andanaerobicsludgehandling
processesataminimum.Alternativesludgedryingsystemsmayberequiredifodors
cannotbecontainedwithinthesite.Odorcontrolmethodsmayincludebiofiltration,
granularactivatedcarbon,ormultiplestagechemicalscrubbers(forextremecases
only).
7. Structuralfoundationdesign.Subsurfacegeotechnicalinvestigationsshallbe
conductedfortreatmentplantdesignstoenablethedevelopmentofsitespecificdesign
criteria.Forfacilitiesinareasofsoftorexpansivesoils,waterbearingstructuresshall
incorporatetheuseoffrictionpiles,bearingpiles,orequivalentstructuralsupports.
Foundationdesignshallbeinaccordwiththerecommendationsmadeinthe
geotechnicalinvestigationsreport.
8. Proximityofwatersupplywells.Sewageplantsshallnotbesitedwithin300mof
potablewatersupplywells.
9. MinimumFlows.Minimumflowswillbeconsideredinchannels,pipelines,andprocess
mechanicalsystemsoperatingranges.
3.4 TreatmentProcessDesignCriteria
Thefollowingtableslistdesigncriteriafordifferentsewagetreatmentprocesses.
3.4.1 LiquidProcess
Table34.LiquidProcessCriteria
CoarseBarScreensforallplanttypes
OpeningSizeCoarseScreens 15to 25 mm
Location Influentpumpstation,headworksbypasschannel
HeadLossthroughCleanScreen 0.3m
Operation
Manuallycleanedbarracksshallbelimitedtofacilitieswith
capacitieslessthan15,000m
3
/daywithlargerfacilities
beingthemechanicaltype.DrumscreensandHuber
Rakmaxscreensmechanicalscreensareacceptable
FineScreeningforCAS,EA,andODsystems
OpeningSizeFineScreens Range610mm(fine)
MaximumHeadLoss,cleanscreen 0.3m
ScreenTypes
Barscreen,stepscreen,bandscreen,orperforatedplate
screen.
Stepscreensshallincludeacontinuousflushingsystemfor
thebottomstep.
Drumscreenwith2.55mmopeningsize(Plantslargerthan
15,000m
3
/dayODandCASonly)
Screenandwettedparts 316StainlessSteelorDuplexSteel
AuxiliaryEquipment
Screeningsconveyorandscreeningscompactor.Systemsto
beasimpleaspossiblewithscreeningsdroppingfrom
screensintocontainerswherepractical.
Operation
Coarsescreensfollowedbyfinescreens
Automaticallycleaned.Screensystemstobesimple,drop
directlytocontainers.Providescreeningswashercompactor
systemsonscreens12mmandsmalleropeningsize.Use
conveyorsonlywhererequired.
UnderwaterBearings
MaybeallowedforselectedscreensincludingMahr
headworksscreen,HuberRakemaxScreen,andperforated
platescreens.
Basincoatingsystem
Allconcretestructuresshallhaveacorrosionprotective
coatingthatextendsfrom0.33mbelowthewatersurfaceto
thetopofthetank.
AeratedGritChambers
DesignHydraulicDetentionTime 10minatpeakhourlyflow
MinimumDepth 2 m
LengthtoWidthRatio 3:1ormore
Aeration CoarseBubbleDiffusedAeration
GreaseRemoval
Gritremovalandgreaseremovalshallbeintegratedinan
aeratedchannelsystemsimilartotheHubertraveling
bridgesystem.
GritPump
Centrifugalrecessedimpellerofhardenedmaterials,orAir
LiftforTravelingBridge
AirBlowersforaeratedgritchamber Trilobepositivedisplacementairblowers
GritWasher
316Lstainlesssteelandbecapableofproducinggritwith
lessthan35%organicsinthetreatedgritforallgrit
systems.
PrimaryClarifiers(CASonly)
Treatment CASOnly>50,000m
3
/d
Configuration Circular
SurfaceOverflowRateaverage(peak) 3050m
3
/m
2
day(80120m
3
/m
2
day)
MinimumSidewaterDepth 3m
WeirandLaunderSystem Weirplateandperipherallaunder
WeirLoadingRateaverage(peak) 125250m
3
/mday(250500m
3
/mday)
MechanismType CenterorRimDrivewithspiralbladecollectors
ScumSkimmer
Singlescumskimmerwith1200mmwidebeach.Scum
systemwillincludechopperpumpswithrecirculation
provision.
SpraySystems Primaryclarifierswillhavespraysystemsforscumremoval
ScumBaffle 600mmdepth
Sidewaterdepth 3.5mto6m
Basincoatingsystem
coatingthatextendsfrom0.33mbelowthewatersurface
tothetopofthetank.
AerationBasins(CAS,EA,OD)
DesignHydraulicDetentionTime 48hrs(CAS);2030hours(EA);and1530hours(OD)
DesignMixedLiquorSuspendedSolids
(MLSS)
1,0003,000mg/L(CAS);2,0005,000mg/L(EA);and3,000
5,000(OD)
DesignSolidsRetentionTime(SRT) 315days(CAS);1530days(OD);and2040days(EA)
DesignFoodtoMicroorganismRatio(F/M)
(kgBOD/kgMLVSSd)
0.040.10(ODandEA)and0.20.4(CAS)
TypesofAerationSystems
BridgeMountedAeratorMixers(CAS,EA).
BrushorDiskRotorandOrbalAerators(OD)
Fixedslowspeedortwospeedsurfaceaeratorsmountedon
concretebridgesorbottommountedaeratorandsparge
ringmountedonconcreteplatformsforCASandEA
systems.Finebubblediffusersarenotacceptabledueto
diffuserinterferencewithcleaningofbasinbottoms.
Basincoatingsystem
thetopofthetank.
SecondaryClarifiers
Configuration Circular
SurfaceOverflowRateaverage(peak)
1628m
3
/m
2
day(CAS);(4064m
3
/m
2
day)(EAandOD)
LongSRTsystemsproducelowerdensitysludgerequiring
longersettlingtimeclarifiersforEAandODSystems
SolidsLoadingRateaverage(peak)
46kg/m
2
hour(CAS
24kg/m
2
hour(57kg/m
2
hour)(EAandOD).
EAandODsludgesettlespoorlyandtheloadingratehasto
belowerthanforCASbasedonlowersolidsretentiontime
(SRT).
MinimumSidewaterDepth 4m
WeirsandLaunder
Externalperimetertype.LaunderstobeconcretewithFRP
weirsandscumbaffles.
ScumBaffles 600mmdepth,minimum1200mmwidescumbeach
MechanismMaterials
Allmechanismelementsbelowwaterlineshallbe316L
stainlesssteel
Scumpumpsystem
Chopperpumpsystemwithprovisionswithrecirculation
mixingsystemforimprovingpumpabilityofmixture.
Scumspraysystem Spraysystemrequiredforscumremoval
Clarifierbaffles Clarifierstobeequippedwithimpingingtypebaffles
SludgeCollectorMechanisms
Spiralscraperwithcenterdrivesorrimdrives.
SuctionTypeSimilartoRapidSludgeReturn(RSR)Clarifier
orspiralbladetype.Directsuctiontypethroughslotted
taperedtube.
Basincoatingsystem
thetopofthetank.
Filters
TypeofFilter
ContinuousBackwashUpflowFiltration(Fluidizedbedtype)
orStainlessSteelorFabricDiscFiltersdesignedin
accordancewithmanufacturesrecommendations.These
aredesignedformaximumflowthroughthesystem.
HydraulicLoadingRate
15m
3
/m
2
hforFabricDiscFilteratmaxflow
15m
3
/m
2
hforFluidizedbedFiltersatmaxflow
Discfiltersubmergence
60%maximumatmaxfloworpermanufacturer
recommendations
MinimumSandMediaDepth 2.0m
SingleFilterModuleDimension 2mx2m(fluidizedbed)
Tankage Reinforcedconcrete
Basincoatingsystem
thetopofthetank.

Disinfection
Method UltravioletRadiation(UV)
Minimumdosage 80mJoules/cm
2
Dischargelimit TotalColiform:<23coloniesper100ml
Enclosure UVsystemsshallbehousedinsitebuiltbuildings
Basincoatingsystem
thetopofthetank.
SupplementalDisinfection
Method SodiumHypochlorite(12.5%solution)
Minimumdosage 2mg/latpeakeffluentflowrate
TankMaterial,Size
CrosslinkedFiberglassReinforcedPlastic(FRP),3m
3
or1
weeksupplywhicheverisgreater
3.4.2 LiquidProcessHydraulicSystems
Table35.LiquidProcessHydraulicSystemCriteria
InletStructuresandFlowSplitting
Influentstructure(Concrete)
Influentstructuresshallhaveconcretecoverswithpositiveodor
control.
Flowsplitstructures(Concrete)
Provideweirslidegatesorflumesforproportionalsplitofflowto
individualprocessunits.
LiquidProcessHydraulicFlowDistribution
DesignFlow MaximumFlow
ChannelConstruction ConcretewithOpenGratingAbove
ScreeningChannelsfeatures
Isolationgatevalvesupstreamanddownstreamofeachscreen
Abilitytodewateranyportionofthescreeningchannelthatcan
beisolated
Screenchannelshapedtoslopedtopreventgritaccumulationat
lowerflowrates.
ChannelVelocity,unaerated (minimum) Rawsewage0.8 m/sec;settledsewage0.3m/sec
GravityPipeVelocity(minimum) 0.66 m/sec(partiallyfilled)
PressurePipeVelocity(maximum) 3 m/sec
Distributionboxgates ProvidetoeachProcessBasin
GateMaterials 316StainlessSteel
ReturnActivatedSludgePumping
ReturnActivatedSludgeDesignFlow 0.25to1.5xtheAverageDailyFlow,dependingonprocess
AllowablePumps
AllowablePumps
ArchimedesScrewPumps
SolidsHandlingSingleVaneCentrifugalPumpswithVFDs
DryPitSolidshandlingSubmersiblePumpswithVFDs
WasteActivatedSludgePumps
DesignFlow 2%ofTreatmentPlantAverageDailyFlow(variable)
Allowablepumps
DryPitSolidsHandlingSubmersiblePump
SolidsHandlingSingleVaneCentrifugalPumpswithtimer
operation
ChemicalFeedPumps
<200l/hr MechanicalDiaphragmPumps
200l/hrto1000l/hr StainlessSteelProgressiveCavityPumpsforpolymeronly
>1000l/hr
HosePumps
3.4.3 BiosolidsSystems
Table36.BiosolidsSystemCriteria
SecondarySludgeThickeningSystems
DesignFlow
Minimum2%ofPlantAverageDailyFlow,tobeconfirmed
byprocessmodelingsupplementedbyempirical
calculations
SolidsLoadingRate 3kg/m
2
h
AcceptableMechanisms
CenterPivotTypewithRotatingRakesandSludgeCollection
Pockets(Pickettfence).
GravityBeltThickenerspriortoanaerobicdigesters
SimilartoHuberRos2forplantswithmixedanaerobic
digesters.
TypicalSidewallDepth 3mforpickettfencethickeners
Material 316stainlesssteelmechanismsbelowwaterline
ProcesstoThicken0.7%WasteActivatedSludgetomaximum3%aheadofdigesters
AerobicDigesters(EAandODSystems)withdesignsolidsretentiontimelessthan30days.
DesignFlow 2%ofPlantAverageDailyFlow
DesignSolidsRetentionTime 4060days
Aeration CoarseBubbleAirDiffusionorLineshaftsurfaceaerators.
AllowableMixingsystemswith
prethickendsludge(PickettFence
prethickening)
SlowSpeedDrafttubeMechanical(35rpm)forcircular
reinforcedconcretetank(withcoarsebubbleaerationonly)
AnaerobicSludgeDigesters
DesignFlow 2%ofPlantAverageDailyFloworascalculated.
DesignSolidsRetentionTime 18days,at35degreeoperatingtemperature.
AnaerobicDigesterMixingOptions
SlowSpeedDrafttubeMechanical(35rpm)forCircular
ReinforcedConcreteTankwithConcreteRoof
Tangentialpumpedsludgemixingdesignforthickened
sludgeconcentrationupto5%
AnaerobicDigesterSystemFeatures
CircularReinforcedConcreteTank
Separatestainlesssteelgasholdingtanks.Typicalgas
storage48hours.
Energyrecoveryusingdualfuelpowergenerators.
ExcessGasistobeFlaredorusedtosupportPower
Generation
SludgeDryingBeds
DesignCycleInterval 25days
Tankage ConcreteWallsandFloors
WallHeight 1.2m
MaxCellSizeforSludgeRemoval 15mx30m
DesignPanEvaporation
1m/yrorasdocumentedforspecificlocationforwinter
months
PopulationBasedAreaEstimation
0.2m
2
/populationequivalentserved,withoutpre
thickening
BeltFilterPressSystems
MaterialofMachineHousing316stainlesssteel
TypeofEnclosureSitebuiltbuildingwithodorcontrolsystemsiflocatednearpopulatedareas.
3.4.4 PumpsandPipingforTreatmentPlants
Table37.TreatmentPlantPipingCriteria
PumpsandPipingForTreatmentPlants
Rawsludgepumping Constantspeedrecessedimpellerpumps.Timercontrol.
Secondarysludgepumping
Singlevane,solidshandlingpumpsforWAS
Screwcentrifugalpumpsfor0.25Qto1.5QRASrangeof
operation,
Archimedesscrewpumps
Digestedsludgepumping Chopperpumpsorrotarylobepumps
LiquidProcessPiping
FlangedDuctileIronwithcementmortarorceramicepoxy
liningforexposedandburied.PVC,HDPE,orDuctileIron
forburiedpiping
Solventweldedschedule80CPVCPiping,flangedatvalves
andequipment,whenindoorsforCorrosiveLiquids
includingallProcessChemicals
PotableWaterPipe
316LSSorPVCfor<80mm
DuctileIronfor>80mm
Sludgeandscumsystempiping Glasslinedductileiron
ProcessAirPiping
Schedule5ST316Lstainlesssteelforexposed,Forburied
installationuseSchedule10.
ValvestobeSS,HPButterflyvalvesforisolation.
Irisvalveswithmassflowmetersforaircontrolvalves.
PumpsandPipingForTreatmentPlants
ChemicalPiping
UseCPVCpiping,solventweldedflangedonlyatvalvesand
equipment.Nothreadedconnectionspermissible.
ValvesonGravityPipelines EccentriccastironPlugValve,handwheeloperated
ValvesonPressurePipelines
Motoroperatedcastironeccentricplugvalves,checkvalves
tobeValMaticType
InfluentFlowMeasurement
MagneticflowmetersorFRPParshallFlume,CastinPlace
Concrete
MetersonallSludgeStreams MagneticFlowMeters
PipeSupports
Allpipesupportsthatarenotconcretesaddlesshallbe
T316Lstainlesssteel
ValveOperators
Gearedoperatorsforallplugvalves,handwheelsforknife
gatevalves,useelectricactuatorsfor600mmandlarger
valves
3.4.5 MechanicalOdorControlSystems
Table38MechanicalOdorControlSystemCriteria
MechanicalOdorControlSystems
TreatmentPlantslocatedwithin2000mof
PopulatedAreaswillbeequippedwith
MechanicalOdorControlSystemsforthe
followingProcessAreas
TerminalPumpingStationWetwells
FlowDistributionChambers
ConventionalGritChambers
PrimaryClarifiers(OdorControlDomeorflatcovers)for
clarifierswithindevelopedcommunities
SludgeThickeningandMechanicalSludgeDewateringUnits
TypesofTreatment
Biologicalfiltrationwithactivatedcarbonpolishingfor
normalloadings
Wetchemicalscrubbersforanticipatedextremeodor
issues,asatinletworksreceivingflowfromlongpipelines.
Chemicaldosingalongpipelinesmayalsobeneededto
controldifficultodorproblems.
DesignAirchanges
1.5airchangesperhourplusaerationvolume(tanks,
channelsandwetwells)
12airchangesperhourcontinuous(roomswithopen
sewagetanks)
30airchangesperhourintermittent(hazardouschemical
storagerooms),uponbuildingentry.
OdorControlSystemsshallbedesignedspecificallyfortheconstituentsoftheoffgasesintercepted
3.4.6 LagoonTreatmentSystems
Table39LagoonTreatmentSystemGeneralGuidelines
LagoonTreatmentPlantsGeneralGuidelines
Verysimpleadvanced
wastewatertreatmentusing
anaerobicandaerobic
biologicalpondsystems
Suitableforflowslessthan2000m
3
/day.Largersystemswillbe
consideredonacasebycasebasis,providedthatlandisavailableand
thetopography,geology,andsitelocationisappropriateforlagoon
constructionandoperation
Suitableforlargeopenareasmorethan1,000mawayfrompopulated
areas.
Pondsystemscanbeveryminimallymechanizedforverylow
operationandmaintenancecosts.Theywillrequireafulltime
operationandmaintenancestaffformaintenanceoperationsthat
resemblefarmingoperations.

TertiaryTreatment
LagoonPlantsinLibyashallbedesignedtotreattoalevelsuitablefor
abroadrangeofwaterreuse.InLibyaeithercontinuousflow
submergedwetlandsorintermittentsandfiltrationappropriatefor
providingthedesiredwaterreuseeffluentquality.Otheradvanced
treatmentmethodswillbeconsideredonacasebycasebasis.
LagoonTreatmentPlantswithMaturationPondsandorconstructed
tertiarywetlandswillnotberequiredtohavedisinfection.
Aeratedlagoonplantswithintermittentsandfiltersshallhave
horizontalopenchannelultravioletdisinfectionsystems.
Table310.AeratedLagoonsCriteria
AnaerobicLagoonsfollowedby2stageaeratedlagoons(AL),andsettlementponds
AnaerobicLagoonsshallnotbe
locatedwithin2000metersof
populatedareas.Wherethisis
notpossibleanaerobiclagoons
shallbecoveredasanodor
controlmeasure.
Approximatesizeper1000m
3
/daycapacity10haincludingtertiary
wetlands.
Flowinletandoutletchambersshallbediagonalfromeachotherto
preventshortcircuiting
Threeflowchannels,twomechanized,oneonmechanized
3coarsescreens,2mechanicalfinescreens
Gritchambers:2rectangulartravelingbridgetypeaeratedgrit
chamberswithcoarsebubbleairdiffusersandgreaseremoval.
Ancillarysystemsincludecycloneseparatorandgritclassifier,
conveyorand2500litergritstoragebins
AnaerobicLagoonEarthwork
AspectRatio2:1
Excavationandembankmentslopes4:1
Ponddepth45m
Detentiontime45days
Lining150mmconcretewearingsurfacepanelsover60milthick
HDPE(highdensitypolyethylene)
AeratedLagoons
Stage1AeratedLagoonCompleteMixwithairtransfersizedfor
completeoxidationofinfluentbiochemicaloxygendemandand
Ammonia(NH
4
).Fivedayhydraulicresidencetime.
Stage2AeratedLagoon50%completemix.Primaryrolewillbe
nitrificationandpartialdenitrification.Eightdayhydraulicresidence
time
Stage3Finalsettlingofsuspendedsolids.Twodayhydraulicresidence
time.FinalsettlementPondDepth45meters.
AerationEquipment
Floating,cablestayedslowspeedlineshaftsurfaceaeration
Onespareaeratorforeach3dutyaerators
AeratedLagoonLining
1.5mmHDPE(highdensitypolyethylene)extendedandanchoredin
topofembankments.
AeratedLagoonEarthwork
AspectRatio2:1
MinimumNumberoflagoontrains2
Excavationandembankmentslopes4:1
Minimumwaterdepth4.0meters
Freeboard0.81.0meters
Table311FacultativeLagoonTreatmentSystemCriteria
AnaerobicLagoonfollowedbyStabilizationPonds(SP)andMaturationPonds
Approximatesitearearequirement20haper1000m3/day
MINIMALENERGYANDMINIMUMMAINTENANCEREQUIREMENTS
Screeningandgritremoval
Fixed25mmmanuallycleanedbarrackfollowedby
manuallycleanedgritchamber
FlowDistributionChamberswillbearrangedwithinletand
outletboxesdiagonalfromeachother(AL)(SP)
ManualGritChambers(SP)velocitycontrolledat0.4m/sec
AeratedGritChambers(AL)
NominalHydraulicDetentionTime5days(AL)(SP)
Basininteriorandexteriorslopes4:1(AL)(SP)
AnaerobicLagoonsprovideprimary
treatment,withanestimated50%
removalefficiencyforBOD
5
andTSS
similartothepreviouslypresented
AeratedLagoonsystem
Minimumnumber2forallPondTreatmentSystems
(minimum2processtrains)
StabilizationPonds.
AlsocalledFacultativePonds.Theseponds
areoxygenatedbyalgalphotosynthesis.
Minimumnumberoflagoons2inseriesperprocesstrain
Slopesofexcavationandembankments4:1
Designwaterdepth1.5meterswith0.81.0meter
freeboard
1.5mmthickhighdensitypolyethyleneliner
StabilizationponddesignhydraulicresidencetimeforLibya
15days
Inletandoutletboxestobediagonalfromeachotherforall
pondsystems,toreduceshortcircuitinginthelagoons.
MaturationPonds
(Toprovideadditionalsolarbased
oxidationandreductionofColiform
relatedbacteria,withsome
denitrification)
Designwaterdepth1.5meter
DesignHydraulicResidenceTime15daysHRT
Designwaterdepth1meter
Slopeofexcavationandembankment4:1
AspectRatio2:1
Lining1.5mmthickHDPE(highdensitypolyethylene)
Minimumnumberofmaturationponds2inseriesper
processtrain
3.4.7 TertiaryTreatmentforLagoons
Table312TertiaryTreatmentCriteria
TertiaryWetlands
TertiaryWetlandsshallbeofthesubmerged
flowthoughWetlandsTypedesignedforthe
removalofallnitrogenandphosphorus
remaininginLagoontreatmentplanteffluent.
Effluentfromthewetlandscanbepipedtoa
earthentreatedwaterreservoirequalinsizeto
onedaysplantaveragedesignflowthatwillbe
usedforwaterreusepurposes
HydraulicFlowDistribution.Thiswillbeusingatgrade
leveldistributionchannelwithoverflowrectangular
weirsplacedat4meterintervals.Stoplogswillbe
usedtoblockoffselectedweirstofacilitateuniform
flowdistribution.
Wetlandsplantsshallbeaquaticplantsandgrasses
thatareindigenoustothegenerallocationofthe
treatmentplant
Underlyinggravelshallbe10mmgravel,onemeter
deep.
Liningbeneathgravelshallbe60milthickHDPE
(optional)
Minimumnumberofwetlandscells:2
IntermittentSandFiltration
IntermittentSandFiltrationwillbedesignedto
filteroutresidualsuspendedsolidsandto
reducetheremainingnitrogeninlagoon
effluents.
HydraulicFlowDistribution.Duplexpumpsystemsshall
beusedtopumptheflowtoalternatingpairsofsand
filters.Filtersshallbesizedinaccordancewith
publishedguidelinesor0.1m
3
/m
2
day,whichequates
to1hectarefilterareafor1,000m3/dflow.
DimensionalInformation
IntermittentSandFiltersshallbeconstructedwith
verticalconcretewallsandbottomconcreteslab.
0.250.35mmSandshallhaveadepthof1.1meters
andshallbeplacedover0.33metersof4mmgravel.
Effluentshalldrainthruslottedpipeslaidatthebaseof
thegravelmaterial.
AspectRatiois2:1
MinimumNumberofFilters:2 inparallel
GeneralRequirementsPertainingtoentireoperatingprojects
Alltreatmentchannelsandbasinswillbereinforcedconcrete
Minimumvelocitiesatlowflowinchannelswillbe0.8m/sec
Forlongsewagepumpingpipelines,ameansofoxidationofthesewagetopreventodorsshallbe
consideredinthedesign
Allconcretestructureswillhavecorrosionresistantcoatingsextendingfrom0.3metersbelowthewater
linetothetopofthebasinwalls
3.4.8 PackageTreatmentPlant
1. SmallPackageSewageTreatmentPlantsshallbepreengineered.Thetreatmentplant
manufacturersandequipmentsuppliersshallhaveatleast10yearsexperienceinthedesign
andconstructionofpackagesewagetreatmentplantsandthespecifictreatmentplantsoffered
shallhaveatleast5yearsofacceptableperformanceinthefield.Theplantsareintendedfor
permanentuse.
2. Thewastewatertreatmentprocessshallconsistofaheadworksfacilitysuitablefortheproposed
process,followedbyextendedaerationactivatedsludgewithanSRTofatleast30daysat
designloadings.Thetreatmentprocesstypesmaybeconventionalextendedaerationoran
equivalentprocesstechnologyusingActivatedMovingBed(AMB)Biomedia,FixedActivated
SludgeTreatment(FAST),orMembraneBioreactor(MBR).WithexceptionoftheMBRplants,all
smallpackagetreatmentplantsshallincludetertiaryfiltrationbydiskfilters,orequivalent.
AllplanttypesshallhaveUVdisinfectionandchlorinedosingforresidual.Forallplanttypes,
thetreatmentprocessperformanceshallbeequivalenttoaconventionalextendedaeration
plantandcapableofproducingastabilizedwastesludgeatthestipulatedloadings.Aerobic
sludgedigestionmaybeincludedforalowerSRTplantasanalternativetoachievingthedesired
sludgestabilizationresults.Alltreatmentplanttypesshallachievefullnitrificationand
substantialdenitrification,asindicatedbytheeffluentstandardstobemet.
3.4.9 MobilePackageTreatmentPlant
1. SmallandmobilepackageSewageTreatmentPlantsshallbepreengineered.Thetreatment
plantmanufacturersshallhaveatleast10yearsexperienceinthedesignandconstructionof
packagesewagetreatmentplantsandthespecifictreatmentplantsofferedshallhaveatleast5
yearsofacceptableperformanceinthefield.Tankageshallbehighqualitystructuralsteelwith
thebestavailablecoatingsforcorrosionprotection.Sacrificialanodesshallbesuppliedwith
everysteeltankorstructure.Theplantsareintendedfortemporaryusewhilepermanent
facilitiesareunderconstruction.Whennolongerneeded,theplantsareintendedtobe
relocatedbyotherseithertostorageortoanotherlocationinneedofatemporarytreatment
plant.
2. Thewastewatertreatmentprocessshallconsistofaheadworksfacilitysuitablefortheproposed
process,followedbyactivatedsludgeusingActivatedMovingBed(AMB)Biomedia,Fixed
ActivatedSludgeTreatment(FAST),orMembraneBioreactor(MBR).TheFASTandAMB
Biomediatreatmentplantsshallincludetertiaryfiltrationbydiskfilters,orequivalent.Allplant
typesshallhaveUVdisinfectionandchlorinedosingforresidual.Thetreatmentprocess
reactorsshallhaveanF:Mratio(FoodtoMicroorganismratio)equivalenttoanextended
aerationplantandminimumSRTof20days,capableofproducingastabilizedwastesludgeat
thestipulatedloadings.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STORMWater41
4 StormWater
HIBhasdevelopeddesigncriteriaforstormwaterdrainagesystemsforuseintheirprojects.Thecriteria
arepresentedtosupportthedesignintentoftheHIBinfrastructure.Theintentofthissectionisto
providedesigncriteriaforstormwateronly,freefromsewageorotherwastewaters.Itisunderstood
thatcertainsituationsmayrequiredeviationfromthecriteriapresentedhereinandunderthis
circumstanceapprovaloftheproposedcriteriafromHIBisrequired.
SincerainfalleventsinLibyaarerelativelyinfrequent,thedesignengineershouldevaluatethebest
stormmanagementapproachbasedontheinformationprovidedinthisdocumenttoachieveabalance
betweenconstructioncostandanacceptablelevelofperformance.
4.1 StormWaterManagementPolicy
ManagementofstormwaterisgovernedbyLibyanLaws;twoofthemostpertinentarticlesfromthe
LibyanLawNo.(15)of1370PD(2003)forProtectingandImprovementoftheEnvironmentareas
follows:
Article(34)prohibitsdischargeofpollutedwatertothesea.TheArticlereads:
Itisprohibitedtodischargepollutedwaterintotheseadirectlythroughdrainage
pipes,whetherthedrainageisonthecoastortherefromorthroughcanalsorsewers,
includinginternalgravityflowwatercoursesbeforetreatmentthereofasperthe
effectivelegislationsandregulationissuedforimplementing.
Article(43)reads:
Thedomesticandindustrialdrainagewaterisconsideredasawatersourcesand
shallnotbewastedordisposedofaftertreatmentthereof,unlessitisprovedthatits
useisimpractical.Then,itshallbedisposedofundertherulesandregulationsissued
withoutcausinganyenvironmentalpollution.
Ingeneral,Libyareceiveslittlerainfall,mostoftherainfalloccursincoastalareas.Theaverageannual
totalrainfallalongtheMediterraneanCoastrangesfrom559mmatShahatintheeasterncoastlineto
238mmatZuaraclosetotheTunisianboarder.Southof30
0
NLibyaisalmostdesertwithannualtotal
rainfallrangingfrom20mmatElKutrato9mminSebha.
TheHousingandInfrastructureBoard(HIB)isbuildinginfrastructurethroughoutthecountry.The
infrastructuresconsistofhousing,roads,andfacilitiesforwaterdistributionandtreatment,for
wastewatercollectionsandtreatment,andforstormwatercollection.Asdevelopmentprogressesthe
landuseoftheareachanges,increasingtheimpervioussurfacethatdonotreadilyabsorbrainfall
runoff.Therefore,soundandpracticalstormwatermanagementpracticesmustbeimplementedto
effectivelyutilizethepreciousresourcewater.
4.1.1 StormWaterQuantityManagement
AspartofformulatingacomprehensiveStormWaterManagementPolicy,HIBhasdeveloped
backgroundinformationandcriteriaandbestmanagementpracticesforstormwaterquality
enhancement.Thestormwatermanagementobjectiveistoeliminateorminimizedischargeofstorm
waterrunofffromthedesignstormtotheMediterraneanSea.WherethisisnotachievableHIBshould
beconsultedinadvanceandtheprojectwillbereviewedoncasebycasebasis.Asageneralguideline
theoptionspresentedbelowshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Theitemslistedbelowaretoolsina
toolboxandshouldberegardedasageneralguidanceandappliedonacasebycasebasisfora
particularsite.
Wheretopographicconditionsofthesiteandprojectconditionsallow,rainwater
shouldbecollectedfromrooftopsintoundergroundorgroundlevelcisternsforonsite
landscapeirrigation.Thestoragecisternsshouldbeadequatelysizedbasedonthe
rainfallinformationandamountofrooftoparea.Basicinformationsuchasrunoff
coefficientforvariouslandusecanfoundintheinSection4.2.
Stormwaterrunofffrompavedsurfacessuchasparkinglotscouldbedirectedtosheet
flowtonearbylandscapingareasorcollectedandstoredduringtherainyseasonfor
landscapeirrigationinthesummermonths.Runofffromtheparkingareamaybe
contaminatedandrequirespertreatmenttoremovesediment,sand,trash,andother
pollutantsthatarewashedawayfromthepavedsurfaces.Thetreatmentenvisioned
shouldbesimpleandeffectivetechniquethatreducestrashandsedimentthatcouldbe
trappedorremovedwithextendeddetention.
Stormwaterrunoffcouldbecollectedfromtheroadwaysthroughcollectorpipesand
storedandusedforlandscapeirrigationattheappropriatelocationsafterpre
treatment.Guidanceforsizingmethodologyofstormwatercollectorsandconveyance
systemincludingrainfallintensitydurationcurveforseverallocationinLibyaisincluded
inthisdocument.
Stormwatercouldbecollectedfromtheimpervioussurfacesandallowedtoinfiltrate
intothegroundtorechargethegroundwater.Guidanceforsizingmethodologyis
includedinthisdocument.
4.1.2 EnhancingStormWaterQuality
Stormwaterfrompavedsurfacessuchasroadsiscontaminatedwithvariouspollutantssuchastrash,
sediment,oilandgrease,bacteriaandotherpollutantasaresultofhumanactivity.Somedegreeof
treatmentisrequireddependingonthereuseobjectivesandreceivingoutfallsuchasecologically
sensitiveareas.Thequalityofstormwatercanbegreatlyimprovedbyutilizingsimplebuteffective
treatmenttechnologies.Mostofthepollutantsinstormwaterrunoffcanbetrappedatthesource
beforereachingthestormwatercollectionandconveyancesystem.Forpollutantsthatcannotbe
trappedatthesource,thestormwaterrunoffcouldbecollectedanddetainedatstrategiclocationsto
removepollutantbygravitysettling.Whenfurtherenhancementisdesired,thestormwaterrunoffis
directedintoatreatmentsystemfurtherenhancement.
TheactivityofenhancingthequalityofstormwaterisgenerallyreferredasBestManagementPractice.
BestManagementPracticescouldbe:
Nonstructuraland
Structuralmeasures
Nonstructuralmeasuresincludestreetsweeping,publiceducationsuchasantilittercampaignand
properdisposalofsolidwasteortrash.Nonstructuralmeasurescouldbeveryeffectiveinreducing
grosspollutantssuchasplasticswhichdonotbiodegrade.Properandstrategicallyplacedsignsand
billboardscouldbeveryeffectivemethodsofpubliceducations.Structuralmeasuresrequire
constructionofstructuressuchasoilandwaterseparators,detentionbasin,filterstrips,grassswales,
andinfiltrationtrancheandbasin.
Theabovementionedpracticesshouldbeevaluatedonacasebycasebasisforapplicabilityinthe
particularprojectsite.
4.2 StormWaterDesignCriteria
Stormwaterfacilitiesdesignmustbecompatiblewiththeappropriatestormwaterdischargeand
disposaloptions.Forexample,itmustbedeterminedifthestormwaterwillbecollectedandremoved
fromthesiteorifitwillberetainedonsiteandallowedtoinfiltrateintothegroundand/orevaporate.
Ingeneral,Libyahasadryclimate.RainfallsinLibyaareintense,shortinduration,andinfrequent.
AlongtheMediterraneancoast,thewettestmonthsarefromSeptembertoMarch.Forexample,the
averageannualtotalrainfallinTripoliisapproximately230mmbasedon40yearsdatarecordedat
TripoliInternationalAirport.ThemaximumannualtotalrainfallinTripoliduringthesameperiodwas
560mmrecordedin1982andwithaminimumannualtotalof52mmrecordedin1999.Otherareasin
thecountryhavesignificantlydifferentrainfallrecords.Thus,theapproachtostormwaterdrainage
designmustconsiderthelocalrainfallrecordsfordeterminingtheappropriatedesignstorm.
4.2.1 DesignStorm
Designrainstormsaretypicallydeterminedbasedonlongtermrainfallrecordstodevelopvaluesforvarious
recurrenceintervals.Forlocaldrainagefacilitiessuchassubdivisioncollectorroads,astormwitha5year
recurrenceintervalshallbeusedforcalculatingstormwaterrunoffandsizingdrainagecollectorsandmains.
Formajordrainagefacilities,a50yearstormeventshallbeusedforcalculatingstormwaterrunoffandsizing
themajordrainagefacilities.Majordrainagefacilitiesarelargefacilitiesthatreceiveinflowsfrommultiple
localdrainageareas.Majordrainagemayalsobecriticaldrainageareas,suchasairportsorunderpasses,
wherelocalizedfloodingisunacceptable.A25yeardesignstormshallbeusedforsizingthecollection
systemforfreewayormajorroadssuchastheRingRoads.
ThissectionprovidesthedesignstormforsizingdrainagefacilitiesfordifferentlocationsinLibya.
However,ifthedesignstormisnotavailableforaparticularprojectlocation,thedesignerisresponsible
forcollectingandevaluatingtheavailablerainfalldataandcalculatingtheintensitydurationofthe
designstormappropriatefortheprojectlocation.Theproposeddesignstormintensityandduration
shallbereviewedandapprovedbyHIBbeforeanydetaileddesignsareundertaken.Copiesofallrainfall
datausedfordeterminingthedesignstormshallbesubmittedtogetherwiththecalculateddesign
stormintensitydurationforthedesignfrequency.
Table41presentsrainfallintensitydurationforthevariousfrequenciesfortheCityofTripoliand
Figure41presentsthesameinformationinagraphicformfor5and50yearrecurrenceintervalsbased
onthevaluesinTable41.Similarfigurescouldbeconstructedforotherfrequenciesifdesiredfrom
thevaluespresentedinTable41.
Table41:IntensityDurationTableforVariousFrequenciesforTripoli,Libya
Time,Minutes Intensity,mm/hr
2year 5year 10year 25year 50year 100year

5 94.8 116.5 134.6 147.0 158.7 165.7
10 57.9 73.7 85.8 95.0 104.0 109.3
15 43.4 56.4 65.9 73.6 81.2 85.7
30 26.6 35.7 42.0 47.5 53.2 56.5
60 16.2 22.6 26.8 30.7 34.8 37.3
90 12.2 17.3 20.6 23.8 27.2 29.2
120 9.9 14.3 17.1 19.8 22.8 24.6
180 7.4 10.9 13.1 15.4 17.8 19.3
360 4.5 6.9 8.4 9.9 11.7 12.7
720 2.8 4.4 5.3 6.4 7.7 8.4
1440 1.7 2.8 3.4 4.1 5.0 5.5
Figure41:IntensityDurationCurveforTripoli,Libya
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

m
m
/
h
r
Time, Minutes
50Year
5Year
i
50
=423.5*t
(0.61
)
i
5
=336.9*t
(0.66)
Table42:RunoffCoefficientValues
AreaDescription RunoffCoefficient,C
CategorizedbySurface
Asphalt 0.7to0.95
Brick 0.7to0.85
Concrete 0.8to0.95
SandySoil 0.05to0.2
ClayeySoil 0.13to0.35
Categorizedbyuse
Administration 0.5to0.75
Educational 0.6to0.8
ShoppingCenter 0.6to0.8
MedicalFacilities 0.6to0.8
ReligiousandCulturalFacilities 0.7to0.8
Agricultural 0.3to0.5
Unimproved 0.1to0.3
ParksandPlaygrounds,unpaved 0.1to0.25
Playground,unpaved 0.2to0.35
BusinessDistricts 0.7to0.95
Residential
Smallvillas(<2500m
2
) 0.3to0.5
Largevillas(>2500m
2
) 0.25to0.4
Apartments 0.65to0.85
Industrial
Light 0.5to0.8
Heavy 0.6to0.8
4.2.2 RunoffCoefficients
RunoffforthedesignstormeventshallbecalculatedbasedontheRationalMethod,wherebytherunoff
flow,Q,equalsacoefficient,C,timesstormintensity,i,timesthecatchmentarea,A.
Q = C - | - A
Where:
iRainfallintensity,m/sec
CRunoffcoefficient(dimensionless)
ADrainagearea,m
2
QFlow,m
3
/sec
Rainfallintensitydurationforotherlocationsandadditionalinformationwithsamplecalculationsis
includedinAttachment41attheendofSection4.Runoffcoefficientsbasedongroundsurfacetype
andlanduseareprovidedinTable42:RunoffCoefficientValuesandshallbeusedfordesignrunoff
flowcalculations.Compositerunoffcoefficientsineachcatchmentcanbedeterminedbymultiplying
specificlanduseareasbytheirrespectivecoefficientsanddividingthesumoftheseproductsbythe
totaldrainagearea.
4.2.3 RunoffVolumes
Runoffvolumesarecalculatedbasedonindividualcatchmentareas,catchmentcharacteristicsandthe
designstorm(s).Theequationforrunoffflowvolumeforanygivencatchmentisshownbelow:
V = C - d - A
Where:
V istherunoffvolume(m
3
)
C istherunoffcoefficient(dimensionless)
d isthetotalstormdepth(m)
A isthecatchmentarea(m
2
)
Designflowratesarebasedonclearingtherunoffvolumewithintherequiredcleartimeaftertheendof
thestormeventwithoutexceedingthemaximumallowabledepthoflocalizedflooding.Basedon
hydraulicanalyses,inlocationswherelocalizedpondingdoesnotexceedthemaximumallowabledepth
andwiththerequiredcleartime,anaveragedesignflowmaybeusedforsizingthedrainage
conveyanceandpumpingstations.Theaverageflowrateisdeterminedbythefollowingrelationship:
Qavg =
V
3. - (ts + t)

Where:
Q
avg
averagerunoffflowrate(l/s)
V runoffvolume(m
3
)
ts stormduration(hours)
ct cleartime(hours)
Wherepossible,sizingcollectionnetworksbasedonanaveragerunoffratecanreducetheoverallsize
andcostofthecollectionsystem.Somefacilities,suchasroadwayunderpasses,requireazeroclear
time.Insuchcases,themaximumpeakflowsshouldbeaccommodatedbythedrainagepipingand
pumps.
4.3 Hydraulicanalyses
HydraulicanalysesshallbecarriedoutusingtheManningsformula(asamplecalculationisincludedin
Attachment41attheendofSection4)orapprovedcomputermodelingsoftware.Acceptablemodels
areInfoworks,SewerCAD,MouseModel,InfoSewer,andSWWM.Otherequivalentcommercially
availablemodelsmaybeusedwithpriorwrittenapprovalbyHIB.
RoughnesscoefficientsbasedonthepipematerialasshowninTable43shallbeused.Theroughness
coefficientisameasureofthefrictionresistancetoflowbytheinteriorsurfaceofthepipe.The
roughnessthereforeisafunctionofthepipematerial,age,andcondition.Poorpipeconditionsareto
beassumedforsystemdesigns.However,pumpingfacilitiesshallbedesignedtooperatesatisfactorily
foreithernormalorpoorconditions.
4.3.1 FlowVelocities
Theminimumdesignvelocityallowedthroughdrainageconduits(topreventexcessivesettlingofsolids)
andthemaximumflowallowed,toavoidabrasionofthegravityconduits,areasshowninTable44.
Table43:TypicalRoughnessCoefficients
Table44:Minimum&MaximumVelocities
PipeDescription
MinimumVelocity
(m/s)
MaximumVelocity
(m/s)
Gravitypipe 0.6 3.0
Pressurepipe 1.0 2.0
Insituationswheretheminimumdesignvelocitycannotbeachievedforgravitypipe,thedistancebetween
manholesshouldbereducedtobetteraccommodatemorefrequentcleaning.
PipeMaterial
Mannings,n
Normal Maximum
uPVC 0.010 0.013
GRP 0.010 0.013
HDPE 0.010 0.018
RCP 0.012 0.016
4.3.2 ClearTimes
Allowablecleartimeshavebeenestablishedforthedifferenttypesofareaswherenewstormwaterdrainagemay
berequired.Thesetimesrefertotheperiodoftimeaftertheendofastormeventduringwhichlimitedwater
pondingispermitted.Table45identifythecleartimeforeachofthemainserviceareas.Themaximum
allowabledepthofpondingalongtheroadwaywithcurbandgutteristheheightofaroadcurbwhichis150mm.
Table45:AllowableClearTimes
AreaDesignation ClearTime,hours Comments
Freeways/Expressways 0 SeeNote1
ArterialRoads 0 SeeNote1
CollectorRoads 1
LocalRoads 1
RoadwayUnderpasses 0 SeeNote1
ParkingLots 3
AirportRunways 0 SeeNote1
AirportTaxiways 0 SeeNote1
AirportInfield 24 SeeNote2
Notes:
1.Watershallbeclearedwithinthetimeframeofthestorm,andfloodingduringthestormwillbeminimizedtoavoid
unnecessarydisruptionoftraffic.
2.Shortercleartimesshallbesoughtwherepossible.
4.3.3 DepthofFlow
Thedesigndepthofflowforalldrainagepipesisassumedtobefull,andwhensurchargedtheenergy
gradelineshouldnotbehigherthanthenaturalgroundsurface.Thesystemmaybedesignedto
operateundersurchargeflowconditionsformostpipesinordertoachievetherequiredcleartimes.
4.4 PipeMaterials
Drainagepipematerialshavebeenselectedtobeconsistentwithlocalstandardpractices,basedon
economicsandlocalavailability.Table46listsallowablepipematerialsforvariouspipesizes.
Table46:AllowablePipeMaterials
PipeMaterial Diameter(mm)
uPVC,HDPE 200to600
GRP,RCP 300to1400
RCP Greaterthan1400
Theminimumpipediameterpermittedfordrainagesystemgravitycollectionpipesis300mm.Land
subdrainsunderdetentionpondsandinfiltrationareascanbe200mmindiameter.Connectionsto
streetguttersandotherinletsmayalsobe200mmdiameter,andshallhaveaslopeof2percentor
greater.
RCPpipeshallbeprovidedwithprotectionfromsulfidecorrosion,suchasPVCorGRPliningorpossibly
asacrificialliningofmortarwithcalcareous(limestone)aggregate.
4.4.1 PipeGradients
Minimumgradientsaredeterminedbasedonminimumscourvelocityrequirements.Largerpipe
diametergradientsarebasedonconstructabilityaswellasminimumvelocityrequirements.
RecommendedminimumgradientsarelistedinTable47.Theminimumgradientconsidered
technicallyachievableduringconstructionis0.00050m/m.
Table47:MinimumPipeGradients
PipeDiameter MinimumGradient
/
250 0.00246
300 0.00190
400 0.00132
500 0.00098
600 0.00077
700 0.00063
800 0.00053
900 0.00050
1000 0.00050
largerthan1000 0.00050
4.4.2 MinimumCoverRequirements
Forgravitypipes,theminimumrecommendedcoverinordertoprotectfromexternalloadsis1.2m
abovethepipecrown.Forpressurepipes,minimumcoveris0.8minunpavedareaswithnovehicular
trafficand1.0minpavedareaswithvehiculartraffic.Iftheavailablecoverislessthanspecified,then
additionalprotectionsuchasfullconcreteencasementortheuseofconcreteprotectionslabsmaybe
required
Theactualcoverrequiredforconstructionandaccessmaybegreaterthanthatrequiredsolelyfor
structuralintegrity.Forexample,theminimumcoverrequiredbythephysicaldimensionsofatypical
accessmanholeis2mabovethepipecrown.However,forsmallpipeslessthanorequalto300mmin
diameter,therequiredcovermaybelessthan1.2m.Insuchcases,ifinspectionchambersareinstalled
ratherthanmanholes,1.0mofcovermaysuffice.
Themaximumcoverdepthrecommendedisapproximately10m.Thismaximumdepthisconsistent
withtypicalpipeinstallationstandardsandmanufacturerrecommendations.Shouldtheactualcoverbe
greaterthan10m,pipematerialselectionshouldbeevaluatedandahigherstrengthclassofpipe
utilized.
Forpipesinstalledlessthantherecommendedminimumormorethanmaximumdepths,concrete
encasementmayberequiredtoprotectthepipefromdamageorcollapse.Alternativesofdifferent
pipesizeatadifferentslopeshouldbeconsideredbeforedesigningpipelinesforinstallationoutsideof
thespecifieddepthranges.
Inallcases,thepipeminimumandmaximumdepthsshallbeinconformancewiththepipe
manufacturersrecommendations.
4.4.3 Manholes
Manholesareusedtoprovideaccesstodrainagelines.Theyshallbeprovidedateachchangein
direction(verticalorhorizontal)andconnectionoftwoormorelines.Manholesaretobeplacedat
leastevery100morthelimitofexistingpipecleaningequipment,whicheverissmaller.Inparticular,
manholesshouldalsobeinstalledwherenecessarytofacilitatecleaningandaccess.Forpipediameters
largerthan1500mmwheremanentryisreasonablyaccommodated,maximummanholespacingmay
beincreasedto200m.
Themanholestructuresarenormallycircularinshape,withaminimumdiameterof1,000mm.
ManholesshallbeconstructedofreinforcedconcretewithGRPorothercorrosionproofliningwithprior
writtenapprovalfromHIB.Detailsofaccessandconstructionshallbeinaccordancewithestablished
HIBorotherequivalentstandardsanddetails.
Manholesongravitypipesshallbeprovidedatanychangesinhorizontaldirectionandwherepipesizes
change.Fortransitionsbetweenpipesofdifferentdiameters,typicaldesignistomatchthecrown
elevationsofthepipes.Intheeventthatthisisnotpossible,theinvertofthelargersewerpipecanbe
raisedtomatchthe0.8depthpointofbothsewerpipes.
4.4.4 ConnectionChambers
Specialconnectionchambersshallbeusedinlocationswheremanholesarenotsufficientforthe
requiredconnection.Thisismostcommonlythecasewheremultiplelargepipesmustbeconnectedto
equilibrateflowsand/orflowcontrolistobeimplemented.Flowcontrolshallbeprovidedthroughthe
useofpenstocks.
4.4.5 CatchBasinsandTrenchDrains
Approvedcatchbasins,trenchdrains,andgulliesshallbeusedthroughoutthedrainageprojects.Cast
ironinletgratesshallbeusedthroughout.Maximumspacingofcatchbasinsinanymajororsubdivision
roadshallbe25munlessitisdemonstratedbyprojectspecificcalculationsawiderspacingisjustified.
Flushmountedinletstructuresmaybeusedinareaswithoutcurbing.
Trenchdrainsarerequiredwheresheetflowislikely,orwheretrafficloadingisexpectedtoexceed
standardhighwayloads.Standarddetailsfortrenchdrainsshallbeusedthroughout.
Inletsandgulliesshallbeprovidedwithsedimenttrapswithaccessformaintenancecleaning.
Inletcoversshallbeprovidedwithasandtraptopreventaccumulationofsandincurbinletcatch
basins.
4.4.6 UtilityCrossings
Utilitycrossingsforstormdrainsaretobeconsistentwithinternationallyacceptedstandards,asshown
inTable48.
Table48:UtilityCrossingforStormDrains
VerticalClearance
30cm(iflessthan30cm,useconcretesaddle)
Carryencasementtofirstjointoneachsideofcrossing
HorizontalClearance
3.0m;ifinsametrench,placeotherutilityonseparatebench
onundisturbedsoilabovedrainageline
PotableWaterLines Alwaysplaceabovedrainagelines
4.5 DetentionPonds(SeparateStormDrainageOnly)
Stormwaterdetentionfacilities,suchasponds,drybasinsandundergroundchambers,canbeeffective
methodstoattenuatepeakflowsbyslowlyreleasingrunoffvolumes,andtoimprovewaterqualityby
allowingpollutantstosettle.Attenuatingpeakflowsofferthebenefitofreducingthedownstreampipe
sizeandcostofconstructionofstormwatermanagementsystems.Improvingwaterqualityreducesthe
riskofcollectionsystemsbecomingblockedorpluggedwithsedimentsanddebris,andtheriskof
releasingpollutantstotheenvironment.
Thepondsaretypicallylocatedinareasthatareatthenaturallyoccurringlowerelevationsinthe
catchmentareas,withaminimumofonepondpercatchmentarea.Therearetwotypesofstormwater
detentionbasins:dryandwet.Drydetentionbasinsaredesignedtobenormallydryandbecome
temporarilyinundatedafterastormevent.Drydetentionpondsmaybeusedforrecreationalactivities,
suchassoccerfieldsorthelike,foralltimesexceptwherethereisamajorrainfallevent.
Wetdetentionpondsaredesignedtohaveapermanentpoolatalltimes.Inadditiontorunoff
calculationdeterminingofevaporationrateshouldbeperformedtoensurethereisapermanentpoolof
wateratthedesireddepth.Properlysized,designed,andmaintainedwetpondsalsoaddanamenity
featuretothesurroundingareas.Carefulconsiderationshouldbegiventoprovideaminimumdepth
sufficienttoavoidcreatingamudpit.Insomeinstanceasupplementalwatersourcesuchasground
waterortreatedwatermaybeneeded.Inareasofhighgroundwater,theconstructionofdetention
pondsshouldbeavoided.
Thestormwaterdetentionfacilitiesshallbedesignedtosafelycontainandslowlyreleaserunoffvolume
froma50year,24hourrainfalleventinordertoaccommodatealargerstormdepth.Itisassumedthat
duringthe50yearstormevent,15percentofthetotalrunoffisdischargedfromdetentionfacilities
beforewaterlevelsreachpeakstage.Therefore,thedetentionfacilityissizedtostorearunoffvolume
equalto85percentofthetotalrunoffvolumefromthe50year,24hourrainfallevent.
4.5.1 PondInletandOutletStructures
Wherethestormwatercollectionsystemisdischargedtoponds,sideslopesaretobeprotectedfrom
erosionwithstonepitchingorriprap.Whereinflowvelocitiesexceed1.5m/s,anenergydissipation
structureshouldbeprovided.Outletstructuresshouldbesizedadequatelytoemptytheflowatthe
desiredtimeperiod.Dischargecontrolstructuresshallbedesignedtoreleasetotalrunofffromthe5
year24hourrainfalleventoveraperiodof48hoursandtoreleasethetotalrunofffromthe50year24
hourrainfalleventoveraperiodof72hours.Theoutletstructurescouldbeweir,orifice,orother
overflowstructures.
4.5.2 DischargeControlStructures
Dischargecontrolstructuresservetwopurposes:
1. Tomaintainsurfacewaterorgroundwaterlevelsand
2. Toreleaserainfallrunoffatanattenuatedpeakdischargerate.
Dischargecontrolstructuresareanintegralpartofapassivestormwatermanagementsystem.They
areusedtomaintainsurfacewaterlevelsandgroundwaterlevelsindetentionpondsattarget
elevations.Thetargetelevationistypicallysetatnotlowerthanthenatural,preconstructionwet
seasongroundwaterelevation.However,otherfactorsmayalsobeconsideredwhenselectingatarget
elevation.Thetargetelevationbecomesthedesigncontrolelevation.Eachstormwaterpondshallbe
assignedadesigncontrolelevationbasedonthebestavailablegroundwaterdataforthatspecific
location.
Dischargecontrolstructuresshallbesizedtoreleaserunofffromcertaindesignstormsoveraspecified
numberofdayswithoutallowingthepondwatersurfacelevelstoexceedthemaximumdesignhigh
waterlevels.Dischargecontrolstructuresreleasestoredrunoffthrougheitheranoverflowweir,ora
circularorifice,oracombinationofthetwo.Rectangularweirsandorificesshallbedesignedusing
conventionalformulas.
4.5.3 PondDepth
Thedepthofwaterinadetentionpondisanimportantconsiderationduringdesign.Whileitispossible
andoftendesirabletominimizethelandarearequiredforadetentionpondbyincreasingitsdepth,the
resultmaycreateconditionsthatcanbehazardous.Thedepthinfluencesboththesafetyofoperation
andthequalityofeffluentfromthepond.Pondsideslopesgenerallyshouldhaveastableslopewitha
gradientof1verticalto5horizontal(1V:5H).Thisgentlegradientallowsvehicleaccessformaintenance
ofthesideslopeandbottom.Italsoallowseasyaccessforthepossiblerecreationaluseofthepond
duringdrymonths.Duringdesign,itmaybedesirabletoadjustthesideslopesforaestheticreasons.
Pondsideslopeoptionsincludenaturalslope(1V:5H),hardenedslopeterraced,andverticalretaining
walls.
Forwetponds,therecommendedpoolofwatershouldbeaminimumof1.5metersatthedeepest
location.Thesubmergedsideslopeofthepermanentpoolcouldbeincreasedto3H:1Voncethedepth
inthepermanentpoolisgreaterthan0.5meters.Whensiteconditiondoesnotallowtheabove
recommendations,othervaluescouldbeusedwithpriorwrittenapprovalfromHIB.
4.5.4 DetentionPondEmptying
Efficientandcompleteclearingofdrydetentionpondsafterastormeventisessential.Shallow,
stagnantpoolspromotebreedingofnuisanceinsects.Deeper,wetpondswilldevelopplantsandmay
attractbirdsandotherwildlife.Wetpondsmayactaswaterfeaturesespeciallywhenassociatedwith
pocketparksorotherpublicuseareas.
4.5.5 DryDetentionPonds
Thefollowingshouldbeconsideredinsizingofalldrydetentionponds:
3. Sizeareatodetainrunoffvolumefromthedesignrainfalleventplus0.3moffreeboard
4. Provide5:1sideslopesorstablesideslopeasdictatedbysoilconditions
5. Gradepondbottomstocentralpointstoaccumulateflowstocentralcollectionpoints.
Aslopeoftwopercentmaybeconsidered.
6. Pondbottomsshallbeatleast5mabovetheaveragegroundwaterlevel.
7. Provideperimeterlanddrainsystemtostabilizesideslopeswheregroundwaterlevels
areexpectedtobehigherelevationthanthepondcontrolelevation.
4.5.6 WetDetentionPonds
Thefollowingshouldbeincorporatedinallwetdetentionponds:
1. Sizeareatodetainrunoffvolumefromthedesignstormplus0.3moffreeboard.
2. Provide5:1sideslopesorstablesideslopeasdictatedbysoilconditions.
3. Pondbottomshallbeatleast1.5mbelowdischargecontrolelevation.
4. Considerationshouldbegiventoprovidesupplementalaerationandmixingwithinthe
pondtoenhancewaterquality.
5. Provideperimeterlanddrainsystemtostabilizesideslopeswheregroundwaterlevels
areexpectedtobehigherelevationthanthepondcontrolelevation.
6. Provideagentlyslopinglittoralshelfwithaquaticvegetationalongthewetted
perimeterofthepondforaestheticsandsafety.
4.5.7 RetentionPonds
Retentionpondsareintendedtoretainandimpoundallflowfromtwicetheaverageannualrainfall
withoutoverflow.Theyshallincorporatethefollowing:
1. Sizevolumetocontainrunofffromrainfallequaltotwotimestheannualaverage
rainfall.
2. Outletviainfiltrationtogroundwater,evaporation,orbeneficialreusesuchas
landscapeirrigation.
3. Thedepthisdeterminedbyinletpipelevels.
4.5.8 BuriedDetentionChambers
Whereappropriate,considerationshouldbegiventotheuseofburieddetentionchambers.These
chambersusuallycomprisedofinterconnectedelementsofperforatedpipesorstructuresinagravel
envelope.
1. Sizearearequiredfordetentionchamberstodetainrunofffromthedesignstormbased
ontheestimatedstoragecapacityforeachchamberandgravelenvelope.
2. Provideoilwaterseparatorsatallinletsintothechambers
3. Estimatepondareasassuming0.66m
3
ofstoragepersquaremeteroflandarea.
Thismethodofstormwaterdetentionisonlyeffectivewherethechambersareconsistentlyabovethe
groundwatertablewithapositiveoutflowavailableatalltimes.Theburiedchamberswillactasland
drainsandkeepthegroundwaterlevelbelowthechamberinlet.
Burieddetentionchambersaretobelocatedusingthesamehorizontaloffsetcriteriaasusedforstorm
watermanagementbasinswithinanAirport.
4.6 OilWaterSeparators
Becauserainfalleventsareinfrequent,thefirstflushofstormwaterrunofffromurbanizedareas
typicallycontainsarelativelyhighpollutantload.Oilwaterseparatorsmayberequiredtoreducethe
dischargeofpollutantstotheenvironmentbycapturingsettlingsolidsandfloatableoilsandgrease.
Whererequired,oilwaterseparatordesignsshallmeetthefollowingrequirements:
1. Shallbeconstructedofimpermeablematerialsandwithminimumofthreechambersin
serieswithaccessmanholesintoeachchamber.
2. Forlargecatchmentareas,provideabypasschannelshallbeprovidedtoprevent
overflowofoilorcontaminantsasaresultofheavydownpours.
3. Provideavolumecapacityfromanaverageonehourstorm.
4. Ametalgrillorappropriatelydesignedscreenshallbeprovidedtopreventdebrisfrom
enteringtheoilwaterseparator.
5. Separatordischargeshallmeetthefollowingwaterqualitycriteria:
(a) Novisibleoilandgrease.
(b) Suspendedsolidslessthan50mg/lduringdryweatherflow.
(c) Suspendedsolidslessthan100mg/lduringwetweatherflow.
(d) Maximumhorizontaldesignvelocityis0.3meterspersecond.
6. Forlargecatchmentareas,sizetheseparatortotreatstormwaterrunofffromthefirst
flush.
7. DesigndepthofSeparatorshallbeaminimumof1.22mandmaximumof2.44mper
WEFMOPFD3,PretreatmentofIndustrialWaste,1994.
8. Provideaccessforregularmaintenancetoinspectunitsandremoveaccumulatedoils
andsettledsolids.
9. Depthtowidthratioequalto0.3minimumandmaximum0.5perWEFMOPFD3,
PretreatmentofIndustrialWaste,1994.
10. Velocityshallbebasedonthesustainedpeakstormwaterdischargeratefromthe5
yearstormevent.
11. Flowinexcessofrunofffrom5yearstormeventshallbebypassedaroundthe
separatoraftercoarsescreening.
12. MaximumwidthofasingleSeparatorshouldbe10mforreasonableconstructability.
13. Capturedoilfilmandfloatablesolidsinseparatortobedisplacedintotroughcollection
systemhavingweircrestelevationequalscalculatedHighWaterLevelinSeparatorplus
0.15m.
14. SedimentcollectedinSeparatortobedirectedtosumpforpumpingtotruckloading
station.
15. Separatorprovidedwithinletcoarsescreensconsistingofinchannelmanualbarracks
having50mmspacingbetweenbars.Barracksaretobeverticalandhavefullwidth
depressedfloortrench0.4mdepthupstreamofbarrackshavingoverheadhatchfor
verticalliftofdebrisfromtrench.
16. Provideonesumppitwithrecessedchannelsinthebottomslabandoneliftout
submersiblesumppumpfordewateringeachSeparatorcell.
17. Provideone100mmdiameterwatersupplyline,fromponddewateringpumpstationor
otheravailablewatersupply,intoeachparallelSeparatorfordisplacementofwaste
floatablematerials.
18. Accumulatedfloatablewasteandoilswillbedisplacedthroughaweiropening
dischargingintotroughsystemtodirectwastestoasump.Sumppumpshalldischarge
toatruckfillingstationwithspillcontainmentandpipingshallbefittedwitheither
disconnectcouplingsatgradeorwithanoverheadtankerfillingarrangement.
19. Forlargerunits,provideaonetonjibcraneforremovalofscreen,screenings,andgrit.
Provideremovable,motorized,onetonwireropehoistforuseonthejibcrane.
20. Forlargeoilwaterseparators,provideelectricactuatedsluicegatesattheinletand
outletfromtheseparatortoisolatetheunitsformaintenanceandrepairs.
4.7 StormwaterManagementwithinanAirport
Itmaybedesirabletoroutestormwaterrunofftoshallowbasinslocatedintheareasoflandbetween
runwaysandtaxiwaysaspartofacollectionsystem.Thebasinsshallhaveminimumhorizontaloffsets
fromrunwaysandtaxiwaysincompliancewithFAAregulationswhichspecifyoffsetsdistancestoany
changesingradeasfollows:
1. Minimumoffset23mfromedgeofrunwaypavement.
2. Minimumoffset110mfromcenterlineoftaxiway.
3. Minimumoffset20mfromendofblastpavementfortaxiways.
4. Maximumdepthofbasin1.5m
Maximumbasinsideslopesshallbe5H:1V.Allrunofftothebasinswillflowfreelyintothecollection
system.Thebasinsarenotintendedtodetainwaterforanyperiodoftimeafterthestormevent.
(Referenceismadetothefollowingdocuments:DubaiCivilAviationReportTD75StormwaterMasterPlanforDubai
InternationalAirportandtheU.S.FederalAviationAdministrationAdvisoryCircularNo.150/53205BAirportDrainage.)
4.7.1 BirdScare
Forairports,birdcontrolisamajorpriorityforsafeoperationoftheairportasbirdsareattractedto
standingpoolsofwatersuchasdetentionponds.Provisionstokeepstormwaterdetentionpondsa
sufficientdistancefromairplanemovementsmustbeincorporatedintothedesign.Assuch,nostorm
waterdetentionpondswillbelocatedwithinanairportorwithinanairportflyzone.
4.8 GroundwaterDewatering
Duringconstructioncontinuousdewateringmaybeneededwheregroundwaterlevelishigherandthis
sectionisincludedtoprovideguidanceindewatering.Possiblegroundwaterriseduetofutureirrigation
andwatersupplysystemleakagemustalsobetakenintoaccount.
Dewateringtimebelowthewatertablecanbecalculatedusingthefollowingequation:
Where: t= dewateringtime,days
A= pondarea,m
2
Q= groundwaterdischargetopondperunitdrawdown(tobeobtainedfrom
groundwa
ter
analysisor
model),
m
3
/day/m
Q
P
= pumpedflow,m
3
/day
Z
GW
= groundwatertableelevation,m
Z
P0
= initialpondwatersurfaceelevation,m
Z
P
= pondbottomelevation,m
Groundwaterlevelscanbeloweredbyusingactivepumpingand/orpassivecollectionfromtheoutfall
structures.Thegroundwatercollectedshallbedisposedofinthestormwatercollectionsystemor
pumpedtoTreatedSewageEffluent(TSE)storagetanks,ifavailableandmixedwiththeTSEforuseas
irrigationwater.TheextenttowhichgroundwatercanbeblendedwithTSEmustbeevaluatedona
casebycasebasis.
4.9 PumpingStationsandRisingMains
Stormwaterpumpingstationsarerequiredwhendrainagecollectionnetworkdepthsexceedthe
practicaloreconomicconstructabilitylimit.Thefirstpreferenceistousegravitydrainagesystems;
however,duetotopographyandpotentiallanduseconflicts,thereisthepotentialthatsomepumping
stationsmaybeneeded.Pumpingstationsmayalsoberequiredwherelanddrainsystemsare
employedandconnectionstogravitystormdrainagesystemsarenotpossible.
4.9.1 PumpingStationType
Thedesignphilosophyistomaximizegravityflowandonlyusepumpingwhereabsolutelynecessary.
Moststormwaterpumpingstationsshallbesubmersiblepumptypestations.Submersiblepump
stationsarewellsuitedtodrainagepumpinggiventheirlowprofileandlowmaintenancerequirements.
Pumpingstationsshallbesizedforthestormwaterflowsbutwillalsobeusedtomaintainthe
groundwatertablebelowthedesiredelevationthroughouttheyear.
Forverylargeflows,stormwaterpumpsmayrequireuseoflowhead,highvolumeaxialflowpumps,or
possiblyscrewpumpswheretherequiredheadisjustaliftintoahighergravityflowpipe.
+
+
=
P GW
P
P GW
P
Z Z
Q
Q
Z Z
Q
Q
Q
A
t
'
'
ln
'
0
Stormwaterpumpingstationsshallbedesignedtohandletheprojectedrunoffforspecificcatchments.
However,theircapacitymaybelargerinordertoensurethatcleartimesforupstreamdetentionponds
aremet.Pumpcontrolsshallbebasedprimarilyonwaterelevationsinthewetwellofthestation.A
SCADAsystemshallbeusedtoensureappropriatecyclingofindividualpumpsbasedonruntimes.The
pumpoperationshallbebysimplefloatactuatedstartstopswitchesandconstantspeedpumps.
4.9.2 WetWellVolume
Wetwellsizingisafunctionoftheincomingflows,thecontrolstrategyforthestation,theselected
pumps,andthenumberofstartsperhourpermissibleforthepumps.Recommendedcyclingfrequency
dependsonthetypeofpumpbeingused,themotorsizeandpumpoperatingefficiency.For
submersiblepumpsintherangeofcapacitieslikelytobeused,therecommendedcycletimeranges
from7to10minutes;theequivalentof6to10startsperhour.Fordesignpurposes,pumpstations
shallhaveaminimumcycletimeof10minutes.Cycletimesarewithrespecttodryweatherflowssince
duringstormeventsthereislittlecyclingofpumps.
Forconstantspeedpumps,wetwellvolumeiscalculatedbasedoncyclingfrequencywheninflowtothe
stationisabout50percentofthepumpingratewithasinglepumpoperating.
Thewetwellvolumeshallbecalculatedfromthebasicformula:
CT =[V/(DQ)+(V/Q)]where
D =Pumprate(m/min.)
Q =Inflowrate(m/min.)
CT =cycletime(minutesbetweenpumpstarts)
V =volume(m)
Sinceminimumcycletimeisofconcern(Q=D/2),theformulareducestoCT=2V/Q.
4.9.3 WetWellDepth
Thedepthofwetwellbelowtherequiredinvertoftheinletpipeisafunctionofthefollowing:
1. Requiredsubmergencetopreventvortexinginthepumpsuctionpipingwhichmay
causeunbalancedloadingonimpellers&bearings,therebyreducingpumplife.
2. TheminimumNetPositiveSuctionHeadRequired(NPSHR)bytheparticularpump
impellerselection.Thisrequirementisprovidedbythepumpsupplier.
3. Highliquidlevelinthewetwellbeingsetat0.8timestheinletpipediameterabovethe
invert.Thisallowstheinletpipetobeemptiedfrequentlypreventingbuildupofsettled
materialinthegravityinletpipes.
Therequiredsubmergencereferstominimumliquidlevelaboveaverticalpumpinletflareorfittingand
abovethecenterlineoftheflareifpositionedhorizontally.
ThesubmergenceshallbecalculatedasperHydraulicInstituteStandards.
TheminimumsubmergencedeterminationandNPSHRshallbeverifiedduringthewetwellsizing.
4.9.4 PumpSelection
Pumpselectionshouldbemadetooptimizeconditionsovertheprojectedrangeofflowsminimum,
average,maximum.Selectionismadetominimizeholdingtimesinthewetwellbeforepumpingand
maximizingefficiency.Actualpumpselectioncanonlybemadeafterasystemheadcapacitycurveis
developedfortheproposedinstallation.Thefollowingitemsaretobeconsidered:
1. Requiredrangeofheadandflows
2. Numberofpumps
4. Efficiency
Multiplepumpswillbeusedtoachievetherequiredpumpingcapacity.Usingmultiplepumpspermits
betterstationcontrolandperformancewhenflowsvaryfromdifferentintensitystormevents.Also,
smallercapacityindividualpumpsforlowflowswillservebetterduringthedryseasonwhentheonly
flowsarefromgroundwatercontrol.
Ifscrewpumpsareanappropriateoption,aminimumoftwopumpsshallbeinstalled.Asscrewpumps
automaticallypumpwithavariableoutputtomatchtheincomingflow(uptotheirmaximumcapacity),
pumpselectionisprimarilyafunctionofnumberofpumpsandtheirmaximumcapacity.
4.9.5 PumpingStationStructures
Pumpingstationstructuresshouldbedesignedtoensureasafeworkingenvironmentforoperationand
maintenancestaffaswellasmaximizingperformanceandminimizingcosts.Thefollowingshallbe
incorporated:
6. Ventilationsystemstomeetapplicablestandards.
7. Provisionstofacilitateremovingpumps,motors,andothermechanicalandelectrical
equipment.
8. Suitableandsafemeansofaccesstodrywellsandtowetwells.
9. Wetwellsconfiguredtominimizeturbulence.
Wetwellcontrolsoftheencapsulatedfloattype;althoughmoresophisticatedcontrolmaybe
considered.Inallcases,controlsensorslocatedawayfromturbulenceofincomingflowandpump
suction.
4.9.6 SurgeProtection
Surgescanbegeneratedinthepumpedsupplysystemfollowingpowerfailures,pumpstartingor
stoppingandsuddenvalveoperations.Needforsurgelimitingequipmenttoprotectthesupplysystem
duetopossibletransientpressurevariationshallbeconsidered.Thecalculationofsurgeshallbecarried
outbyappropriatemethodsandusingtherelevantgeneralequationsandsurgecalculationsoftware
accordingtotheconditionsspecifiedbythedesignerandbasedonthemostunfavorableoperating
conditions.Wheresurgeprotectionisfoundtobenecessary,thedesignershallsizeandspecifythe
appropriatesurgeprotectionequipment.
Allpumpingstationsshallbedesignedandconstructedbasedoninternationalprinciples.Thefollowing
provisionsshallbeincluded:
1. Supplyandcontrolcircuitsallowingfordisconnectionfromoutsidethewetwell.
Terminalsandconnectorsprotectedfromcorrosionthroughproperlocationand/orthe
useofwatertightseals.Separatestrainrelief.
2. Properlysealedmotorcontrolpanels.
3. Groundfaultinterruptionprotection.
4. Powercordsdesignedforflexibilityandserviceabilityunderconditionsofextrahard
usageandsuchthatfieldconnectionsarefacilitated.
Instrumentationsystemsshallbeconsistentwithotherexistingsystemsinuseandintegratedintothe
sitewidecentralizedoperationalmanagementsystem(SCADAcontrolsystem).
NewSCADAsystemsshallbecompatiblewiththeMasterStationandwillbemonitoredandthe
informationcompiledatthemainmastersystemlocations,althoughremotestationsmayalsobe
incorporatedintothesystem.
4.9.8 RisingMains
Risingmainsshallbesizedtomaintainvelocitieswithinanacceptablerangeforavarietyofflow
conditions.Risingmaindiametersshouldnotbelessthan200mm.Selectionofthediameteris
dependentonthemaximumandminimumflowratesrequiredthroughthepipe,thecharacteristicsof
thepipe(length,material,androute)andvelocity.Flowsaresetbasedonrequiredcleartimesfrom
drainageareasanddetentionponds.Pipecharacteristicsareimportantsincetheheadlossinthe
systemshouldbeminimized.Velocityisalsoafactorinthedeterminationofheadloss.
Theminimumvelocitymustbeachievedwithonlyonepumpinoperationsincethiswillbethecondition
duringlowflowperiods.
AllpressureservicepipesbeyondthelimitsofthepumpingstationshallbeGRPwithminimumpipe
stiffnessof10,000N/m
2
withinthelimitsofthepumpingstationand5,000N/m
2
beyondthelimitsof
thepumpingstation.Asanalternative,ductileironpipeandfittingsmaybeusedforpipesexposedin
thewetwellandvalvevaults.
4.9.9 AirValvesandWashouts
Therisingmainsshallbeequippedwiththefollowingvalvesforfacilitatingtheoperation,control,and
maintenance.
1. AirandVacuumValves:Thesevalvesshallbeprovidedatsummitsalongthepipe
profileandalonglongstretcheswithuniformslopetopurgeoutaccumulatedairinthe
pipesystem.Airreleaseandvacuumreliefvalvesareoftenneededalongtransmission
mainsandmaysometimesbeunavoidableinsewageforcemains.Airmustbebled
slowlyfromhighpointstoprevent(1)airbindingand(2)thereductionofthecross
sectionofthepipeathighpoints.Vacuumconditionsmustbepreventedwhenthe
pumpheaddropsquickly(asinpowerfailures)topreventcolumnseparationandat
extremehighpointsinpipelinestopreventpotentialpipelinecollapseduetovacuum.
Vacuumreliefvalvescanbeaslargeasonesixthofthediameterofthetransmission
main,whereasairreleasevalvesmaybeassmallasonefiftiethofthediameterofthe
pipe.
general,airvalvesaretobeinstalledatcrestpoints,changesinelevationsandincaseof
constantrisingmainshavingmoderateslope,atamaximumspacingof1000mto
1500m.
necessary.
5. IsolatingValveswithdiametersmallerthan300mmshallbegatevalvesandlarger
diametershallbeeccentricplugvalvesorglobevalves.
6. NonReturnValves:Thesevalveswillbeprovidedinthepumpstationtopreventa
reverseflowintothepumpsandshallbeofnoiselessnonslamtype.
Allvalvesnotlocatedinapumpstationstructureshallbeinstalledinsidereinforcedconcretevalve
chambers.
4.9.10 EmergencyPowerSupply
Allpumpingstationsshallbeprovidedwithbackup,standbyenginedrivenpumpsorelectricalpower
generatorssizedtopower100percentoftheratedpumpingstationcapacity.
4.9.11 Reliability
Forreliability,provideonlinesparesforallactiveequipment.
Attachment41

P
A
7
8
P
A
7
7
PA76
2
0
-E
A
2
5
E
F
4
2
0
-E
A
2
7
2
0
-
E
A
2
7
P
A
7
8
P
A
7
7
PA76
CATCHMENT-2
L E G E N D
CATCHMENT AREA BOUNDARY
( LENGTH )
( DIAMETER )
ROAD MANHOLE
MANHOLE No.
CATCHMENT No.
GROUND LEVEL
INVERT LEVEL
ROAD GULLY
Sample Calculations - based on Tripoli Intensity-Duration-Curve
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)
C coef.
Green
Area
Residential Roads Section Total
time of
entry
Travel
time
Accu.
m c=.25 c=.6 c=0.9 m
2
Ha mm/hr m
3
/d l/sec
1 2 40.5 185 332 357 874 0.0874 0.648 15.00 0.00 15.00 56.40 767.16 8.88
2 3 22 1360 350 530 2240 0.3114 0.458 15.00 0.90 15.90 54.27 1,859.65 21.52
3 4 23.5 1564 295 686 2545 0.5659 0.466 15.90 0.49 16.39 53.20 3,365.32 38.95
4 5 10.44 299.15 74 228.85 602 0.6261 0.540 16.39 0.52 16.91 52.11 4,229.15 48.95
5 6 32.72 165.5 0 94.5 260 0.6521 0.486 16.91 0.23 17.14 51.64 3,929.95 45.49
Node
Pipe
Length
Area Total Area Time of Concentration
From To C Ave.
min
Q=CIA
Q(m
3
/s)
Rainfall
intensity
5 6 32.72 165.5 0 94.5 260 0.6521 0.486 16.91 0.23 17.14 51.64 3,929.95 45.49
6 7 31.36 253 736.6 455.4 1445 0.7966 0.633 17.14 0.73 17.87 50.25 6,083.22 70.41
(16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28)
D S % Vfull Q/Qfull Ground Elevation Invert Elevation Depth
mm m/m m/sec m3/sec l/sec (m)
From To From To From To
315 0 005 1 021 0 101 101 34 0 09 703 76 703 50 702 16 701 96 1 60 1 54
Qfull
(m) (m)
315 0.005 1.021 0.101 101.34 0.09 703.76 703.50 702.16 701.96 1.60 1.54
315 0.005 1.021 0.101 101.34 0.21 703.50 703.40 701.96 701.85 1.54 1.55
315 0.005 1.021 0.101 101.34 0.38 703.40 703.30 701.85 701.73 1.55 1.57 1.67
315 0.004 0.914 0.091 90.65 0.54 703.30 703.21 701.63 701.59 1.67 1.62
400 0.004 1.071 0.171 171.40 0.27 703.21 703.02 701.59 701.46 1.62 1.56
400 0.004 1.071 0.171 171.40 0.41 703.02 702.90 701.46 701.33 1.56 1.57
ManningEquation
v=(1/n)R
(2/3)
S
(1/2)
( / ) ( / )
n=0.010foruPVC
n=0.010forGRP
Note:
Colum1through8Inputdata
Column 9 Composited C values based on land use of the drainage area
vf
ull
=(0.397/n)D
(2/3)
S
(1/2)
Q
full
=(0.312/n)R
(2/3)
S
(1/2)
i
5
(mm/hr)=336.9*tc(timeinmintes)
(0.66)
Column9CompositedCvaluesbasedonlanduseofthedrainagearea
Column12Timeofconcentrationbasedofthelongesttravelpath
Column16Designpipesizes
Column21Checkpipecapacitythepipeare9%to54%full
Column26through28Depthtothepipeinvert
Fi gur e 4A-1: Intensi ty-Dur at ion-Cur ve for Mi sr ata
Tabl e 4A-1: Intensity-Dur ati on- for Var i ous Recur r ence Inter val s for Mi sr ata
Rai n f al l I n t en si t y , m m / h r
Ti m e ,
M i n u t e s 2 Ye a r 5 Ye ar 10 Yea r 25 Yea r 5 0 Year 1 0 0 Ye ar
5 5 7 . 2 3 1 1 0 . 0 8 1 5 2 . 4 1 2 1 3 . 1 4 2 6 2 . 9 9 3 1 6 . 2 1
1 0 3 6 . 4 7 7 0 . 1 5 9 7 . 1 3 1 3 5 . 8 3 1 6 7 . 6 0 2 0 1 . 5 1
1 5 2 8 . 0 2 5 3 . 9 0 7 4 . 6 3 1 0 4 . 3 6 1 2 8 . 7 7 1 5 4 . 8 3
3 0 1 7 . 8 6 3 4 . 3 5 4 7 . 5 6 6 6 . 5 1 8 2 . 0 6 9 8 . 6 7
6 0 1 1 . 3 8 2 1 . 8 9 3 0 . 3 1 4 2 . 3 8 5 2 . 3 0 6 2 . 8 8
9 0 8 . 7 4 1 6 . 8 2 2 3 . 2 9 3 2 . 5 6 4 0 . 1 8 4 8 . 3 1
1 2 0 7 . 2 5 1 3 . 9 5 1 9 . 3 1 2 7 . 0 1 3 3 . 3 3 4 0 . 0 7
3 6 0 3 . 5 5 6 . 8 3 9 . 4 6 1 3 . 2 3 1 6 . 3 2 1 9 . 6 2
7 2 0 2 . 2 6 4 . 3 5 6 . 0 3 8 . 4 3 1 0 . 4 0 1 2 . 5 0
1 4 4 0 1 . 4 4 2 . 7 7 3 . 8 4 5 . 3 7 6 . 6 3 7 . 9 7
0
4 0
8 0
1 2 0
1 6 0
2 0 0
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0
R
a
i
n
f
a
l
l

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

m
m
/
h
r
Time, Minutes
5 Y e a r
5 0 Y e a r
5 0 - Y e a r = 7 4 8 . 6 3 * t
- 0 . 6 5
5 - Y e a r = 3 3 1 . 3 7 * t
- 0 . 6 5
Fi gu r e 4 A - 2 : I n t e n si t y - Du r at i o n - Cu r v e f o r De r n a
Ta b l e 4 A - 2 : In t en si t y - Du r a t i o n f o r V a r i o u s Re cu r r e n ce I n t e r v a l s f o r - De r n a
Ti m e , m i n u t e s
Rai n f al l I n t e n si t y , m m / h r
2 Ye ar 5 Ye ar 1 0 Ye ar 2 5 Ye ar 50 Ye a r 10 0 Ye a r
5 5 1 . 8 0 9 8 . 6 2 1 3 2 . 7 1 1 7 6 . 7 1 2 0 9 . 7 5 2 4 2 . 4 4
1 0 3 3 . 0 1 6 2 . 8 5 8 4 . 5 7 1 1 2 . 6 2 1 3 3 . 6 7 1 5 4 . 5 0
1 5 2 5 . 3 6 4 8 . 2 9 6 4 . 9 8 8 6 . 5 2 1 0 2 . 7 0 1 1 8 . 7 1
3 0 1 6 . 1 6 3 0 . 7 7 4 1 . 4 1 5 5 . 1 4 6 5 . 4 5 7 5 . 6 5
6 0 1 0 . 3 0 1 9 . 6 1 2 6 . 3 9 3 5 . 1 4 4 1 . 7 1 4 8 . 2 1
9 0 7 . 9 1 1 5 . 0 7 2 0 . 2 8 2 7 . 0 0 3 2 . 0 5 3 7 . 0 4
1 2 0 6 . 5 6 1 2 . 5 0 1 6 . 8 2 2 2 . 3 9 2 6 . 5 8 3 0 . 7 2
3 6 0 3 . 2 1 6 . 1 2 8 . 2 3 1 0 . 9 6 1 3 . 0 1 1 5 . 0 4
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1 4 4 0 1 . 3 1 2 . 4 9 3 . 3 4 4 . 4 5 5 . 2 9 6 . 1 1
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Fi gur e 4A-3: Int ensi t y-Dur at i on-Cur ve f or Benghazi - Beni na Air port Dat a
Tabl e 4A-3: Int ensi t y-Durat i on f or Vari ous Recurr ence Int erval s f or Benghazi
Time,
mi nut es
Rai nf al l Int ensi t y, mm/ hr
2-Year 5-Year 10-Year 25-Year 50-Year 100-Year
5 1 1 2 . 8 1 1 8 5 . 7 4 2 3 9 . 4 6 2 8 5 . 8 6 3 1 8 . 1 8 3 3 9 . 1 2
1 0 6 8 . 8 7 1 1 7 . 0 6 1 5 2 . 1 8 1 8 4 . 5 9 2 0 7 . 1 8 2 2 3 . 1 2
1 5 5 1 . 6 0 8 9 . 3 6 1 1 6 . 7 3 1 4 2 . 9 2 1 6 1 . 1 9 1 7 4 . 6 5
3 0 3 1 . 5 5 6 . 3 2 7 4 . 1 9 9 2 . 2 9 1 0 4 . 9 5 1 1 4 . 9 1
6 0 1 9 . 2 3 3 5 . 4 9 4 7 . 1 5 5 9 . 5 9 6 8 . 3 4 7 5 . 6 0
9 0 1 4 . 4 1 2 7 . 1 0 3 6 . 1 6 4 6 . 1 4 5 3 . 1 7 5 9 . 1 8
1 2 0 1 1 . 4 7 2 2 . 3 7 2 9 . 9 6 3 8 . 4 8 4 4 . 5 0 4 9 . 7 4
3 6 0 5 . 3 7 1 0 . 7 6 1 4 . 6 1 1 9 . 2 4 2 2 . 5 4 2 5 . 6 2
7 2 0 3 . 2 8 6 . 7 8 9 . 2 8 1 2 . 4 2 1 4 . 6 8 1 6 . 8 5
1 4 4 0 2 . 0 0 4 . 2 8 5 . 9 0 8 . 0 2 9 . 5 6 1 1 . 0 9
0
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8 0
1 2 0
1 6 0
2 0 0
2 4 0
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0
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JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 WATERReuseforLandscapeIrrigation51
5 WaterReuseforLandscapeIrrigation
HIBhasdevelopedstandarddesigncriteriafortreatedwastewaterreuseandirrigationwater
transmissionanddistributionsystems.Thecriteriapresentedreflecttypicalinstallationsintheregion
andtosupportthedesignintentfortreatedwastewaterreuseforlandscapeirrigation.Itisunderstood
thatcertainsituationsmayrequiredeviationfromthecriteriapresentedherein.Alldeviationsshallbe
madeonlywiththewrittenHIBapproval.
5.1 General
Theprimarysourceofwaterforlandscapeirrigationwillbereclaimedwater.Forthepurposeofthis
documentreclaimedwaterisdefinedastreatedwastewatereffluentthatsatisfiestheminimumwater
qualitycriteriaforreuseasdefinedinIrrigationWaterQualityStandardsSection5.1.4.Reclaimedwater
canbeaugmentedbyothersourcessuchassurface,groundwaterandstormwaterrunoffwithchloride
andtotaldissolvedsolidsconcentrationsandotherwaterqualityparametersconsistentwithirrigation
waterqualitycriteria.Reclaimedwatermayalsobeusedtosupplywatertofirehydrantsconnected
alongthepipelineroutes.Firehydrantsonreclaimedwatershallbedesignedtosupplementrather
thanreplace,orbeusedinlieuof,firehydrantsonpotablewater.Placementoffirehydrantsusing
reclaimedwatershallsupplementandnotoverlaporconflictwiththelocationsoffirehydrantsonthe
waterdistributionsystem.
Regionalirrigationwaternetworksconsistofthreenetworks:supply,transmission,anddistribution.
Irrigationwatersupplyispumpeddirectlyfromwastewatertreatmentplantstolargeregionalbulk
storagetanksequippedwithirrigationtransmissionpumpingstations.Thetransmissionnetwork
deliversirrigationwatertolocalstoragetanks,orlinedponds,equippedwithfireandirrigation
distributionpumpingstations.Thedistributionnetworkdeliverswatertofirehydrantsandlocal
irrigationusers.Tomaintaintheintegrityoftheoperationsandcontrolstrategyfortheregional
irrigationwaternetworks,neithertheregionalsupplynetwork,northetransmissionnetwork,shallbe
tappedfordirectirrigationuse.Forsmaller,nonregionalirrigationnetworks,thesupplynetworkand
transmissionnetworkcancombinedintoonenetworkwithHIBwrittenapproval.
5.1.1 IrrigationSupply
Reclaimedwatersupplysystemwillconsistofanetworkofpipesandpumpingstationstodeliver
reclaimedwaterfromwastewatertreatmentplantstoregionalbulkstorageandtransmissionpumping
facilities.Thissupplywillbeprovidedataminimumpressureof1.2barstopointsofdelivery.Endusers
willberequiredtoprovidestoragefacilitieswithcapacitytoholdthevolumeequaltoatleastonedayof
irrigationdemand.Avalveandmeterchamberisrequiredatthepointofconnectionforremote
monitoringandcontrol.Enduserstoragefacilitiesarerequiredtobelocatedadjacenttoexistingroad
rightsofwaytoallowmaintenanceaccesstothesupplypipes.Connectionstothereclaimedwater
supplynetworkfordirectuseinapplyingwaterforirrigationisnotallowed.
Thereclaimedwatersupplynetworkshallbeoperated,maintained,andcontrolledbytheownerofthe
Sewage(wastewater)TreatmentPlantortheirdesignatedauthorizedagency.
5.1.2 TransmissionNetwork
Severalregionalbulkstorageandirrigationtransmissionpumpingfacilitiesareplannedtodeliverlow
pressurebulkwatertoendusers24hoursperday.Minimumtransmissionpressurewillbe1.2barat
anypointofconnection.Inlineboosterpumpingstationswithinthetransmissionnetworkmaybe
necessarytoachieveaneconomicalbalancebetweenoperationandcapitalcostoftransmission
pumping.Irrigationwatertransmissionpipingsystemwilldeliverirrigationwatertolocalstorage
facilities.Valveandmeteringassemblieswillbeprovidedonthedischargetoeachlocalstoragetankfor
remotemonitoringandcontrolofdeliveryvolumes,flows,andpressures.Meteringassemblieswill
consistofaflowmeter,abackpressuresustainingvalve,andaSCADAreadysolenoidactuatedflow
controlvalve.Connectionstothereclaimedwatertransmissionnetworkfordirectuseinapplyingwater
forirrigationisnotallowed.
Thereclaimedwatertransmissionnetworkshallbeoperatedandcontrolledbytheownerofthe
regionalreclaimedwatertransmissionnetworkortheirdesignatedauthorizedagency.
5.1.3 DistributionNetwork
Multiplelocalfire/irrigationstorageanddistributionpumpingstations(providedbytheendusers)will
deliverwateratsufficientpressureforirrigationservicetopointsofapplicationoveraperiodof8hours
perday.Minimumdistributionpressurewillbe4.0barattheconnectionpointforirrigationandatfire
hydrantsintheeventoffireflow.Theirrigationdistributionnetworkshallbedesignedwithbranches
thatcanbeisolatedasneededfortestingandcleaning.Thedistributionnetworkshouldbesizedto
supplytherequiredpeakdayirrigationdemandbasedonanticipatedpeakseasonusagedeliveredover
an8hourperiodplusfireflow.
Thereclaimedwaterdistributionnetworkshallbeoperatedandcontrolledbythelocalentityoran
authorizedagencydesignatedbyHIB.
5.1.4 IrrigationWaterQualityStandards
Theminimumstandardsoftreatmentrequiredfortreatedwastewaterusedinirrigationsystemsare
describedbelow.Thetreatedwastewaterisdividedintotwoclasses:
1. ClassAwaters:Treatedtosecondarystandard,sandfilteredandchlorinated.The
maximumE.colilevelinthefinaleffluentshallbelessthan10per100ml.Thisclasscanbe
usedforunrestrictedirrigation.
2. ClassBwaters:TreatedtosecondarystandardandE.colilevelslessthan1,000perml.This
classcanbeusedforrestrictedirrigation.
Thefollowingtablefurtherdescribesthetypeofirrigationactivitiesforwhichthetwowaterclassescan
beused.
Table51.PermissibleWaterClassesforIrrigationMethods
IrrigationMethod
Permissible
WaterClass
Drip irrigation onto trees and bushes A or B
Low mist hand spray A or B
Spray irrigation in parks and green spaces (closed to public,
after hours of use, or at least 2 hours before public use)
A or B
Unlimited spray irrigation of public areas (with precautions to
reduce mist formation)
A only
InbothcasestheTotalDissolvedSolids(TDS)ofthetreatedwastewatershallbelessthan1,000mg/l
(whichforreferenceisgreaterthanpotablewaterstandardof500mg/l).Irrigationwilleitherbe
drip/subsurfaceirrigation(inpublicareas)orsprayirrigation(innonpublicareas).Thus,effluent
treatedtoClassBstandardswillbeacceptable.
Inadditiontoreclaimedwater,othersourcessuchasgroundwaterandcapturedstormwaterrunoffof
acceptablequality,orpotablewatermaybeusedtoaugmentirrigationwatersupplies.
5.2 IrrigationDesignCriteria
5.2.1 IrrigationDemands
Irrigationdemandisbasedonthedesignofeachlandscapeareawithintheserviceareaofeach
irrigationstoragetank.Differentplantshavedifferentirrigationdemandswhichvaryfromseasonto
seasonduringtheyear.Thenetworkmustbedesignedtomeetthehighestanticipatedflowcondition.
Forirrigationnetworks,thehighestflowconditionoccursduringtheseasoncorrespondingtopeak
irrigationwaterdemand.Peakdemandusuallyoccursduringthepeakgrowingseasonandsummer
months,withthehighestevapotranspirationrates.Thepeakirrigationdemandofdifferentplanttypes
areprovidedinTable52.Averageannualirrigationwaterdemandwillbesubstantiallylessthanthe
peakseasondemand.
Table52.IrrigationDemandbyPlantType
Planttype Dailyirrigationdemand
1
Grass (Lawn) 10 mm/day

Deciduous Trees 7 mm/day
Olives Trees (high density) 5 mm/day
Citrus Trees 7 mm/day
1
Source:LibyanAgriculturalMasterPlan:CropGrossIrrigationRequirements:ZoneA(CoastalAreas)
Asplantpalettesaredeveloped,irrigationdemandwillbecomemoredefinedforindividualirrigation
areas.Salttolerantplantsanddroughttolerantplantswillbeusedinareaswhereappropriateinorder
todecreasetheoverallirrigationdemand.
5.2.2 DistributionNetwork
5.2.2.1 HydraulicCalculations
Hydrauliccalculationsshallbecarriedoutinordertodemonstratethatthesystemwill:
satisfytheestimatedpeakdaydemanddeliveredoveran8hourperiodplusfireflow;
operateatacceptablevelocities;
operatewithintherequiredpressurerange
5.2.2.2 FlowVelocities
Allirrigationnetworkpipelinesarepressuremains.Mainsshouldbesizedtokeepfrictionlossesunder
peakconditionstoamanageablelevel.Selectionofsizerequiresanunderstandingofprojectedflows
fortheservicelifeofthesystem.Maximumvelocitiesmayrangeupto2.5m/s,orasneededtonot
exceedamaximumheadlossgradientof10mperkilometer.
5.2.2.3 HeadLosses
TheheadlossresultingfromflowsthroughasinglemainmaybecalculatedusingtheHazenWilliams
Equation.Becausemostirrigationsystemsarenetworked,flowscomesfromseveraldirectionsand
headlossescannotbedetermineddirectly.IfthesystemissmallamanualcalculationusingaHardy
Crossmethodmayused.Forlargernetworks,hydraulicdesignofallnetworkedsystemsshallbecarried
outusingapprovedcomputermodelingsoftware.AcceptablemodelsareKYPIPE,PIPE2000,WaterCAD,
H
2
ONet,Cybernet,EPAnet,andotherequivalentcommerciallyavailablemodels.Designsshouldbe
evaluatedoverarangeofCvalues(100to140)orequivalent,toassesshowtheeffectsofpipe
degradationwillimpacttheoverallsystemperformance.
5.2.2.4 PipeMaterials
Irrigationmainsshallbecapableofaccommodatingthepressurerequiredforfireflows.Irrigation
distributionmainsfromtheenduserssecondarystoragetanksshallbeboostedwithsuitablepumpsto
provideworkingpressuresofupto10barasneededtomeettheminimumpressureforfireprotection.
PipesmaterialssuchasGRP,HDPE,orPVCshallbeused.
5.2.2.5 MinimumCoverRequirements
Forpressurepipes,minimumcoveris0.8mbelowfinalfinishedorfuturegradeinunpavedareaswith
novehiculartrafficand1.0mbelowfinalfinishedorfuturegradeinpavedareaswithvehiculartraffic.If
theavailablecoverislessthanspecified,thenadditionalprotectionsuchasfullconcreteencasementor
theuseofconcreteprotectionslabsmayberequired
Theactualcoverrequiredforconstructionmaybegreaterthanthatrequiredsolelyforstructural
integrity.Themaximumcoverdepthrecommendedisapproximately10m.Thismaximumdepthis
consistentwithtypicalpipeinstallationstandardsandmanufacturerrecommendations.Shouldthe
actualcoverbegreaterthan10m,pipematerialsshouldbeevaluatedandahigherstrengthclassof
pipeutilized.
Forpipesatlessthantheseminimumvaluesorinstalledatexcessivedepths,concreteencasementmay
berequiredtoprotectthepipefromdamage.Theseshouldbelookedatonanindividualbasis,and
alternativesofdifferentpipesizeshouldbeconsideredbeforedesigningthepipelinesoutsideofthe
specifieddepthranges.Inallcases,thepipeminimumandmaximumdepthsshallbeinconformance
withthepipemanufacturersrecommendations.
5.2.2.6 UtilityCrossings
Utilitycrossingsarerecommendedtobeconsistentwithlocalstandardsandpractices.Theguidelines,
basedoninternationallyacceptedstandards,areshowninTable43.
Table53.UtilityCrossingforIrrigationPipes
Vertical Clearance - 30 cm (if less than 30 cm, use concrete saddle)
- Carry encasement to first joint on each side of crossing
Horizontal Clearance - 3.0 m
- Where available corridor space is limited, minimum clearance
may be reduced to 1.2 m assuming structures can overlap into
adjacent corridors.
- If in same trench, place other utility on separate bench on
undisturbed soil above the line
Potable Water Lines - Always place above irrigation lines
Irrigationpipescrossingunderroadsshallbealignedat90degreesorperpendiculartotheroadwithall
bendslocatedbeyondthelimitsoftheroadpavementandcurbs.
5.2.2.7 ThrustBlocks
Concretethrustblocksshallbeprovidedattees,elbows,reducers,andotherfittingsinordertoprevent
theirmovementduetopressureofthepipes.Designpressuresforthrustrestraintshallbe10barinall
irrigationmains.Soilsbearingallowancesshallbeaccordingtonormalallowancesforthetypeofsoil
encountered.
5.2.2.8 SystemValves
Theirrigationwatermainsanddistributionsystemwillbeequippedwiththefollowingvalvesfor
facilitatingtheoperation,control,andmaintenanceofthesystem.Thedesignconsultantshalltakeinto
accounttheproperdistributionofvalvesalongthesystem.
AirReleaseValves:Thesevalvesshallbeprovidedatsummitsalongthepipeprofileandalonglong
stretcheswithuniformslopetopurgeoutaccumulatedairinthepipesystem.Acombinationofairand
vacuumvalvesshallbeprovidedatappropriatelocationsforquickairentryorventingtoprevent
cavitationsandfacilitatequickfillingofthepipe.Ingeneral,airvalvesshallbeinstalledatcrestpoints,
changeinelevationsandincaseofconstantrisingmainshavingmoderateslope,atamaximumspacing
of600m.
Washoutvalves:Thesevalvesshallbeprovidedatlowpointsorsagsalongthepipeprofile.These
valvesfacilitateflushing,repairormaintenanceofthepipewherevernecessary.
Isolatingvalves:shallbelocatedatbranchingpointsonthenetworkasaprovisionforflushing,testing,
andmaintenance.Thenumberanddistributionofthesevalvesshallbeinamannerthatensure
minimumdisturbancetothesupplyofirrigationwaterincaseofmaintenanceorrepairworks.The
maximumallowabledistancebetweenisolatingvalvesonthedistributionlinesshallnotexceed500m.
Ingeneral,isolationvalvesshallbeprovidedonallbranchesfromfeedermainsandbetweentwo
washoutvalves.Inthetransmissionmainswheretherearenointermediatebranches,isolatingvalves
shallbeprovidedatamaximumdistanceofevery2to3kilometers.Inthetransmissionmains,profile
ofthepipelineandlocationofwashoutandairvalvesisalsotobeconsideredwhilelocatingthe
isolationvalves.IsolationValveswithdiameter300mmandsmallershallbegatevalvesandlarger
diameterisolationvaluesshallbebutterflyvalves.
NonReturnValves:Thesecheckvalvesshallbeprovidedinthepumpingstationtopreventareverse
flowintothepumpsandshallbeofnoiselessnonslamtype.
Controlvalves:Thesevalvesshallbemotorizedbutterflyordiaphragmtypeglobevalves,operatedto
controltheflowandpressureattheconsumerendwhilesupplyingtodifferenttanksdistributionsystem
withvaryingelevationandflowrequirement.
Allvalvesnotlocatedinapumpingstationstructureshallbeinstalledinsidereinforcedconcretevalve
chambers.
5.2.3 FlowMetersandStructures
Flowmetersshallbeoftheremotereadingtypeandallowreadingwithoutphysicalaccesstothe
structure.Themetersshallbehousedinsuitableprotectiveandtotallyenclosedstructureswhichwill
alloweasyaccesswhenrequiredformaintenance.
5.2.4 Storage
Therearetwotypesofirrigationstoragefacilitiesplanned.Bulkirrigationwaterstoragewillbesupplied
withwaterdirectlyfromthesupplynetwork,withstoragevolumeequaltoaminimumofonedayof
irrigationdemand.Localfire/irrigationwaterstoragewillbesuppliedwithwaterdirectlyfromthe
irrigationwatertransmissionnetworkwithstoragevolumeequaltoaminimumofonedayofirrigation
demandplustwohoursoffireflow.
Storagetanksaretobeundergroundforaestheticreasons.Abovegroundreservoirsorverticaltanks
maybeusedwheretheverticalprofileofthestoragefacilitiesisconsistentwiththesurroundingland
useandwillnotdetractfromthevalueofadjacentproperties.Linedpondsmaybeusedforstoring
waterforirrigationoflargelandscapedareassuchasagolfcourse,andinsomecasesmayevenprovide
anamenityfeature.
Storagetanksshallbereinforcedconcretestructureswithadequatesafeaccessandcleanout
capabilities.Ifabovegroundstorageisconsidered,itshallbehiddenorscreenedfromviewfrom
outsidethedevelopment.Abovegroundtanksmaybereinforcedconcreteorglasscoatedsteel
structures.Storagetanksshallbecompletelycoveredtoblockexposuretosunlighttolimitthe
potentialofalgaegrowth.Pondstoragefacilitiesareexemptedfromthisprovision.
Storagetankswillbeprovidedwithwashdowncapability.Storagetanksshallbecompartmentalizedto
allowonecompartmenttobetakenoutofserviceforcleaningwhilemaintainingpumpingoperations.
Compartmentswillbeisolatedbymotoractuatedsluicegatesorpenstocks.Tankbottomsshallbe
slopedtooneendtofacilitatecleaninganddraining.Multiplehoseconnectionstopressurizedirrigation
watershallbeprovidedincloseproximitytotankmanholeaccessportsforflushingandcleaningthe
tanks.Tankmanholeaccessportsshallbelocatedatspacingthatwillfacilitatethewashdownand
cleaningbyamanholdingahoseandnozzlefromthetopofthestructurewithoutmanentryinsidethe
tankbeingrequired.
Storagetankpipingshallhavemechanicalfloatvalvesforprotectionfromoverflowonfilling.Allmetal
componentsinsidethestoragetankorotherwiseincontactwiththetreatedwastewatershallbe
constructedofcorrosionresistantmaterials.
5.2.5 PumpingStations
PumpingstationsatBulkIrrigationWaterStorageandTransmissionPumpingStationswillhaveastand
alonebuildingwithapumproom,electricalroom,generatorroomwithfuelstorageforbackup
emergencypower,andaSCADAmonitoringandcontrolstation.Thepumproomwillincludepumps,
valves,automaticbackwashstrainers,hydraulicsurgeprotection,andatravelingbridgecrane.For
verticalturbinepumps,provideroofhatchesdirectlyoverthetopofthepumpsofsufficientsizeto
allowcompleteremovalofthecombineddriveandpumpusingamobilecrane.Theelectricalroomwill
includeswitchgear,emergencypowertransferswitches,motorcontrolcenters,andSCADAmonitoring
andcontrolequipmentwithaworkstation.
Inlineboosterpumpingstationsmayalsobeusedatseverallocationsinthetransmissionmainssystem
tomoreefficientlymaintaindeliverypressuresthroughoutthetransmissionnetwork.
PumpingstationsatLocalFire/IrrigationWaterStorageandDistributionPumpingStationswillbea
scaleddownversionoftheBulkIrrigationWaterStorageandTransmissionPumpingStationwithspecial
provisionsforadditionalfirepumps.Inmostcases,pumpingstationswilltaketheirsuctiondirectly
fromthestoragetank.Ifawetwellisdesignedseparatefromthestoragetankorpond,itshouldbe
sizedusingstandardguidelinesforsuchfacilities.Thewetwellandconnectionfromthestoragefacility
shallbesuchthatthereisnochancefordrainingtotheshutofflevelduringanirrigationorfireflow
event.
Forverticalturbinepumps,verificationthatintakesareconfiguredandsizedinaccordancewith
applicableHydraulicInstitutestandardsisrequiredduringthedesignprocess.Verificationof
compliancewithHydraulicInstitutestandardsforverticalturbinepumpintakesshallnotbedeferredto
theconstructioncontractor.
Theminimumrequiredfuelstoragecapacitywillbeafunctionofthereliabilityoflocalpowerandfuel
delivery.Wherelocalpowerandfueldeliveryisconsistentlyandreliablyavailable,thenaminimumof
oneday'sfuelstorageshouldbesufficient.Wherepowerandfueldeliveryisnotconsistentandreliably
available,thenthecapacityoffuelstoragewillneedtobeincreasedtofitthelocalconditions.
5.2.5.1 PumpSelection
Pumpsshallbeselectedtooptimizeconditions.Selectionshallbemadetomaximizepumpingefficiency
undervariableflowsandpressures.Wherepossible,variablespeeddrivesshouldbeused.
Acceptablepumpsarehorizontalsplitcasepumpsandverticalturbinepumps,eitherwetwellorcan
type.Inverysmallsystems,rotarylobepumpsmaybeconsidered.
Actualpumpselectionfortheproposednetworkswillbemadebasedonsystemheadcapacitycurves
undervariousflowconditions.Thefollowingaretobeconsideredinthedesignofanirrigationpumping
system:
1. Requiredrangeofheadandflowsbandofoperatingpressuresexpected
2. Numberofpumps
4. Efficiency
Adaptabilityisimportantbecauseinitialflowsmaybesignificantlylowerthandesignyearflows.When
thisisthecase,theselectedpump(s)shouldbeinthemidrangeofavailableimpellersizessothat
simplechangesinimpellerscanbemadetoimprovepumpingstationcapacity.Useofvariablespeed
driveswillgreatlysimplifysuchconsiderations.
5.2.5.2 BoosterPumpingStations
Thelargeareaofcoverageandvariabletopographyoftheirrigationsystemmakesitinefficientto
provideallareasadequatepressureunderallconditionsinasinglepressurezone.Therefore,booster
pumpingstationsmaybeusedatseveralpointsinthetransmissionnetworktomaintainminimum
deliverypressuresathigherelevationsoratremotelocationsfromthestoragesites.Thelocationofthe
boosterpumpingstationswillbebasedonthemodelingdevelopedfortheTSEirrigationsystem.
5.2.5.3 SurgePressureLimitingEquipment
Pressuretransientsorsurgescanbegeneratedinthepumpedsupplysystemfollowingpowerfailures,
pumpstartingorstopping,andsuddenvalveclosure.Ifnotcontrolled,thesemaycausepipedamageor
pipefailureinextremeinstances.Considerationshallbegiventotheneedforsurgelimitingequipment
toprotectthesupplysystemduetopossibletransientpressurevariation.Thecalculationofsurgeshall
becarriedoutbyappropriatemethodsandusingtherelevantgeneralequationsandsurgecalculation
softwareaccordingtotheconditionsspecifiedbythedesignerandbasedonthemostunfavorable
operatingconditions.Wheresurgeprotectionisfoundtobenecessary,thedesignershallsizeand
specifytheappropriatesurgeprotectionequipment.
5.2.5.4 PumpingStationFacilityBuilding
Abovegroundpumpingstationstructureswillbelocatedimmediatelyadjacenttostoragefacilities.The
architecturaldetailofpumpingstationsshallblendwiththearchitecturalschemeofthesurrounding
area.Pumpingstationstructuresshallbedesignedtoensureasafeworkingenvironmentforoperation
andmaintenancestaffaswellasmaximizingperformanceandminimizingcosts.
Thepumpingstationshallbelocatedadjacenttopavedpublicroadsformaintenancevehicleaccess.
Forsitesthatarenotlocatedadjacenttoapavedpublicroad,areservationofa10meterwideaccess
wayfromlandlockedlotsandtopavedpublicroadsshallbeprovided.
Provisionsshallbemadetofacilitateremovalandreplacementofmajorequipmentincludingpumps,
motors,switchgear,andothermechanicalandelectricalequipment.Liftequipmentandadequate
accessopeningsshallbeprovidedforequipmentremovalandreplacement.
5.2.6 FireHydrants
Therequirementforwaterforfirefightingpurposesshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithlocal
regulations.Wheretheirrigationdistributionnetworkiscombinedwithfireflows,theirrigation
networkshallbeadequatelydesignedtomeettheminimumrequirementoffireflowsandpressurein
accordancewithestablishedstandards.Criteriaforhydrantassemblyspacingshallbeasindicatedin
Section1WaterDesignStandard.
Firehydrantassembliesshallbeconnectedtoirrigationdistributionmainsatvariousintervals
dependingonthetypeofroad.Placementoffirehydrantsshallsupplementandnotoverlaporconflict
withthelocationsoffirehydrantsonthewaterdistributionsystem.
Allconnectionstoirrigationsystemsshallbeathydrantleadslocatedjustupstreamofthehydrant
isolationvalveinthehydrantassembly.
Allpumpingstationsshallbedesignedandconstructedbasedoninternationallyacceptedprinciples.
Thefollowingprovisionsshallbeincluded:
1. Supplyandcontrolcircuitsallowingfordisconnectionfromoutsidethewetwell.Terminals
andconnectorsprotectedfromcorrosionthroughproperlocationand/ortheuseofwater
tightseals.Separatestrainrelief.
2. Properlysealedmotorcontrolpanels.
3. Groundfaultinterruptionprotection.
4. Powercordsdesignedforflexibilityandserviceabilityunderconditionsofextrahardusage
andsuchthatfieldconnectionsarefacilitated.
Instrumentationsystemsshallbeconsistentwithothersystemsinuseandintegratedintotheexisting
centralizedoperationalmanagementsystemusingaSCADAmonitoringandcontrolsystem.Where
therearenoexistingsystems,theinstrumentationshallbedesignedtobeSCADAready.
TheSCADAsystemshallbecompatiblewiththeMasterStationandwillbemonitoredandcompiledat
themainmastersystemlocations,althoughremotestationsmayalsobeincorporatedintothesystem.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign61
6 StandardsforBarrierFreeDesign
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Purpose
TheseStandardsareintendedtoinformdesignersandcontractorsprovidingservicestotheGovernment
ofTheGreatSocialistPeoplesLibyanArabJamahiriyaoftheminimumrequirementsforbarrierfree
design.
6.1.2 Application
TheGovernmentofTheGreatSocialistPeoplesLibyanArabJamahiriyashallinsurethatthedesignof
buildings,structuresandpremises,orpartsofbuildings,structuresandpremises,thatitpurchases,
constructsorsignificantlyrenovatesafterthesestandardscomeintoforcecomplieswiththeguidelines
beforeoccupationorregularusebyitsResidents.TheseStandardswillbeappliedandimplementedon
agoforwardbasis.
SignificantRenovation,TheHousingandInfrastructureBoardareencouragedtoapplytheseStandards
torenovationsorchangesofsmallerspacesandotherprojectswherepossible.
ThefollowingdefinitionsfurtherclarifyapplicationoftheseStandards:
6.1.3 DefinitionofSignificantRenovation
TheseStandardswillapplytorenovationsorchangestogovernmentownedoroccupiedspacesofat
least1000squaremetersorwhere50%ofthefloorspaceisaffected.
Significantrenovationsdonotincludeprojectslimitedonlytorepairsorrestorationtowallfinishes.
6.1.4 Maintenance
Itisessentialthatbarrierfreepathsoftravelandfacilitiesbeproperlymaintainedinaccordancewith
otherapplicablelegislationorstandardmaintenancepracticesinordertoreducethecreationofnew
barriers.Someexamplesofmaintenanceitemsinclude:
1. Timelyrepairofunevensurfaces;
2. Removaloffurniture,fixturesandstoreditemsthatimpedeclearancespacesorcorridorwidths;
3. Properlevelingofelevators;
4. Adjustmentofdoorclosersandelevatordoorstoprescribedlimits;
5. Maintenanceofprescribedlightinglevels;and
6. Propermaintenanceofnonglaresurfaces.
6.1.5 EmergencyEvacuationPlanning
FacilityEmergencyEvacuationPlanningshouldaddressaccessibilityproceduresforpersonswith
disabilities.PersonswithdisabilitieswhoregularlyoccupyafacilityshouldhaveaccesstoEmergency
EvacuationPlansinarangeofformats,includinglargetextandelectronicformats.Thiswillhelpto
improvetheunderstandingofevacuationmethodsandpromoteadequatetrainingofpersonswith
disabilitiesoftheemergencymeasures.
6.2 ExteriorAreas
6.2.1 ParkingandDropOffAreas
6.2.1.1 Provideaminimumnumberofbarrierfreecarparkingspacesineachparkingareaasfollows:
Totalparkingspacesprovided
Minimumbarrierfreecarspaces
required
120 1
21100 2
101150 3
151200 4
over200
1additionalforeachadditional
50spacesorpartthereof
6.2.1.2 Barrierfreecarparkingspacesshallhaveaminimumwidthof2400mmplusa1500mmwide
accessaisle.Theaccessaislemustbelevel.Lengthofthespaceshallbe5500mm.Two
adjacentspacesmaysharethesameaccessaisleFigure61.
Figure61:BarrierFreeCarParkingSpaces
Figure62:Symbols
6.2.1.3 Inadditiontothebarrierfreecarspacesdescribedin6.2.1.1,provideaminimumnumberof
vanparkingspacesineachparkingareaasfollows:
TotalSpacesProvided Minimumvanspacesrequired
150 1
513002 2
301700 3
Over700 4
6.2.1.4 Barrierfreevanparkingspacesshallhaveaminimumwidthof3500mmplusa1500mmwide
accessaisletoaccommodatevanswithbuiltinwheelchairlifts.Theaccessaislemustbelevel.
Lengthofthespaceshallbeasrequiredbutatleast6000mm.Twoadjacentspacesmayshare
thesameaccessaisleFigure63.
Figure63:BarrierFreeVanParkingSpaces
6.2.1.5 Barrierfreecarandvanparkingspacesshallbelocatedascloseaspossibletothemain
accessibleentranceofthebuildingandshallleaddirectlytothebuildingentrancewithout
crossinganydriveaisles.Provideacurbramp(thatwillnotbeblockedbyaparkedvehicle)
directlyadjacenttothedesignatedspaces.Theaccessiblerouteshallbeclearlymarked.
6.2.1.6 Thesurfaceofallbarrierfreeparkingspacesmustbelevel(maximumslopeinanydirection
2%),firm(nogravel)andslipresistant.Pavementmarkingsmustusenonslippaint.Donot
painttheentiresurfaceoftheparkingspace.
6.2.1.7 Providesignagetodesignatethebarrierfreespacesasreservedforpermitholders:
a) Averticalpostmountedsigninfrontofthespace,withthecenterofthesignbetween
1500mmand2000mmabovetheground(Figure64);and
b) Apaintedpavementmarkinginthecenterofthespace,incontrastingcolortothe
pavement,1000mminlength,withtheInternationalSymbolofAccessseeFigure62.
6.2.1.8 ProvideanadditionalsignatvanspaceslabeledVanAccessible.
6.2.1.9 Provideapassengerpickupareaatornearthemainaccessibleentrance.Theaccessaisleon
passengersideshallbeminimum1500mmwideby6000mmlong.
6.2.1.10 Barrierfreeparkingspacesandpassengerpickupareasshallhaveaminimumclearheight
2850mm,includingalongthevehicularaccess/egressroute.
6.2.1.11 Provideacallbuttonortwowaycommunicationsystematallundergroundparkingareasthat
haveaccessibleparkingspaces.
Figure64:VerticalParkingSign
6.2.2 WalkwaysandRamps
6.2.2.1 Provideanaccessibleroutefromstreetsandparkingareastoallaccessibleentrances.The
accessiblerouteshallbeminimum1600mmwide.Surfacesshallbemaximum5%(1:20)
runningslopeandmaximum2%(1:50)crossslope.Whererunningslopemustexceed5%
(1:20),providearampinaccordancewith6.2.2.6
6.2.2.2 Walkwaysandrampsshallhaveaneven,firm,slipresistantsurface.Wherealevelchangeis
75mmormore,ahandrailisrequiredandmustcomplywiththissection.
6.2.2.3 Wheretheaccessiblerouteisadjacenttoavehicularroute,itshallbeseparatedfromitbya
canedetectablecurborrailing.
6.2.2.4 Accessibleroutesmustbefreefromoverheadprotrusionhazards.Provideacanedetectable
railing,planterorbenchanywherethattheoverheadclearanceislessthan2m(Figure65).
6.2.2.5 Wherepossible,locategratingsoutoftheaccessibleroute.Anygratingsinaccessibleroutes
walkwaysmustbelevelandhaveamaximum13mmwideopeninginthedirectionoftravel.
6.2.2.6 Aslopedwalkwayshallbedesignedasarampwhereverthegradientexceeds5%(1:20).
Exteriorrampsshallhave:
a) Minimumwidthof900mmbetweenhandrails;
b) Maximumgradientof8%(1:12);
c) Levelareaofatleast1670mmby1670mmatthetopandbottomoftheramp.
d) Levelareaofatleast1670mmlongandatleastthesamewidthoftherampatintervalsof
notmorethan9malongitslength,wherethereisachangeindirectionoftherampandat
anyintermediatedoorsalongthelengthoftheramp;
e) Handrailsonbothsidesasdescribedinsection2.1.3;
f) Awallorguardoneachsidethatisnotlessthan1070mmabovetherampsurface;and
g) Edgeprotectionsintheformofcurborrail(Figure67).
Figure65:OverheadHazards
Figure66:CaneDetectableObstructions

Figure67:RampEdgeProtections
6.2.2.7 Rampsshallhaveacolorcontrasting,textured,detectablewarningsurfaceinaccordancewith
section6.4.7.2atthetopandbottomaminimumof920mmfromthestartoftheslope,
extendingtheentirewidthofthestairorramp.
6.2.2.8 Wherethelocationoftherampisnotreadilyevidentfromthemainaccessroute,providea
signincorporatingtheInternationalSymbolofAccessibilityandadirectionalarrowindicating
thelocation(Figure62).
6.2.2.9 Providecurbrampsatalllevelchangesalongbarrierfreepathsoftravel. Curbramps
shallhave:
a) Maximumgradientof13%(1:7.5);
b) Minimumwidthof1200mm(exclusiveofflaredsides);
c) Asurface(includingflaredsides)thatisslipresistant,colorandtexturecontrastedwith
adjacentsurfaces;
d) Asmoothtransitionfromthecurbramptotheadjacentsurfaces;and
e) Flaredsideswithaslopeofnotmorethan10%(1:10).
6.2.2.10 Provideadetectablehazardsurfacewhereverawalkwayadjoinsahazardousareasuchasan
unprotecteddropoff,edgeofapoolortoseparateawalkwayfromadriveaislethatisatthe
samelevel.
6.2.2.11 Providealevelareainaccordancewithsection6.2.3.7adjacenttoallaccessibleentrance
doors.
Figure68:CurbRamps
6.2.3 EntrancesandExits
6.2.3.1 Fornewbuildings,allpublicentrancesshallbebarrierfree.Forexistingbuildings,asmanyas
feasible(butnolessthanonehalfofallpublicentrances)shallbebarrierfree.Provide
signageincorporatingtheInternationalSymbolofAccessibility(Figure62)toindicatethe
locationofallbarrierfreeentrances.Thebarrierfreeentrancemustconnecttheexterior
accessibleroutewiththeinterioraccessibleroute.Whereanentranceconsistsofmultiple
doorsbesideeachother,onlyonedoorineachsetneedbebarrierfree.
6.2.3.2 Allrequiredexitsfromthegroundlevelmustbebarrierfree.Signageincorporatingthe
InternationalSymbolofAccessibility(Figure62)shallindicatethelocationofthebarrierfree
exits.
6.2.3.3 Clearglassdoorsandsidelightsattheentrancesshallhavea100mmwidecontrastingcolor
stripmountedcontinuously1350mmabovethefloor.
6.2.3.4 Twodoorsinseries(suchasinvestibules)shallhaveminimum1200mmclearbetweenthe
opendoors(Figure69).
Figure69:VestibuleClearance
6.2.3.5 Loosefloormatsthatcancauseatrippinghazardorimpedewheelchairusearenotpermitted
inthebarrierfreepathoftravel.
6.2.3.6 Barrierfreeentranceandexitdoorsshallbeaminimumof915mmwide,suchthatframe
stops,thedoorthicknessandhorizontalhardwaresuchaspanicbarsshallnotreducetheclear
widthofthedoorwaytolessthan865mm(Figure610).
Figure610:DoorClearWidth
6.2.3.7 Provideaminimumclearlevelspaceonbothsidesofdoorsasfollows:
a) 1500mmx1500mmonthepullside;
b) 1200mmx1200mmonthepushside.
6.2.3.8 Atleastonedoorineverybarrierfreeentranceandexit(includingdoorsleadingfromparking
areastothebuilding)shallbeequippedwithanautomaticoperator.Iftherearetwodoorsin
series(vestibules),bothdoorsshallhaveanautomaticoperator.Doorsshallremainopena
minimumof5secondsandshalltakeaminimumof3secondstoclosefroma70degree
position.Pushbuttons,keyswitches,andcardreadersshallbelocatedinconformancewith
6.4.5.Iftheautomaticdoorisaswingingdoor,provideacanedetectableguardrailwitha
horizontalmembernomorethan680mmabovetheground(Figure611).
Figure611:CaneDetectableRailing
6.2.3.9 Doorsshallhaveleverhardware,push/pullplates,orexitdevices(panichardware).Round
knobsandthumblatchesarenotacceptable.
6.2.3.10 Anyexteriordoornotequippedwithanautomaticoperatorshallrequireamaximumforceof
38Ntoopen.Doorclosersshalltakeaminimumof3secondstoclosefroma70degree
position.
6.2.3.11 Wherearevolvingdoorisused,anadjacentbarrierfreeswingingdoorshallbeprovided.
6.2.4 ExteriorAmenities
6.2.4.1 Whereexterioramenitiessuchasoutdoorseating,terraces,playgroundsetc.areprovided,
ensurethattheyincludeaccessiblecomponents.Tablesandseatingareasshallhave
clearancesinaccordancewithsection6.4.9.
6.2.4.2 Wherepicnictablesoroutdoorseatingareprovided,ensureatleastsomeareplacedona
hardsurface,andareaccessiblefromthebarrierfreewalkways.Ifonlysomearebarrierfree,
providesignageincorporatingtheInternationalSymbolofAccessibilityindicatingthelocations.
6.2.4.3 Wherekiosksorpayboothsareintendedtobeusedbypedestrians,ensurethatatleastone
windowislocatedatamaximumof860mmabovegradeandhasaneven,level(maximum2%)
accessclearanceareaofnotlessthan750mmx1200mm.
6.3 InteriorAreas
6.3.1 StairsandRamps
6.3.1.1 Interiorstairsshallhave:
a) Closedrisers;
b) Maximumrateof60%;
c) Uniformriserheight(180mmhighmaximum)andtreaddepth(280mmdeepminimum);
d) Maximumnosingprojectionof38mm,withabevelorradiusbetween6mmand10mm
andnoabruptunderside;
e) Colorcontrasting,slipresistantnosings4060mmdeep;
f) Minimumlightlevelof100lux;and
g) Detectablewarningsurfacesasper6.4.7attopofthestairway.
6.3.1.2 Theundersideofallopenstairs,escalatorsandotheroverheadfeaturesmustbeprotectedby
canedetectablerailings,plantersorbenchesanywheretheoverheadclearanceislessthan
2030mm.(Figure65)
6.3.1.3 Handrailsshall:
a) Beprovidedonbothsidesofallstairsandramps;
b) Becontinuous,exceptwhereotherpathsoftravelintercept;
c) Bemountedatauniformheightbetween865mmand920mmabovethestairnosingor
ramplevel;
d) Haveanextensionof300mmbeyondthetopriserand300mmplusthetreaddepthatthe
bottomriser;
e) Havereturns(toapost,wallorfloor)atallterminations;
f) Haveacontinuous(withoutinterruptionbynewelposts)graspableprofileof3043mm,
withaminimumclearanceof50mmtotheadjacentwall;
g) Befreeofsharporabrasiveelements;and
h) Becolorcontrastedfromtheadjacentwallsurface.
6.3.1.4 Slopedfloorsshallbedesignedasarampwherethegradientexceeds5%(1:20).Interior
rampsshallhave:
a) Minimumwidthof900mmclearbetweenhandrails;
b) Maximumgradientof8%(1:12);
c) Levelareaofatleast1670mmby1670mmatthetopandbottomoftheramp;
6.3.1.5 Exceptwherethelocationoftherampisclearlyevident,providesignsincorporatingthe
InternationalSymbolofAccessibilityindicatingthelocationoftheramp.
Figure612:Handrails
6.3.2 LobbiesandCorridors
6.3.2.1 Allfloorlevelsaboveorbelowthemainaccessiblelevelthatareusedbythepublicshallbe
accessiblebyramps(section6.2.2)orelevators(inaccordancewithsection6.3.3).
6.3.2.2 Interiorbarrierfreeroutesshallbeminimum1100mmwidewitha1600mmby1600mmturn
aroundspaceaminimumof30mapart.
6.3.2.3 Corridorsshallbefreefromoverheadandprotrusionhazards.Anyoverheadobstructionshall
beminimum2030mmhigh.Anyhorizontalprojectionmorethan100mmintothecorridor
thatislessthan2030mmhighshallhaveacanedetectablewarningnomorethan680mm
abovethefloor(Figure65).
6.3.2.4 Whereveraturnstileisused,itshallhaveagatedirectlyadjacentwithaclearwidthofatleast
865mm.Wherethelocationofthegateisnotreadilyapparent,asignshallindicateits
location.
6.3.2.5 Allfloorsurfacesshallbehard,level,slipresistant,nonglare.Carpetsshallbenonstaticand
short,densepile.Floorpatternsshallnotbevisuallyconfusing.
6.3.2.6 Anygratingsordrainsinfloorsshallhavemaximum13mmopeningsineitherdirection.
6.3.2.7 Provideadetectablehazardsurfaceinaccordancewithsection3.7.3whereverawalkway
adjoinsahazardousareasuchasanunprotecteddropoffortheedgeofapool.
6.3.3 ElevatorsandLifts
6.3.3.1 AllpassengerelevatorslayoutsshallcomplywithFigure627.
6.3.3.2 Ensurethattheemergencycommunicationwithintheelevatorisclearlyaudible.Donot
permittheplayingofanymusicinelevators.
6.3.3.3 Provideamirroronthebackwalloftheelevatortoassistpeopleinwheelchairsandscooters
inbackingoutoftheelevator.However,mirrorsonsidewallsshouldnotbepermitteddueto
visualdistractionsandconfusion.
6.3.3.4 Loosematsandlooseflooringarenotpermittedinelevatorsorlifts.
6.3.3.5 Platformliftsshallbepermittedonlyifthepersonsusingthemcanindependentlyoperate
them.Liftsthatrequireakeyorassistancefromanotherpersonarenotacceptable.
6.3.3.6 ProvideanLEDmessagingsystemineachelevatortoenablecommunicationintheeventofan
emergencywithpersonswhoaredeaforhardofhearing.
6.3.3.7 Providevoiceactivatedspeakersinallelevators.
6.3.4 InteriorDoorsandDoorways
6.3.4.1 Doorsshallbeaminimumof915mmwide,suchthatframestops,thedoorthicknessand
horizontalhardwaresuchaspanicbarsshallnotreducetheclearwidthofthedoorwaytoless
than850mm.
6.3.4.2 Alldoorsshallhaveleverhardware,push/pullplates,exitdevices(panichardware)or
automaticoperators.Knobsandthumblatchesarenotacceptable.
6.3.4.3 Unlessthedoorisequippedwithanautomaticoperator,provideclearancebesidedoorsas
follows:
a) 300mmclearbesidelatchatpushsideofdoor
b) 600mmclearbesidelatchatpullsideofdoor
6.3.4.4 Anyinteriordoornotequippedwithanautomaticoperatorshallbesinglehandoperationand
requireamaximumforceof22Ntoopen.Doorclosersshalltakeaminimumof3secondsto
closefroma70degreeposition.
6.3.4.5 Thresholdsshallbemaximum13mmhigh.Whereover6mmhigh,shallbebeveledataslope
ofnotmorethan1:2.
6.3.4.6 Doorsshallhavevisionpanels,eitherinthedoororinadirectlyadjacentsidelight,except
whereprivacyconcernsmakethemunfeasible.Visionpanelsshallhavethebottomedgeno
morethan900mmabovethefloorandnomorethan250mmfromthelatchsideofthedoor.
6.3.4.7 Clearglassdoorsandsidelightsattheentrancesshallhavea100mmwidecontrastingcolor
stripmountedcontinuously1350mmabovethefloor.
6.3.4.8 Twodoorsinseries(suchasinvestibules)shallhaveaminimum1200mmclearbetweenthe
opendoors.
6.3.4.9 Provideaminimumclearlevelspaceonbothsidesofdoorsasfollows:
a) 1500mmx1500mmonthepullside.
b) 1200mmx1200mmonthepushside
6.3.4.10 Wherearevolvingdoorisused,anadjacentbarrierfreeswingingdoorshallbeprovided.
Figure613:DoorClearances
6.4 Facilities
6.4.1 Washrooms/Bathrooms/Toilets
6.4.1.1 Everyfloorthatisservedbywashroomsshallhaveeither:
a) AbarrierfreeindividualwashroomasdescribedinFigure617;or
b) Abarrierfreewaterclosetstall,lavatoryandaccessories
6.4.1.2 Fornewbuildings,orwheretheextentofrenovationincludesreconfigurationofwashrooms
(i.e.,newfixturelocations),onlysection6.4.1.1aispermissible.Forrenovationswherethis
optionisunfeasible,section6.4.1.1bisacceptable.
6.4.1.3 Barrierfreeindividualwashroomsshallhave:
a) Adoorthatcomplieswithsection6.3.4;
b) Anautomaticoperatorwiththeabilitytobelockedfromtheinside;
c) Aminimumareaof3.5squaremeters,withminimumdimensionbetweenoppositewalls
of1.7m;
d) Aclearturningradiusof1500mm(doesnotincludespaceunderlavatory)
e) Awaterclosetthatcomplieswithsection6.4.1.5;
f) Alavatorythatcomplieswithsection6.4.1.7;
g) Ashelforcounteratleast200mmx400mm,mountednotmorethan1000mmabovethe
floor;
h) Acoathookmountednotmorethan1200mmabovethefloorandprojectingnotmore
than40mm;
i) Anautomatichanddryerorpapertoweldispensermountedinaccordancewith6.4.5;
j) Washroomaccessories(suchassoapdispensers,vendingmachines,wastereceptacles,
etc.)thatcomplywithsection6.4.5;and
k) Anemergencycallbutton.
6.4.1.4 Barrierfreefacilitieswithinamultifixturewashroomshallhave:
a) Adoorthatcomplieswithsection6.3.4,withanautomaticoperator,orbedesignedso
thatnodoorisnecessary;
b) Iftherearetwodoorsinseries,thereshallbeatleast1200mmclearbetweenthemwhen
open;
c) Atleast1500mmx1500mmclearspaceinfrontofthebarrierfreewaterclosetstall;
d) Atleast750mmx750mmclearspaceinfrontofeachbarrierfreelavatory;
e) Atleastonebarrierfreewaterclosetstall;
f) Atleastonelavatorythatcomplieswithsection6.4.1.7(innewbuildings,alllavatories
shallcomply);
g) Ifurinalsareprovided,atleastoneurinalshallcomplywith6.4.1.6;
h) Ashelforcounteratleast200mmx400mm,mountednotmorethan1000mmabovethe
floor;
i) Washroomaccessories(suchassoapdispensers,papertoweldispensers,handdryers,
vendingmachines,wastereceptacles,etc.)shallcomplywithsection6.4.5;and
j) Anemergencycallbutton.
6.4.1.5 Barrierfreewaterclosetsshall:
a) Belocatedbetween460mmand480mmfromtheadjacentsidewall;
b) Haveatransferspaceatleast900mmwideclearontheopenside;
c) Haveabacksupportwherethereisnoseatlidortank;
d) Haveaseatheightof430mmto460mmabovefloor;
e) Haveflushcontrolsthatareautomatic,orarelocatedonthetransfersideofthewater
closet;
f) Havetwograbbars:
I. One600mmlong,mountedhorizontally,centeredonthewaterclosetataheight
of840mmto920mmabovethefloor(or150mmabovethetankwherethereis
one),and
II. OneLshaped,760mmx760mm,mountedwiththehorizontalportionataheight
of750mmto900mmabovethefloor,andtheverticalcomponentmounted
150mminfrontofthewaterclosetORone760mmlong,mounteddiagonally,
slopingupwardsatanangleof30to50,withthelowerend750mm900mm
abovethefloorand50mminfrontofthetoiletbowl;and
g) Haveanonregulatingtoilettissuedispensermountedinlinewiththefrontofthewater
closet,between600mmto700mmabovethefloor.
6.4.1.6 Barrierfreeurinalsshall:
a) Haveaclearspaceofatleast750mmwideby1200mmdeep(includingundertheurinal);
b) Theurinalrimnohigherthan430mmabovethefloor;
c) Flushcontrolsnohigherthan1200mmabovethefloor;and
d) Verticalgrabbarsonbothsides,minimum600mmlong,mountedwiththebottom
between600mm650mmabovethefloor,maximum380mmfromthecenterlineofthe
urinal.
6.4.1.7 Barrierfreelavatoriesshall:
a) Haveacenterlinelocatedatleast460mmfromtheadjacentsidewall;
b) Havethetopofthecounterorlavatorylocatednomorethan840mmabovethefloor;
c) Haveaclearspaceof750mmx750mminfrontofthelavatory;
d) Haveclearancebeneaththelavatoryofatleast:
I. 760mmwide;
II. 735mmhighatthefrontedge;
III. 685mmhighatapoint205mmbackfromthefrontedge;
IV. 230mmhighoveradistancefromapoint280mmbackfromthefrontedgeto
430mmbackfromthefrontedge;
e) Beequippedwithautomaticfaucets,orfaucetswithleverhandle(s)atleast75mmlong,
thatarelocatednotmorethan485mmfromthefrontofthecounterorfrontedgeof
lavatory,thatarenotspringloaded;
f) Amirrormountedwiththebottomedgeaslowaspossible,butnotmorethan1000mm
abovethefloor;
g) Temperaturecontrolledwatertonotexceed55degreesCelsius;and
h) Asoapdispensermountedwithin500mmofthelavatory,nohigherthan1100mm,
operablewithonehand.
6.4.1.8 GrabBarsshallbe:
a) Slipresistant;
b) Diameterof30mm40mm;
c) Haveaclearspaceof30mm40mmfromthewall;and
d) Befirmlymountedtoresistaforceof1.3kNinanydirection.
6.4.1.9 Barrierfreewaterclosetstallsshallhave:
a) Aclearspaceinsideofatleast1500mmx1500mm,clearofthedoorswing;
b) Adoorwhichprovidesatleast860mmclearwidthwhichiscapableofbeinglockedfrom
theinsideusingonehand,withalargethumbturn,withspringhingestoclose
automatically;
c) Awaterclosetthatcomplieswith6.4.1.5;and
d) Ahookmountednotmorethan1200mmabovethefloorandprojectingnotmorethan
40mm.
6.4.1.10 Unlessthebarrierfreewashroomsaredirectlyadjacenttotheotherwashrooms,provide
directionalsignageincorporatingtheInternationalSymbolofAccessibilityindicatingthe
location.
6.4.1.11 Provideamotiondetectorcontrolforlightsinallbarrierfreewashrooms.Inamultiunit
washroom,ensurethatthesensorwilldetectmotionwithinthebarrierfreestall.
6.4.1.12 Wheretoiletpartitionsareprovidedaminimumof230mmtoeclearanceshallbeprovided
(Figure617).
6.4.2 ShowerandBathFacilities
6.4.2.1 Wherevershowerfacilitiesareprovided,provideatleastonerollinshowerthathas:
a) Aninteriorclearareaofatleast900mmx900mm;
b) Aclearfloorareainfrontofatleast900mmdeepandthesamewidthastheshower;
c) Arollinthresholdnotexceeding13mmhighwithamaximumbevelslopeof1:2;
d) Afloordrainlocatedoutsidetheshowerstall;
e) Ahorizontalgrabbaronthesidewallatleast600mmlong,mountedbetween700mmand
800mmabovethefloor;
f) Averticalgrabbarontheoppositesidewallatleast800mmlong,mountedwiththelower
endbetween600mmand650mmabovethefloorandbetween35mmand65mmfrom
theoutsideedge;
g) Ahorizontalgrabbaronthebackwallatleast900mmlong,mounted850mmabovethe
floor;
h) Averticalgrabbaronthebackwallatleast600mmlong,mountedwiththelowerend
between750mmand850mmabovethefloorandbetween400mmand500mmfromthe
sidewallwiththeotherverticalbar;
i) Aflipupseatmountedonthesidewallwiththeverticalbar;
j) Ahandheldshowerheadonanadjustablepole;
k) Controlsmountednomorethan1200mmabovethefloor;and
l) Aslipresistantfloor.
ClearFloorSpaceRequirement
ControlWallElevation
915mmx915mmShowerPlan
Figure614:BarrierFreeShowers
Figure615:BarrierFreeBathTubs
Plan
Elevation
Figure616:WaterClosetDetails
Figure617:ToiletPartitionDetails
6.4.2.2 Whereverbathfacilitiesareprovided,provide:
a) Aclearfloorareainfrontofatleast760mmdeepandthesamewidthasthebath;
b) Afloordrainlocatedoutsidethebath;
c) Ahorizontalgrabbaronthesidewallatleast600mmlong,mountedbetween700mmand
800mmabovethefloor(Figure616);
6.4.3 DrinkingFountains
6.4.3.1 Drinkingfountainsshallhaveaspoutthat:
a) Islocatednearthefrontoftheunit;
b) Isbetween750mmand900mmabovethefloor;
c) Directsthewaterflowparalleltothefrontontheunit;and
d) Providesawaterflowatleast100mmhigh.
6.4.3.2 Controlsshallbeautomaticoroperablewithonehandusingaforceofnotmorethan22N.
6.4.3.3 Drinkingfountainsshallhaveaclearfloorareaof750mmwideby1200mmdeep.Alldrinking
fountainsmustbecanedetectable,recessedorotherwiselocatedoutoftherouteoftravel.
6.4.3.4 Cantileveredfountainsshallhave:
a) Kneeclearanceatleast750mmwidex200mmdeepx680mmhigh;and
b) Toespaceatleast750mmwidex230mmdeepx230mm(Figure618).
Figure618:CantileveredDrinkingFountain(inmm)
6.4.4 PublicPayTelephones
6.4.4.1 Allpublicpaytelephonesshallhave:
a) Alloperableparts(includingcoinslot)notmorethan1200mmabovethefloor;
b) Aclearspaceof750mmwideby1200mmdeep;
c) Aminimumof680mmclearkneespace;
d) Illuminationlevelofatleast200lux;and
e) Alevelshelf450mmwideby300mmdeep,between720mmto800mmabovethefloor,
withaclearspaceof250mmabovetheshelf
6.4.5 Controls
6.4.5.1 Allmanualcontrols(lightswitches,cardreaders,thermostats,coinslots,controlhandles,fire
alarmpulls,vendingmachines,etc.)mustbe:
a) Locatedbetween900mmmin.and1200mmmax.abovethefloor;
b) Locatedwithaclearfloorspaceofatleast750mmx1200mm(clearofdoorswing.).
c) Operablewithonehand,withouttightgrasping,pinchingortwistingofthewrist,witha
forcenottoexceed22N;and
d) Ofcontrastingcolortothebackground.
6.4.5.2 Pushbuttonsforautomaticdoorsshallhaveminimumdimensionsof100mmandshallbe
locatedsuchthattheopeningdoordoesnotblockthem.
6.4.5.3 Informationonvisualdisplaysshallbesupplementedbytactileand/orauditoryinformation.
Figure619:ControlLocations(inmm)
6.4.6 Signage
6.4.6.1 Signageindicatingroomuses,names,ornumbersshall:
a) Beconsistentlylocated,tothelatchsideofadoor,150mmfromtheframe;
b) Bemountedataconsistentheight,suchthatallcharactersandsymbolsarenotlessthan
1200mmabovethefloorandnotmorethan1500mmabovethefloor;
c) Haveglarefreesurface;
d) Havecolorcontrastedtobackground;
e) Belittoatleast200lux;and
f) Includeappropriatepictogramswhereverpossible(i.e.,washrooms,stairs,etc.)
6.4.6.2 Charactersonsignsshall:
a) BesansserifwithArabicnumerals;
b) Haveawidthtoheightratiobetween3:5and1:1(usinganuppercaseXforcharacter
measurement);
c) Haveastrokewidthtoheightratiobetween1:5and1:10;
d) Beatleast25mmhigh(forviewingdistanceofupto750mm,higherforsignsthatareto
readfurtheraway);and
e) Havecolorcontrastedfromthebackground,lightcoloredcharacters/symbolsonadark
background,ordarkcoloredcharacters/symbolsonalightbackground.
6.4.6.3 Signsthatincludetactileraisedcharacters(0.81.5mmthickness)andGrade1Brail,or
auditoryinformationshallbeprovidedatidentificationsigns(includingbuildingdirectories,
floordesignationsandroomdesignations),regulatorysigns(includingidentificationofbuilding
exits)andwarningsigns(Figure620).
6.4.6.4 Signsincorporatingtheappropriatesymbolsforaccessshallbeprovidedatallbarrierfree
facilitiessuchasparkingspaces,buildingentrances,washrooms,showers,elevators,
telephones,meetingroomsetc.
6.4.6.5 Provideanaudiblesignatthemainentrancetoallbuildingstoprovideinformationthatwill
assistinwayfindingthroughthebuilding.
Figure620:Signs
6.4.7 TactileWarnings
6.4.7.1 Providetactilewarnings(texturedsurfaces,knurledleverhandlesetc.)atthefollowing
locations:
a) Doorstohazardousareas;
b) Topsofallstairsandramps(Figure621andFigure622);
c) Whereabarrierfreewalkwaycrossesavehicularway;
d) Theedgesofflushpools,planters,etc.thatarenotprotectedbycurbs(Figure18A);
I. Becomposedoftruncateddomes;
II. Beslipresistant;and
III. Haveacontrastingcolortothesurroundingsurface.
Figure621:DetectableWarningIndicatorLocation
Figure622:TactileWarningsIndicatorLocation
6.4.7.2 Detectablewarningindicatorsshallbecomposedoftruncateddomesandhaveacontrasting
colortothesurroundingsurface(Figure623).
Figure623:TactileWarnings&DetectableWarningIndicator
6.4.8 CountersandLineupGuides
6.4.8.1 Provideasectionatallservicecounters(reception,publicservice,coatchecks,etc.)with:
a) Clearfloorspaceof750mmwideby1200mmdeepinfront;
b) Counterheightmaximum860mmabovethefloor;and
c) Clearkneespace1000mmwideby680mmhigh.
6.4.8.2 Wherelineupguidesareprovided,theyshall:
a) Provideaclearwidthofatleast1100mm;
b) Haveaminimumspaceof1670mmx1670mmatchangesindirection;
c) Becanedetectableatorbelow680mmabovethefloor;and
d) Becolorcontrastedfromthefloor.
6.4.9 PlacesofAssembly
6.4.9.1 Formeetingrooms,boardrooms,courtrooms,assemblyareas,cafeterias,coffeeshops,etc.,
providedesignatedspaceforseatingforpersonsinwheelchairsorscootersasfollows:
Totalseatsprovided Minimumdesignatedseatingrequired
Upto100 2
101200 3
201300 4
301400 5
401600 6
over600 1%ofseatingcapacity
Designatedspacesshallbeonalevelsurfacelevel(maximumslopeinanydirection1%),and
atleast840mmwideby1220mmdeep(frontorrearaccess)or1525mmdeep(sideaccess).
Wheretheseatingisfixed,atleastonefixedseatdirectlyadjacenttoeachbarrierfreeseating
spaceshallbesignedasreservedforcompanionseating.
Figure624:WheelChairViewingSpace
6.4.9.2 Linesofsightmustbecomparabletootherseatingandmustnotbecompromisedbystanding
membersoftheaudience.
6.4.9.3 Ensurethattablesinareassuchasmeetingrooms,cafeterias,andlibrariesareamaximumof
860mmhigh,andhaveaclearkneespaceofatleast750mmwide,480mmdeep,and680mm
high.
6.4.9.4 Aislessuchascafeterialines,spacesbetweentablesandaislesbetweenLibrarystacksshallbe
minimum915mmwide.
6.4.9.5 Anywherethatcoatracksareprovided,ensurethatatleastonesectionhasarodheightnot
morethan1370mmabovethefloor.
6.4.10 AssistedListeningDevices
6.4.10.1 Provideanassistedlisteningdeviceinanyauditorium,assemblyroom,meetingroomor
theatrewithanareagreaterthan100s.m.andanoccupantloadmorethan75people.Such
roomsshallbesignedwiththesymbolforpersonswhoarehardofhearing.
6.4.10.2 Anytelevisionsetdisplayinginformationforthepublicshallincludeclosedcaptioning.
6.4.11 VisualandAudibleAlarms
6.4.11.1 Allbuildingalertandalarmsignals,includingfirealarms,buildingentrancereleasehardware
andothersignalsintendedforthepublictoindicateoperationofabuildingaccesscontrol
systemshallprovidebothanaudibleandavisualsignal.
6.4.11.2 Visualalarmsshall:
a) Havealightintensityofatleast75Candelas;
b) Belocatedsothatatleastoneisvisiblefromanyportionofafloorarea;
c) Haveaflashratewithinthefrequencyrangeof13Hz;and
d) Besynchronizedtoflashinunisonwherevermultiplealarmsmaybevisibleatonetime.
6.4.11.3 Wheretheemergencyevacuationplanningofafacilitynecessitatesthatpersonswith
disabilitiesawaitassistanceinordertobeevacuated(example:floorlevelabovegradeserved
bystairs),provideasafeAreaofRefugeinafireseparatedroom,equippedwithtwoway
communication,emergencylighting,andseparateventilation.Thisrequirementiswaivedfor
fullysprinkleredbuildings.
6.4.12 LifeSafety
6.4.12.1 Whereabuildinghasanemergencypowersupply,allautomaticdoorsoperatorswillbe
providedwithemergencypower.
6.4.12.2 AllfacilitiesshallhaveanEmergencyPolicyandEmergencyEvacuationPlanthataddressesthe
needsofpeoplewithdisabilities.
6.4.12.3 Allsleepingandlivingroomstobeprovidewithaudioandvisualsmoke/carbondioxide
detectorswhicharehardwiredandonaseparatecircuit.
6.4.13 Cooking&LaundryFacilities
6.4.13.1 Whereabuildinghascookingorlaundryfacilities,allsuchfacilitieswillbeprovidedwith
fixturesandappliancestoallowforaccessforpeoplewithdisabilities.
6.4.13.2 Alllaundryfacilitiesshallhaveawasheranddryerthataddresstheneedsofpeoplewith
disabilities(Figure625).
6.4.13.3 Allseparatelaundryroomsshallhaveaclearturningarea1500mmtoallowfortheturningof
awheelchair.
6.4.13.4 Allcookingfacilitiesshallhavealayoutthataddressestheneedsofpeoplewithdisabilities
(Figure626).
6.4.13.5 Allkitchenstohaveahandicapworkingareawhichisat760mmwide.
Figure625:Washers&Dryers
(c)
Figure626:KitchenLayouts
Figure627:ElevatorClearances
References
ADAAccessibilityGuidelinesSeptember2002
Bill125OntarianswithDisabilitiesAct.December14,2001
CAN/CSAB65104AccessibleDesignfortheBuiltEnvironment.2004
CNIB,ClearingOurPath.August1998
GPCResearch.ReportonFindings:QuantitativeResultsfromOnLineBarrierFree
Kailes,JuneIsaacson.EmergencyEvacuationPreparednessAGuideforPeoplewith
DisabilitiesandOtherActivityLimitations.2002
MakingOntarioOpenforPeoplewithDisabilitiesABlueprintforaStrongandEffective
OntarianswithDisabilitiesAct.April22,1998
ManagementBoardSecretariat.ArchitecturalDesignStandardsforCourtHouses.April1999
ManagementBoardSecretariat.BarrierFreeDesignGuideforOntarioGovernmentBuildings.
1992
MinistryofCommunityandSocialServiceswebsite,
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/mcss/english/how/howto_buildings.htm,July14,2006.
MinistryofMunicipalAffairsandHousingProvincialPlanningandEnvironmentalServices
Branch.HandbookonPlanningforBarrierFreeMunicipalities(draft).
MinistryofMunicipalAffairsandHousingTechnicalAdvisoryCommittee.BarrierFree
RequirementsintheOntarioBuildingCode:RecommendationsforChange.December2002
MinistryofMunicipalAffairsandHousing,OntarioBuildingCode2006,O.Reg.350/06.
MinistryofCitizenship,CultureandRecreation.PreventingandRemovingBarriersforOntarians
withDisabilities.July1998
Holten,Shane.PlanningaBarrierFreeCityofToronto.July2001.
UniversalDesignInstitute.AccessAGuidetoAccessibleDesign.2000.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SURVEYINGStandards71
7 SurveyingStandards
7.1 Purpose
ToprovidegeneralreferenceforsurveyingproceduresperformedbyandforLibyaHousingand
InfrastructureBoard(HIB).Thispublicationestablishesminimumstandards,policies,andproceduresof
surveyingforHIB.Itprovidesinformationontheuseofsurveyingtechnologytoperformsurveysfor
largescaleandsmallscaleprojects.Accuracyisaprimeconsiderationinsurveyingandisstressedin
thispublication.
7.2 HorizontalControlSurveys
7.2.1 Definition
Ahorizontalcontrolsurveyisperformedforthepurposeofplacinggeographiccoordinatesoflatitude
andlongitudeonpermanentmonumentsforreferencinglowerlevelsofsurveys.Aprojectionisusedto
placethecoordinatesonaplaneofnorthingandeastingvaluesforsimplifiedmeasurements.Scaleand
elevationfactorsareappliedtomakethedistancemeasurementsapplicabletotheexactproject
locationontheworkingsurface.Ifpossible,projectcontrolshouldbeplannedsothatprojectcontrol
monumentsserveforbothhorizontalandverticalcontrol.Itisimportantthatprojectcontrolplans
considertheneedforsupplementalcontrol.
7.2.2 FieldMethods
Particularlyforhorizontalcontrolsurveys,GPSisquicklyreplacingtheuseofthetotalstationforlong
distancetraversing.TheinherenterrorofeachGPSderivedbaseline(about5mmplus1partper
1,000,000)willmakeaccuracyatshortdistancesnotsoattractivebutusingbaselinesofmany
kilometerssuddenlybecomesphenomenallyaccurateandcosteffective.
Whenfeasible,horizontalprojectcontrolshallbeestablishedusingGPSsurveyscomplyingwithsecond
orderaccuracystandards.WhenGPSsurveymethodscannotbeusedforallorpartofaHorizontal
ProjectControlSurvey,aTotalStationSurveySystem(TSSS)traversenetworkshallbeused.TheTSSS
traversewillcomplywithsecondorderaccuracystandards.
Planningthecontrolnetworksothatitwillmeettheneedsofallsubsequentprojectsurveysiscritical.
Keystepsinthecontrolplanningprocessareto:
Ascertaintheneedforadditionalcorridorcontrol
DevelopasurveyworkschedulethatmeetstheneedsoftheProjectDevelopmentschedule.
Researchtheexistinghorizontalandverticalcontrolnetworks.
Recoverandevaluateexistingcontrol.
Plantheprojectcontrolnetworkandselectthemethodsforestablishingcontrol.
Plansupplementalcontrol.
Newcontrolstationsshallbepermanentlymarkedinamannersuitablefortheterrain,thedesignof
whichshallbeagreedwithHIBoritsrepresentative.
Thisshalltypicallybebymeansofatwocentimeterdiameterandonemeterlongironrodsetintoat
leastahalfacubicmeterofconcrete.
Astationcontrolsheetatascaleof1:100willbepreparedandaphotographofthestationwith
asmallsignindicatingthestationnumberinthephotograph.Anoverallcontrolmapatascale
commensuratewiththeprojectsizewillindicatethelocationofallcontrolpointsforthe
project.
Significantnearbytopographicfeaturesshallberecordedandshownonthestationcontrol
sheet.
Aminimumofthreewitness/referencepointsshallbesurveyedfromthecontrolstationwitha
bearinganddistancetoasemipermanentobjectsuchasabuildingcorner,lightstandard,sign
orothersuchitems.
Allmonumentssetbythesurveyorshallbesetatsufficientdepthtoretainastableanddistinctive
locationandbeofsufficientsizetowithstandthedeterioratingforcesofnatureandshallbeofsuch
materialthatinthesurveyorsjudgmentwillbestachievethisgoal.
Whendelineatingarightofwayorboundarylineasanintegralportionofasurveythesurveyorshall
set,orleaveasfound,sufficient,stableandreasonablypermanentsurveymarkerstorepresentor
referencethepropertyorboundarycorners,anglepoints,andpointsofcurvatureortangency.ALL
SURVEYMARKERSSHALLBESHOWNANDDESCRIBEDwithsufficientevidenceofthelocationofsuch
markers.
7.2.3 CoordinateAdjustment
ControlPointssetfordesignandconstructionprojectsthatarenotongoingatthetimeoftheofficial
publicationofthisdocumentwillbetiedtotheLibyanTransverseMercatortwodegree(LTM2)grid,
LibyanGeodeticDatum(LGD)of2006.
AreportshowingtheWGS84geodeticcoordinatesalongwiththeLGD2006geodeticandLTM2grid
coordinatesshallbesubmitted.ThereportwillshowLongitude,Latitude(WGS84andLGD2006),
EllipsoidHeight,North,East(LTM2),Elevation,ScaleFactor,andSurfaceAdjustmentFactorforeach
point.AllControlDescriptionCardswillbeobtainedfromtheSurveyDepartmentofLibyaandwillhave
theirofficialstamponthecardforauthentication.
TheSurfaceAdjustmentFactor(SAF)allowsconversionofgridcoordinatestosurfacecoordinatesand
distances,andviceversa.
7.3 VerticalControlSurveys

7.3.1 Definition
Averticalcontrolsurveyisperformedforaccuratelydeterminingtheorthometricheight(elevation)of
permanentmonumentstobeusedasbenchmarksforlowerqualityleveling.
Differentiallevelingisthepreferredmethodofcarryingelevations.However,GlobalPositioningSystem
(GPS)canbeusedindirectlybutwithlessaccuracy.Heightmeasurementsfromtheellipsoidcanbe
determinedveryaccuratelywithGPS.Trigonometricleveling,withatotalstation,isnotacceptablefor
verticalcontrolwork.
Theuseoffirstorderlevelingiscostprohibitiveandunnecessaryinmostsurveyingcases.Discrepancies
betweenoriginallyrunlevellinesinsomecasesnegatetheadvantagesoftheprecisionofthefirstorder
andsometimessecondorderlevelruns.
Theinstrumentshouldbetreatedwithcareandapegtestshouldbeperformedonaregularbasis.
Levelrodsareequallycritical.Allbacksightandforesightshotsshouldbebalanced.
Mostdigitallevelshaveonboardadjustmentprogramsand/oramemorycardthatwillallowthedata
tobetransferredtoacomputerforadjustment.Manualreadingscanalsobehandenteredintothe
datacollectortorecordthedata,warnofoutoftolerancereadings,adjustthepointelevations,and
compilereports.
AcarefullyplannedGPSnetworksurveycanbeusedtoobtainorthometricheights.SinceGPSmeasures
heightsfromtheimaginaryellipsoidsurface,thedatamustbeconvertedtouseableorthometricheights
throughamodelofinterpolatedgeoidseparationmeasurements.Inordertogettheaccuracyneeded
foraverticalcontrolsurvey,theremustbeatleast3or4highqualitybenchmarkssurroundingthe
projectarea(andin3or4separatequadrants)tobettermodelthearea.Inotherwords,atleastone
benchmarkshouldbefixedineachofthefour(4)quadrantsofthesurveyarea,suchthatnearlyallof
thenewlysurveyedstationswillfallinsideaboundarydrawnaroundtheoutsidebenchmarks.
Additionalbenchmarksinsidetheperimeterwillaidinstrengtheningtheadjustment.Thissometimes
makestheuseofGPSimpracticaldifferentiallevelingmaybejustascosteffective,ifthedistancesare
nottoogreat.
7.3.2 GPSNetworkDesignExample:
Roughlylocatebothnewpointsandexistingcontrolonamapshowingroadstouseinmoving
theobserversaroundtheproject.
Fromreconnaissanceandmissionplanningsoftware,determinethebesttimestoobserve.
Foreachsession,drawtheindependentbaselineschosentobeobservedonmap.Move
throughtheprojectuntilallpointshavebeenobserved.
Observingtherulesfortimedifferences,plantherepeatedoccupationsandobservations.
Considerredundancyrequirements.
Measureandrecordantennaheightintwodifferentunitsatthebeginningandbeforetheend
ofeachsession.
Filloutobservationsheeteachsession.(SeeAttachmentA)
Everyonemoveseverysession(wherepractical).
Inthescopeofthesespecifications,GPSdataprocessingincludesthereviewandcatalogingofcollected
datafiles,processingphasemeasurementstodeterminebaselinevectorsand/orunknownpositions,
andperformingadjustmentsandtransformationstotheprocessedvectorsandpositions.
Eachsteprequiresqualitycontrolanalysis,usingstatisticalmeasuresandprofessionaljudgment,to
achievethedesiredlevelofconfidence.Eachofthesestepsisalsoverydependentuponthe
measurementtechnique,theGPSreceiver,andantennatypes;theobservablesrecorded,andthe
processingsoftware.
Typically,theelevationbasisiseither1.)Anexistingproject(datumspecifiedbyproject)or2.)Mean
SeaLevel.Astatementofthebasisofelevationsshallbemadeincomputerfilesandplacedonallmap
printssimilartooneofthefollowingexamples:
1. ElevationsrefertoaBMsetneartheN.E.corneroftheintersectionofAlShuttStreet
andGurgiRoad(Location),anXontopofaconcretewall(description).Elevationis
100.00meters.
2. ElevationsarebaseduponbenchmarkA1422,Publishedelevation126.042meters
aboveMeanSeaLevel.
7.3.3 Benchmarks
Establishbenchmarkswithphysicalcharacteristicsandqualitycommensuratewiththeorderofthe
levelingsurvey.Benchmarksshouldbeofastable,permanentnature;e.g.,galvanizedsteelpipe;steel
roddrivenintoafirmsoilbase;orcastinplaceconcrete.Abrassdiskepoxiedintoadrilledholeinrock
orconcreteisalsoacceptable.
Benchmarksshouldbeconvenientlylocatedandeasilyaccessible.Wheneverpossible,benchmarks
shouldbelocatedoutsideofconstructionareas,clearoftraffic,andwithinapublicrightofway.
Spacebenchmarksasrequiredbyprojectconditionsandconvenienceofoperation,generallynotto
exceed300metersapart.Prepareawrittenbenchmark/stationdescriptionforinclusioninthesurvey
notesandintheprojectfinalcontrolreport.
Averticalprojectcontrolsurveyshallbeperformedforeachspecificprojectthatrequireselevationsto
definetopographicdatapointsorpositionsoffixedworks.Theestablishmentofverticalprojectcontrol
monumentsisimportantbecauseallsubsequentprojectsurveysrequiringelevationsaretobebasedon
theverticalprojectcontrol.
Verticalprojectcontrolsurveysshallbebasedonasingle,commonverticaldatumtoensurethat
variousphasesofaprojectandcontiguousprojectsareconsistent.
Whenfeasible,verticalcontrolforprojectsshouldbeestablishedatallhorizontalcontrolstations.
Additionalbenchmarksshouldbesettodensifyverticalcontroltoprovideconvenientcontrolfor
photogrammetry,topographic,andconstructionpurposes.
7.4 TopographicSurveys

7.4.1 Definition
Atopographicsurveyisasurveyperformedtodeterminetheconfiguration,relief,orelevationsofa
portionoftheearthssurface,includingthelocationofnaturaland/ormanmadefeaturesthereon.
Atopographicsurveyismadeforthepurposeofgatheringrelevantinformationthatwillberepresented
oneitheratopographicmaporinaDigitalTerrainModel(DTM).Typically,highwayplanning,
engineeringdesignandROWdesignaretheprimarypurposes.
Atopographicsurveyisnecessaryinordertoprepareanaccuratetopographicmapandrequiresthe
expertskillofasurveyorwellversedinmaintainingaccuracyandprecisionindetailmapping.A
planimetricmapisatwodimensional(2D)mapthatrepresentsthehorizontalandverticalpositionsof
thefeaturesrepresented;distinguishedfromatopographicmapbytheadditionofreliefina
measurableform.Atopographicmapcanalsobethreedimensionalthatrepresentsthesamefeatures
asaplanimetricmapbutusescontoursorcomparablesymbolstoshowmountains,valleys,andplains.
Aplanimetricmapisamapthatpresentsthehorizontalpositionsonlyforthefeaturesrepresented;
distinguishedfromatopographicmapbytheomissionofreliefinameasurableform.
7.4.2 UtilitySurveys
Utilitysurveysareundertakentolocateexistingutilitiesfor(a)considerationinengineeringdesign,(b)
purposesofutilityrelocation,and(c)rightofwayacquisitionandnegotiation.Itisimportanttolocate
allsignificantutilityfacilities.
AsaminimumaTopographicSurveyshallincludethefollowingfacilitiesandcriticalpoints:
Pipelineintersectionpointwithcenterlinesand/orrightofwaylines,withsizeanddepthof
lines.
o Pipelineventsandmarkers,anglepoints,metervaults,valvepits,etc.
Water,sanitaryandstormsewerlineintersectionpointswithsizeanddepthsoflines.
o Manholes,valveboxes,meterboxes,crosses,tees,bends,etc.
o Elevationonwaterlines,sewerinverts,andmanholerims
o Firehydrantsandvalves
Roadways
o Curbandguttersandcenterlineroadwayandsidewalks
o UtilityPoles
o Trafficsignsandsignals
o Bridges,headwalls,etc.
o Surveycontrolmonuments
7.4.3 DigitalTerrainModel(DTM)
ADigitalTerrainModel(DTM)isamathematicalmodelofaprojectsurfacethatbecomesathree
dimensionalrepresentation(3D)ofexistingandproposedgroundsurfacefeatures.Criticalcalculations
andprocessesbasedontheDTMincludecontouring,crosssectionsandquantities,drainagemodels,
watersheds,hydraulics,watercatchmentareas,andcrosssectionsheets.
ADTMiscreatedthroughtheconstructionofaTriangulatedIrregularNetwork(TIN)andisbasedon
modelingtheterrainsurfaceasanetworkoftriangularfacetsthatarecreatedbysimplyconnecting
eachdatapointtoitsnearestneighboringpoints.Eachdatapoint(havingx,yandzcoordinates)isthe
verticesoftwo(2)ormoretriangles.TheadvantageoftheTINmethodisitsmathematicalsimplicityall
DTMcalculationsareeitherlinearorplanar.
TheprocessesandtheresultingDTMoffermanyadvantagesoveratopographicsurvey.Fielddatafora
DTMiscollectedinawaythatallowsthesurveyortousethelatestinautomatedsurveytechnology.
Traditionaldatacollection(foratopographicsurvey)involvestakingcrosssections,typicallyevery30
meters,alongahorizontalcontrollineorinagridpattern.Digitalterrainmodelinghasvirtually
eliminatedthispractice.Datapoints(shots)aretakenateverybreakinelevationwithnoparticular
patternbeingrequired.Theemphasisisonidentifyingallfeaturesandchangesinelevationwithin
projectlimits.Dataiscollectedusinganelectronicdatacollectorwithanelectronictotalstation.The
datapointsareassignedfeaturecodes,attributes,descriptions,comments,andconnectivitylinking
codestoaddintelligencetoapointatthetimeofdataentryintodatacollector.
Informationisdownloadedfromthedatacollectortoacomputer,eitherinthefieldorlaterinanoffice,
andisprocessed.
7.4.4 RouteSurvey
AroutesurveyisanapplicationoftheabovedescribedtopographicorDTMsurveyalongadetermined
linearROWroute,eitherexistingorproposed,forautilityorroadway.
Whenthistextdiscussesproceduresorstandardsrelatingtoeitheratopographicsurveyorsurveyfora
DigitalTerrainModel,theaccuracy,standards,equipmentandbasicproceduralmethodsemployedwill
bethesame.AtopographicsurveywillbeperformedandaDTMcanbeusedformostsurveying
applicationswhereroutedesignandengineeringarerequired,whereasatopographicmapmaybe
bettersuitedforlargeareasitedesignanddevelopment.Thisspecificationisintendedforusein
developingadesignsurvey,aDigitalTerrainModel,oratopographicsurvey,withaccuracysufficientto
meetdesignneedsandrequirements.
A3DmodeloraDTMmaybepreferredforpurposessuchas:
Highway/roadwayplanning,design
ROWdesign
Drainagestudies
Sitedevelopment,planning
Architecturalplanning,design
Landscapedesign.
AsignificantadvantageofaDTMisthatitofferstheabilitytoview,inspect,andsmoothlynavigate
through,overandacrossaDTMina3Denvironmentforthepurposesoflocating,editing,and
correctingrawfielddata(pointsandchains)in3D.
7.4.5 ConsiderationsOtherTechnology
AcomputermodeloraDTMistheultimateworkproductofanyofthesenewermethodsofdata
acquisition.Dependingonthecriticalfactorsofeachproject,includingtype,terrain,accuracy,precision
required,cost,trafficconditions,andsafety,suchadvancedmethodsmaywarrantseriousconsideration
asacomplementtoconventionaldatagatheringorasareplacementofcommonorconventional
surveyingmethods.Whileconventionalaerialphotogrammetrymaystillbeviable,astechnology
continuestoadvance,existingmethodssuchasphotogrammetrywithairborneGlobalPositioning
System(GPS)controlbecomesmoreaccurateandevenmorecosteffective.Other,newermethodsof
terrainmodelingarealsoavailable.
Groundbasedscanningisanautomatedcollectionofdatabyreflectorlesslaserwhichinvolveshigh
densityscanningofanobjectorlocationtocollectapointcloudofdatapoints.Thepointcloudof
dataisfurtherprocessedintoa3dimensionalcomputermodelimage.Typicallydonefromaremote
instrumentlocationormultiplelocations,3DLaserscanningisespeciallygoodforsitesorobjectsthat
aredifficulttoaccess,havehightrafficvolumes,involveextremedetailorhaveotherextremedangers
orconditionsassociated.
Thismethodhasalsobeenutilizedinplaceofconventionaltopographicordigitalterrainmodel(DTM)
surveyingwithmuchsuccess,especiallywherehightrafficvolumesorlaneclosureissues(safety)were
criticalfactors.Presentlytheaccuracyofthescanneddataissaidtoequalorevenexceedthatof
conventionalsurveymethods,evenelectronictotalstationwork,withtheadditionaladvantageofa
greaternumberofdatapointsallthroughoutthestructureorproject.Othermethodsortechnology
shouldbediscussedwithandapprovedbyHIBoritsrepresentative.
7.4.6 WorkProduct
ADTMorTopographicSurveyrequires:
Acontrolsurveynetwork,withhorizontalandverticalpositionsonprimarycontrolpointsthat
aremonumented,referenced,andplacednearorontheprojectsite.
Pointsofsecondarycontrol,whicharebaseduponandwhichsupplementprimarycontrolto
facilitatedataacquisitionwithinaproject.
Adescriptionandlocationsketchofeachcontrolpoint.
7.4.7 InformationRequired
Informationshouldincludethefollowing:
Projectorsitelocationshownonamap
ROWmapsdepictingcurrentROWwidth(s)andotherland,ownershipandsurveyinformation
Ownershipinformationofadjacenttractsifavailable
IntersectingroadROWinformationanddocumentationifavailable
Constructionplansofexistingfacilitiesifavailable
Intendeduseofthesurveyandrequiredformofdeliverable,filesrequired,etc.
Accuracyrequiredandmethodofdisplay(contours,spotelevations,etc.)
Horizontalandverticaldatumuponwhichthesurveyisbebased
Existingsurveycontrolinformationanddatasheets,ifavailable,forhorizontalandvertical
monumentation
7.4.8 Monuments
Referencepointsandcontrolmonumentsforatopographicsurveymayincludetemporarystakes,hubs,
andnailsinpavement,ironrods,orreinforcedconcretemonuments.
Awoodenhuborstake,nailorironrodisconsideredassecondarycontrol(temporarybenchmarkor
controlpoint)whichonlysupplementsprimarysurveycontrolmonumentationtofacilitatedata
acquisition.
Primarycontrolpoints,whethersetbyGPSorconventionalsurveymethods,shallbeofreasonable
permanenceandmayincludeconcretemonuments.
Monumentswhethersetorexistingshallbewellreferenced,numberedornamedaccordingto
procedure,indexedintheprojectdataorfieldnotesandidentifiedinthecomputerfilefinaldeliverable.
Pointnumbersmaybefurnishedforamonumentnumberingsystem.Alocationsketchanddatasheet
foreachmonumentshouldbefurnished.
7.4.9 FieldProcedures
DTMortopographicsurveysrequireareliablehorizontalandverticalcontrolsystembasedon
acceptablyclosedandadjustedtraversesandlevelloops.Attentionshouldbegiventowarddeveloping
thiscontrolsystembeforeanydetailworkisbegun.
Fieldworkshallbeperformedtoachievethespecifiedorintendedaccuracyandresultsasstatedinthis
publication,inaccordancewithacceptedtechnicalmethods,andasdirectedbythemanufacturerofthe
surveyinginstrument(s)orequipmentused.
Fieldpersonnelshallbewelltrainedinthetechnicalaspectsofsurveyingasrelatedtotheirrespective
duties.
Surveyinginstrumentsshallbecheckedandkeptincloseadjustmentaccordingtotheirmanufacturers
specificationsorincompliancewithtextbookstandards.
Electronicdistancemeasuringdevicesshallbecomparedagainstastandardizedbaselineat6
monthintervals,howeveracomparisoncheckshouldalwaysbedoneasneeded,especiallyifan
instrumenthasbeendropped,damagedorissuspectofthesame.
Thiscomparisonincludeselectronictotalstationsoranyotherelectronicmeasuringinstrument.
Totalstationsandtheodolitesshallbecomparedagainstastandardknownangleata6month
interval;however,acomparisoncheckshouldalwaysbedoneasneeded,especiallyifan
instrumenthasbeendropped,damagedorissuspectofthesame.
Levels,autoordigital,shouldbecheckedbythe2pegtestorreadingtheelevationdifference
betweentworeferencepointstakenfrom1.)Amiddlesetupbetweenpointsandalso2.)From
anendsetup.Failuretogetthesamedifferenceofelevationindicatesanoutofadjustment
condition,whichusuallyrequiresashopcleaningandadjustment.
Auxiliarytapes,clothorfiberglass,shallonlybeusedforroughmeasurementswhereprecision
isnotimportant,suchasdeterminingthewidthofditches,thelocationofexcavationsorother
irregularimprovements.Tapesofthissortshallnotbeusedtomeasuredistancesinexcessof
30meters.
Fieldmeasurementsofanglesanddistancesshallbeperformedinsuchamannerastoattainthe
closuresandtolerancesasfoundinthesestandards.
Whereaerialphotogrammetryistobeusedtocompilethetopographicmap,thesurveyorshallconsult
withthephotogrammetristastospecificrequirementsforthephotocontrolandforadditional
supplementalinformationrequiredbyconditionsofaspecificprojectorlocation.
Horizontalandverticalphotocontrol(picturepoints)shallbebasedonandloopedtothe
controlsystem.
Identificationofphotocontrol(picturepoints)mustbepreciseandclearsincethesepointswill
beusedtobuildthenetworkfromwhichthephotogrammetristmustwork.
Photocontrolpoints,setbeforetheaerialphotographyismade,shallbelocatedfrom,and
loopedtothecontrolsystem.Thedensityandpatternforpaneledpicturepointsshallbe
determinedthroughconsultationandcoordinationwiththephotogrammetrist.
Forthesepurposes,methodsthataremoremodernarenormallyused,suchastheDTMsurveythat
incorporatemethodsdescribedinthesectionbelow.
SurveyingprocedureswithelectronictotalstationorwithGPSshallincorporatecontrolpointsthatare
tiedtoaprimarycontrolsystemnetworkofanappropriatelevelofprecisionandaccuracyforthe
project.
Acquisitionoffielddatamayrequirerunningsecondarycontrolandbenchmarksthatbeginandendat
pointsontheprimarycontrolsystem.
Theuseofopenendedlegsorspurlinesshouldbeavoidedwheneverpossible.Whensuchlinesare
necessary,appropriatechecksshallbemadeonallfielddatabeforeleavingthevicinity.
Anyfieldnoteswritteninafieldbookshallbekeptinaneatandorderlymanneronallcontrolpoints,
primaryorsecondary.Appropriateannotationsonlocation,descriptionofpointandreferenceto
identifyingspecificfeatureslocatedduringtheDTMortopographicsurveyshallbemade.
7.4.10 TopographicFeatures
Theperimeterlimitsofanyuniqueorspecialfeaturessuchashistoricstructures,cemeteries,burial
groundsorgravesitesknownorfoundwithintheprojectlimits,oradjacenttoit,andwhichmaybe
affected(bytheexistingorproposedROW),shallbeshownbyactuallocation.
Buildingsandimprovements,includingdistancefromproposedROWupto15meters.Theproject
managermayrequireextendingthisdistance.
Itemstobelocatedasaminimumareasfollows:
Centerlinesandtopofbanksofdrycreeks,streamsorotherconfinedintermittent
watercourses
Paths,cartrails,pastureroads,etc.
AdditionaldatapointsoutsideoftheROW,asrequiredanddirectedbyclient.
Creeks,streams,riversandwaterbodies,shownandidentifiedbynameifavailable.Water
levelsshallbedeterminedanddisplayedbyelevation.
Drainageareasfieldinformationondrainagearea(s)ofaprojectshallbecollectedinthesame
mannerasotherinformationtotheextentasdirectedbytheprojectmanagerand/orclient.
UtilitiesasmentionedinUtilitySurveys(3.2),above.
7.4.11 ElectronicData
Innearlyallcases,fieldworkisautomatedbytheuseofcomputersoftwareandhardwareforcollecting,
reviewing,editing,andprocessingfielddata.Adatacollectormaybeconnectedtotheinstrument(total
station,GPSreceiver,digitallevel,etc.)tostoretherawmeasurementdataandperformcoordinated
geometry(COGO)functionswhileinthefield.Originalrawdatamustbesavedasafileforretention,as
amatterofrecord,beforeanydataeditingorprocessingisdone.
7.4.12 DataCollection
Fielddatainelectronicformwillbecollected.Itspurposeistoprovideamoreflexibleanduser
definablemethodofrecordinghorizontalangle,verticalangleandslopedistancefrommostofthetotal
stationsandinastandardformatrecognizedbygoodsurveyingmethods.AstandardFieldBookwill
includethedate,weather,crew,jobnameandjobnumber,plusadescriptionoftheworkbeing
performed.Itwillalsobeusedtorecordpertinentfieldinformationinanaccurate,clearformat.
Therearenumerouswaystoprovideconnectivity.Whenperformingradialtopographysurveysfora
DTM,pointsinthesamebreaklinesuchasedgeofpavement,centerlinesandditchlinescanbelinked
together.ThesesurveychainscanultimatelybeimportedtomappingfilesortoDTMfilesasDTMbreak
lines.
ThecontractorwillsubmittheirFeatureCodesandCellsforuseinthefieldtoinsurestandardizationof
lineweight,color,levels,andsymbology.Thefeaturecodesalsodeterminewherethepointsandchains
willgo,eithertoamappingfileoraDTMfile.Topographicsurveys,traverses,andlevelrunsmaybe
collectedinapprovedsoftwarethatcanthenbereducedtocoordinatesonadesktopPC.
7.5 ConstructionStaking

7.5.1 FieldMethods
Methodsusedtoestablishconstructionstakesareatthesurveyorsoption.Thesemethodsmayinclude
anymeanscapableofmaintainingthenecessarytolerances.Thesurveyorisresponsibletoprovide
additionalcontrolstakesandverificationofexistingcontrolandtomaintainthemduringthe
constructionprocess.
Sufficientindependentfieldcheckswillbemadeatthediscretionofthesurveyortoassuretheintegrity
ofthestakes.Theintegrityofstakeoutsetuppointsshouldbeverifiedbeforeusebytakingcheckshots
onothercontrolpoints.Allpositionsstakedinthefieldshouldbecheckedagainstthecomputed
positionsandtheresultsrecordedinelectronicstakeoutreportsand/oronstakeoutlistings.
Workingstakesusedbythesurveyorinactuallyperformingtheworkarethesurveyorsresponsibility
andaretobesetbythesurveyor.
7.6 AsBuiltSurveys
7.6.1 Definition
AsbuiltSurveys(orpostconstructionsurveys),showtheconditionsoftheconstructionprojectafterthe
constructioniscompleted.
Featuresshownontheasbuiltsurveymustbesurveyedafterconstruction.
7.6.2 Deliverable
AsBuiltdrawingsshallinclude,asaminimum,revisionstoalignmentsandrightofway,graderevisions,
drainagechanges,changestoroadwayfeaturesandrevisionsonthelocationofutilitycrossingsand
irrigationcrossovers.TheAsBuiltdrawingswillbetranslatedtotheLibyanTransverseMercatortwo
degree(LTM2)grid,LibyanGeodeticDatum(LGD)of2006,throughareporttranslatingfromthedatum
usedontheprojecttoLGD2006datum.ThisreportwillshowtheLongitude,Latitude(WGS84and
LGD2006),EllipsoidHeight,Northgridcoordinate,Eastgridcoordinate(LTM2),Elevation,ScaleFactor
andSurfaceAdjustmentFactorforeachcontrolpoint.
Afterconstructioniscomplete,theasbuiltcorrectionswillbeplacedonacopyoftheCaddfiles.Each
asbuiltsheetwillbeclearlymarkedasanASBUILTSURVEY.
7.7 SurveyMapCheckList
ThefollowingCheckListisaminimumamountofinformationtobeplacedonastandardmapormaps.
Itisimperativetohavequalitymapswithpertinentinformationonthem.
Companyname,address,telephonenumber,emailaddressandfaxnumber
Clientname,address,telephonenumber,emailaddressandfaxnumber
ScaleandBarScale
Date
Northarrow
TitleBlock
Descriptionofsurvey
Legend
LimitsofSurvey
Existingandnewcontrol
Coordinatebasis
Signatureofsurveyor(ifrequired)
Notes
Sheetnumbers
Controlcoordinatesandelevations
Border
VicinityMap

ATTACHMENT7A

GPS LOG SHEET
Project Name ______________________________________________
Operator Name
Observation Date
Station Name
Antenna Height 1st measurement
Meters 2nd measurement
Survey feet 3rd measurement
Average
Measure to: Bottom of notch Top of notch Antenna ref. point
Antenna Type
Actual start time
Actual stop time
4 digit receiver number
NOTES:

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY81

8 Roadway
8.1 HighwaySystems
8.1.1 FunctionalClassification
Functionalclassificationisdefinedastheprocessbywhichstreetsandhighwaysaregroupedinto
systemsaccordingtothecharacterofservicetheyareintendedtoprovide.Eachroadwayclassification
hasadistinctfunction,character,andlevelofaccesscontrol,asshowninTable.
Table81.FunctionalSystemCharacteristics
FunctionalSystem GeneralDescription
Freeway Providesthehighestlevelofserviceatthehighestspeedforthelongest
uninterrupteddistance
Fullaccesscontrolusingonlygradeseparatedinterchanges
Expressway Provideshighspeedandlongdistancestraveledbyvehicles
Fullaccesscontrolbygradeseparatedinterchanges
Serviceroadsnormallyprovidedtoservelandsadjacenttothehighway,
connectedtotheexpresswaymainlinebyfreeflowingramps
Arterial Providesmoderatedistancesfortrafficandwithlowerdesignstandards
thanexpressways
Accessgenerallybymeansofatgradeintersections(signalizedor
roundabout),butmayalsousegradeseparatedinterchanges
Collector Collectstrafficfromlocalsandchannelsitintothearterialsystems
Providesbothlandaccessandtrafficcirculationwithresidential
neighborhoods,commercial,andindustrialareas
Intendedforlowspeedsandminimalaccesscontrol
Althoughusedforthroughtraffic,accesstoadjacentlandisvery
important
Local Intendedforshortdistancesonlywithlowspeed
Providesaccesstoresidentialandcommercialfacilities
Providesaccesstohighersystems
Thefollowingsectionsbrieflyintroduceeachoftheclasses:
8.1.2 Freeways
Afreewayisaroadwhichisdesignedtomoveheavyvolumesofhighspeedtrafficunderfreeflowing
conditions.Theneedforafreewayisgeneratedbyhightrafficvolumeswhichinturnnecessitatesfully
controlledaccess.Inruralareas,thefreewayconnectsmajorcitiesorindustrialareas.Inurbanareas,
thefreewayprovideshighstandardroutesconnectingareasofmajortrafficgeneration.
8.1.3 Expressways
Anexpresswayissimilartoafreewayinitsbasicfunctionexceptthatitdoesnotrequirethefully
controlledaccess.Accessmaybefullyorpartiallycontrolledbygradeseparatedinterchanges,andcan
haveconnectionstoServiceRoadsthatprovideaccesstolocalroads.

8.1.4 Arterials
Arterialroadsareofalowerdesignstandardthanfreewaysandexpressways.Theirintersectionswith
otherarterialsandlowerclassroadsaregenerallyatgrade,andcontrolledbyfixedsigningortraffic
signals.Arterialsareintendedtocarrylargevolumesoftrafficmovingatmediumtohighspeed,andare
usedbyabroadrangeofvehicletypes,becausetheydistributetrafficfromthehigherclassestothe
lowerclassesandviceversa.ArterialroadscanalsobeidentifiedasServiceRoadssincetheyrun
parallelandareconnectedtotheexpresswaystoprovideaccesstolocaltraffic.
8.1.5 Collectors
Thefunctionoftheseroadsistocollecttrafficflowfromthelocalroadstothearterialroadsandto
distributetrafficflowfromarterialsbacktothelocalroads.Accesstopropertiesisnormallyallowedon
collectorroads.Inruralareas,thefunctionofcollectoristwofold;toprovideaccesstoadjacentland
usesandtocarrytrafficintoareaswithsparsedevelopment.
8.1.6 LocalRoads
Localroadsaredesignatedtoallowvehiclestoreachthefrontageofpropertiesfromacollectorroador
arterialroad.Theirmainfunctionistoprovidelandaccess,andtheygenerallycarrylowvolumesof
traffic.Theyserveresidential,commercial,orindustriallanduses.Asthisisthelowestclassintheroad
hierarchy,directaccessispermittedtoallabuttingproperties.
8.2 Traffic
8.2.1 LevelofService
Theaveragehighwayuserwilltolerateacertainlevelofcongestionanddelaybeforehebecomes
frustratedorattemptsunsafedrivingmaneuvers.Thislevelwillvaryaccordingtothetypeoffacility.To
characterizeacceptabledegreesofcongestion,thelevelofserviceconcepthasbeendeveloped.The
applicationoflevelofserviceinvolveschoosingtheappropriatelevelfortheselecteddesignyear.The
LevelofServiceisgradedfromAtoF,wherelevelAisthehighestandlevelFisthelowest.Table82
givesgeneralguidelinesforuseinselectingthelevelofservice.Table83givesthegeneraldefinitions
oftheselevelsofservice.
Table81.MinimumLevelofServiceGuidelines
HighwayType
TypeofAreaandLevelofService
Rural
Level
Rural
Rolling
Rural
Mountainous
Urbanand
Suburban
Freeway B B C C
Expressway B B C C
Arterial B B C C
Collector C C D D
Local D D D D

Table82.GeneralDefinitionsofLevelsofService
LevelofService GeneralOperatingCondition
A Freeflow
B Reasonablyfreeflow
C Stableflow
D Approachingunstableflow
E Unstableflow
F Forcedorbreakdownflow
TheatgradeintersectionshouldoperateatnomorethanonelevelofservicebelowthevaluesinTable
81.Capacityofsignalizedintersectionsdependsonmanyfactors,including:
1. Intersectiongeometryincludingthenumberandwidthoflanes,grades,andlanduse.
1. Percentageofheavyvehicles
2. Locationofanduseofbusstops
3. Distributionofvehiclesbymovement(left,thru,right)
4. Pedestriancrossingflows
5. Peakhourfactor
6. Signalphasing,turningandtypeofcontrolateachapproach
8.2.2 DesignVehicles
Thecharacteristicsofvehiclesusingthehighwayareimportantcontrolsingeometricdesign.Thesewill
varyaccordingtothetypeofvehiclebeingconsidered.Whenahighwayfacilityorintersectionisunder
design,thelargestdesignvehiclelikelytousethatfacilitywithconsiderablefrequencyshouldbeusedto
determinetheselecteddesignvalues.Typically,truckshavethegreaterinfluenceondesign.Table8
presentsbasicinformationondimensionsforthestandarddesignvehicles.
Table84.DesignVehicleParameters(meters)
DesignVehicleType Symbol* Height Width Length
Min.Design
Turning
Radius
Min.
Inside
Radius
PassengerCar P 2.0 2.2 5.8 7.3 4.4
SingleUnitTruck SU 4.1 2.6 9.1 12.8 8.6
SingleUnitBus BUS 4.1 2.6 12.1 12.8 7.5

DesignVehicleType Symbol* Height Width Length
Min.Design
Turning
Radius
Min.
Inside
Radius
ArticulatedBus ABus 3.4 2.6 18.3 12.1 6.5
IntermediateSemiTrailer WB12 4.1 2.6 15.2 12.2 5.9
SemiTrailerCombination
Large
WB15 4.1 2.6 16.7 13.7 5.2
SemiTrailerFullTrailer
Combination
WB18 4.1 2.6 19.9 13.7 6.8
InterStateSemiTrailer WB19 4.1 2.6 21.0 13.7 2.8
InterStateSemiTrailer WB20 4.1 2.6 22.5 13.7 1.3
TripleSemiTrailer WB29 4.1 2.6 31.0 15.2 6.3
TurnpikeDoubleSemi
Trailer
WB35 4.1 2.6 35.9 18.3 5.2
MotorHome MH 3.7 2.4 9.2 12.2 7.9
PassengerCarwithTrailer P/T 3.1 2.4 14.9 10.1 5.3
PassengerCarwithBoat
Trailer
P/B 2.4 12.8 7.3 2.4
MotorHomewithBoat
Trailer
MH/B 3.7 2.4 16.2 15.2 10.7
*ThedesignationWBrelatestoapproximatewheelbase;WB12denotesatruckwhosewheelbaseisaround12m.
8.3 Speed
Thehighwayshouldbedesignedtoaccommodatethespeeddesiresofmosthighwayusers,withinthe
limitsofsafety.
8.3.1 DesignSpeed
Designspeedisthemaximumsafespeedthatcanbemaintainedoveraspecifiedsectionofhighway
whenconditionsaresofavorablethatthedesignfeaturesofthehighwaygovern.Factorsthatinfluence
thedesignspeedincluderoadwayclassification,urbanandruralareas,economicmatters,andthe
terrain.Manydesignelementssuchashorizontalandverticalcurvature,superelevation,andsight
distances,aredirectlydependentonthedesignspeed.Table8providesrecommendeddesignspeeds
forvaryingconditions.

Table85.DesignSpeeds
Roadway
Classification
DesignSpeed(km/h)
RuralRoads UrbanRoads
AbsoluteMinimum(Onlyin
MountainousTerrain)
Min. Max. Min. Max.
Freeway 120 140 100 120 80
Expressway 100 120 80 120 80
Arterial 80 100 60 100 50
Collector 60 80 50 80 50
Local 40 60 30 60 30
8.3.2 PostedSpeed
Thepostedspeedprovidesafactorofsafetyforthosedriverswhotendtodrivefasterthanthespeed
limitbutarestillwithinthedesignspeed.Thepostedspeedsaremandatorytolimitthespeedofthose
fastdriversandprovidesafedrivingcondition.Table86indicatesthepostedspeedwhichis
appropriateforagivendesignspeed.
Table86.RecommendedPostedSpeeds
DesignSpeed(km/h) PostedSpeed(km/h)
3040 3040
50 40
60 50
70 60
80 70
90 80
100 90
120 100
140 120
LocalRoadsandStreetsshouldhaveaPostedSpeedof50km/horloweraslocalconditionsdictatesuch
asnearschoolzones.
8.3.3 Ramps
Therampswithinagradeseparatedinterchangestypicallyhavealowerdesignspeedthanthatofa
mainline.Table87shouldbeusedastheminimumdesignspeed.


Table87.MinimumDesignSpeedforConnectingRoadways
MainlineDesignSpeed
(km/h)
MinimumDesignSpeedforConnectingRoadway(km/h)
Ramps Loops
50 30 20
60 40 30
70 50 40
80 60 40
90 60 50
100 70 50
120 80 60
140 90 70
8.4 SightDistance
Sightdistancevaluesaffectthedesignofhorizontalandverticalalignment,atgradeintersections,
interchanges,andhighwaycrossings.Typesofsightdistance(stopping,decision,orpassing)dependon
thetypeofhighwayandpotentialhazard.Onhorizontalcurves,sightdistanceismostcriticalonthe
insideofacurve.Roadsideobjectsontheinsideofacurvearerequiredtobesetbackfromtheedgeof
thetraveledwaybyagreaterdistancethanthatofastraightline.Onverticalcurves,sightdistanceis
typicallycontrolledbytheeyeandobjectheights.
8.4.1 StoppingSightDistance(SSD)
Stoppingsightdistanceisthesumoftwodistances:thedistancetraveledduringdriver
perception/reactiontime,andthedistancetraveledduringbrakeapplication.Theperception/reaction
timeisusually2.5sec.
Perception/ReactionDistanceiscalculatedby:
PRD=0.278tV
Where: PRD=perception/reactiondistance(m)
t=perceptiontime+reactiontime(sec)
V=initialspeed(km/h)
BrakingDistanceiscalculatedby:
BD=V/254(fG)
Where: BD=brakingdistance(m)
V=initialspeed(km/h)
f=coefficientoffriction
G=grade(%)dividedby100
Whendeterminingstoppingsightdistances,thefollowingshouldbeappliedforeyeandobjectheights:
Driverseyeheight 1.05mto2.40m
Objectheight 0.15mto2.00m

Figure81.VisibilityEnvelopeforStoppingSightDistance
Table88summarizestheroundedstoppingsightdistancevaluesfordesign.
Table88.StoppingSightDistances
DesignSpeed
(km/h)
Friction
Coefficient(f)
StoppingSightDistance(m)
Level*
Downgrade Upgrade
3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
30 0.40 35 32 35 35 31 30 29
40 0.38 50 50 50 53 45 44 43
50 0.35 65 66 70 74 61 59 58
60 0.33 85 87 92 97 80 77 75
70 0.31 105 110 116 124 100 97 93
80 0.30 130 136 144 154 123 118 114
90 0.30 160 164 174 187 148 141 136
100 0.29 185 194 207 223 174 167 160
120 0.28 250 263 281 304 234 223 214
*ValuesarealsoincludedintheDesignControlsforCrestandSagVerticalCurves,Error!Referencesourcenotfound..
8.4.2 PassingSightDistance(PSD)
Passingsightdistanceappliestoundividedtwoway,twolaneroads,inwhichadriverpassesanother
vehiclewithoutinterferingwithanoncomingvehiclethatappearswhenthepassingvehiclebeginsits
maneuver.ThevisibilityenvelopeforthePassingSightDistanceisbasedon:

Table89providesthepassingsightdistanceforvariousdesignspeeds.
Table89.PassingSightDistances
DesignSpeed(km/h)
MinimumPassing
SightDistance(m)
30 200
40 270
50 345
60 410
70 485
80 540
90 615
100 670
8.4.3 DecisionSightDistance
Decisionsightdistanceisthedistancerequiredforadrivertodetectanunexpectedorotherwise
difficulttoperceiveinformationsourceorhazardinaroadwayenvironmentthatmaybevisually
cluttered,recognizethehazardoritsthreatpotential,selectanappropriatespeedandpath,andinitiate
andcompletetherequiredsafetymaneuversafelyandefficiently.
Decisionsightdistance,aswithstoppingsightdistance,isthesumofperception/reactiontimeand
vehiclemaneuvertime(stoppingoralanechange).Theapplicationofdecisionsightdistancemustbe
individuallyassessedateachlocation.ThevisibilityenvelopeforDecisionSightDistanceisthesameas
forStoppingSightDistance,namely:


Table8providesthenecessaryinformationtodeterminetherequireddistance.
Table810.DecisionSightDistance
DesignSpeed
(km/h)
DesignSightDistance(m)
StopManeuver AllOtherManeuvers
Rural Urban Rural Urban
50 75 160 145 200
60 95 205 175 235
70 125 250 200 275
80 155 300 230 315
90 185 360 275 360
100 225 415 315 405
120 305 505 375 470
8.5 HorizontalAlignment
8.5.1 General
Horizontalalignmentshouldbedesignedtoprovideacontinuous,uniform,andsafedrivingcondition
andspeedforvehicles.Itshouldmeetthefollowinggeneralconsiderations:
Horizontalalignmentshouldbeassmoothaspossibleandinharmonywiththetopography.Flatter
curvaturewithshortertangentsisgenerallypreferabletosharpcurvesconnectedbylongtangents.
Anglepointsshouldbeavoided.
Theminimumlengthofhorizontalcurvesshouldbe:
Lmin=6V(highspeedfreeways)
Lmin=3V(otherarterials)
WhereV=designspeed(km/h)
Brokenbackcurves(shorttangentbetweentwocurvesinsamedirection)shouldbeavoided.
Compoundcurvesshouldbeavoidedwherepossible.Wheretheyareused,theradiusoftheflatter
curveshouldnotbemorethan50%greaterthantheradiusofthesharpercurve.However,this
considerationdoesnotnecessarilyapplyatintersectionsandroundabouts,wherelowerspeeds
pertain.
Reversecircularcurvesonhighspeedroadsshouldincludeatransitionsectionofsufficientlength
toaccommodatethereversalofsuperelevationbetweenthecircularcurves.

Thehorizontalalignmentshouldbeinbalancewiththeverticalalignmentandconsistentwithother
designfeatures.
Horizontalcurvesshouldbeavoidedonbridgeswheneverpossible.Theycausedesign,
construction,andoperationalproblems.Whereacurveisnecessaryonabridge,asimplecurve
shouldbeusedonthebridgeandanycurvatureorsuperelevationtransitionsplacedonthe
approachingroadway.
Factorsthatinfluencethedegreeofhorizontalcurvatureofaroadinclude:
Safety
Designspeed
Topography,adjacentlanduseandobstructions
Verticalalignment
Maximumallowablesuperelevation
Roadwayclassification
Cost
8.5.2 TypesofHorizontalCurvature
8.5.2.1 SimpleCurves
Asimplecurvehasaconstantcircularradiuswhichachievesthedesireddeflectionwithoutusingan
enteringorexitingtransition.Becauseoftheirsimplicityandeaseofdesign,survey,andconstruction,
thisisthemostfrequentlyusedcurve.Figure82illustratesasimplecurvelayout.

Figure82.SimpleCurve
8.5.2.2 CompoundCurves
Compoundcurvesareusedtotransitionintoandfromasimplecurve.Compoundcurvesare
appropriateforintersectioncurbradii,ramps,andtransitionsintosharpercurves.Asthecurvature

becomessuccessivelysharper,theradiusoftheflattercircularcurveshouldnotbemorethan50%
greaterthanthatofthesharpercurve.Figures83and84illustrateatypicalcompoundcurvelayout
andwarrantsforcompoundcurvature.
Figure83.CompoundCurve

Figure84.CompoundCurveTransition
8.5.3 MinimumCurvature
Thereisadirectrelationshipbetweenthevehiclespeed,theradiusofthecurve,thesuperelevation,and
thesidefrictionbetweenthetireandtheroadsurface.

Where R=radiusofcurve(m)
V=vehiclespeed(km/h)
e=superelevation(%)dividedby100
fs=sidefrictionfactor
Thesidefrictionfactorrangesfrom0.35to0.50ondryroadsandonwetsurfacesitmaydroptoaround
0.2.Table811providestheminimumradiiforvaryingdesignspeedsandarangeofsuperelevation
rates.
Table811.MinimumHorizontalCurvature
DesignSpeed
(km/h)
MinimumRadius(m)
NormalCrown
2%
MaximumSuperelevation(e)
2% 4% 6% 8%
30 50 40 35 30 30
40 90 70 60 55 50
50 140 110 100 90 80
60 200 165 150 135 120
70 300 230 215 195 170
80 430 320 280 250 230
90 570 420 375 335 305
100 750 545 490 435 400
120 1220 850 810 755 670
140 1930 1290 1100 965 870
Superelevationislimitedto2%
8.5.4 SpiralCurveTransition
Spiraltransitioncurvesimprovetheappearanceofthealignmentandassistintheintroductionof
superelevationpriortothecircularcurve.Aproperlydesignedtransitioncurveprovidesanatural,easy
tofollowpathfordriversandminimizesencroachmentonadjoiningtrafficlanes.Itprovidesflexibility
inaccomplishingthewideningofsharpcurves.FortheEulerspiral(orclothoid),thedegreeofcurvature
variesdirectlywiththelengthalongthecurve.Figure85showsthelayoutofatypicaltransitioncurve
joiningatangenttoacircularcurve.

Figure85.TypicalSpiralTransitionCurve
Thelengthofthetransitioncurve(TStoSCinFigure85)dependsontheradiusofthecircularcurveinto
whichitleads.Itisdefinedbythefollowingformula:
Where Ls= lengthofspiral(m)

V= designspeed(km/h)
q= rateofchangeofcentripetalacceleration(m/s)
R= radiusofcircularcurve(m)
Thevalueofq=0.3m/sisdesirable.Table812givesroundedvaluesofthecomputedspirallengthsof
theradiifore=6%inTable811.
Table812.SpiralLengthsforMinimumRadiiat6%Superelevation
DesignSpeed
(km/h)
MinimumRadius
e=6%
LengthofSpiral
Desirable Minimum
60 135 115 60
70 195 130 65
80 250 145 75
90 335 155 80
100 435 170 85
120 755 190 95
140 965 205 100

8.5.5 HorizontalStoppingSightDistance
Safesightdistancemustbeprovidedontheinsideofhorizontalcurves.Obstructionsthatinterferewith
theneededsightdistanceshouldberemoved,ifpossible.Onhorizontalcurves,adesignermustprovide
amiddleordinatebetweenthecenteroftheinsidelaneandthesightobstruction.Thebasicequation
is:
M = R_1 - us
28. 5S
R
]
Where: M=middleordinate,ordistancefromthecenteroftheinsidelanetotheobstruction(m).
R=radiusofcurve(m)
S=stoppingsightdistance(m)
Theheightofeyeis1080millimetersandtheheightofobjectis600millimeters.Thelineofsight
interceptwiththeviewobstructionisatthemidpointofthesightlineand840millimetersabovethe
centeroftheinsidelane.SeeFigure86.
Figure86.ComponentsforDeterminingHorizontalSightDistance
8.5.6 Superelevation
Superelevationcounterbalancesthecentrifugalforce,oroutwardpull,ofavehicletraversinga
horizontalcurve.Thisoutwardpullcanbecounterbalancedbytheroadwaybeingsuperelevated,the
sidefrictiondevelopedbetweentiresandsurface,orsomecombinationofthetwo.Thisallowsa
vehicletotravelathigherspeedsaroundthehorizontalcurves.

8.5.6.1 SuperelevationRates
Themaximumuseablerateforsuperelevation(emax)iscontrolledbyseveralfactors:Climate
conditions,terrainconditions,typeofarea,andthefrequencyofslowmovingvehicles.Themaximum
ratesofsuperelevationbasedonroadwayclassificationsareshowninTable813.
Table813.MaximumSuperelevation
RoadwayClassification
Max.Superelevation
(emax)
Local 4%
Collector
4%(urban)
6%(rural)
Arterial
4%(urban)
8%(rural)
ExpresswayandFreeway 8%
LoopswithinInterchanges 8%
8.5.6.2 SuperelevationTransition
Alengthofsuperelevationtransitionshallberequiredtoaccomplishthechangeincrossslopefroma
normalcrownsectiontoafullysuperelevatedsectionorviceversa.Thelengthofsuperelevation
transitionshallconsistofatangentrunoutandasuperelevationrunoff.
TangentRunout:isthelengthofhighwayneededtoaccomplishthechangeincrossslopefroma
normalcrosssectiontoasectionwiththeadversecrownremoved(0%),orviceversa.
SuperelevationRunoff:isthelengthofhighwayneededtoaccomplishthechangeincrossslopefroma
sectionwiththeadversecrownremoved(0%)toafullysuperelevatedsection,orviceversa.
Thelengthforsuperelevationrunoffisdependentonthewidthofthepavementandthechangein
superelevationoverthetransitionallength,andisdefinedbythefollowingformula:
L=2xWxe
Where L=superelevationrunofflength(m)
W=pavementwidth(m)
e=algebraicdifferenceinsuperelevation(%)
Superelevationrunofflengthsshouldbelongenoughsothattherateofchangeoftheedgesof
pavementrelativetothecenterlinedoesnotexceedempiricallydevelopedcontrols.Thesemaximum
relativegradients,whichprovideaminimumlengthofrunoff,aregiveninTable814.

Table814.MaximumRelativeGradients
DesignSpeed
(km/h)
MaximumRelativeGradient(%)
EquivalentMaximum
RelativeSlope
30 0.75 1:133
40 0.70 1:143
50 0.65 1:154
60 0.60 1:167
70 0.55 1:182
80 0.50 1:200
90 0.47 1:213
100 0.44 1:227
120 0.38 1:263
Thepavementmayberotatedaboutthecenterlineoreitheredgeofthetravellanes.Figure87shows
typicalmethodsofdevelopingsuperelevationbyrotatingabouttheedgesandaboutthecenterofthe
road.

Figure87.DevelopmentofSuperelevation

8.5.6.3 DesignConsiderations
2. Superelevationisintroducedorremoveduniformlyoverthelengthsrequiredforcomfort
andsafety.
7. Placeapproximatelytwothirdsoftherunoffonthetangentsectionandonethirdon
thehorizontalcurve.
8. Oncompoundcurves,fullsuperelevationforthesharpestcurveshouldbeattainedat
thePCC.
9. Forcompoundcurvesalso,iftheflatterenteringcurveislessthanorequalto150m,a
uniformlongitudinalgradientshouldbeusedthroughoutthetransition.Iftheflatter
enteringcurveislongerthan150m,itmaybepreferabletoconsiderthetwocurves
separately.Superelevationfortheenteringcurvewouldbedevelopedbythe2/3rd
1/3rddistributionmethod.Thisratewouldbemaintaineduntilitisnecessaryto
developtheremainingsuperelevationforthesharpercurve.
10. Whenspiraltransitionsareused,theadversecrowniscompletelyremovedatthe
beginningofthespiral.Thetangentrunoutlengthoccurspriortothebeginningofthe
spiraltransition.Therateoftransitionusedinthetangentrunoutshouldbethesame
rateusedforthesuperelevationrunoff.
11. Forthespiraltransitions,thetransitionforthesuperelevationrunoffwillbeapplied
overtheentirelengthofspiral,withfullsuperelevationdevelopedatthehorizontal
curvesPSC.
12. Theminimumsuperelevationrunofflengthsforroadwayswiderthantwolanesshould
beasfollows:
(a) Three-lane traveled ways; 1.2 times the corresponding length for two-lane
traveled ways.
(b) Four-lane undivided traveled ways; 1.5 times the corresponding length for two-
lane highways.
(c) Six-lane undivided traveled ways; 2.0 times the corresponding length for two-lane
traveled ways.
8.5.6.4 ShoulderSuperelevation
Alloutsideshouldersandmedianshouldersof1.25meterorgreatershouldslopeawayfromthetravel
lanesonsuperelevatedcurves.Themaximumalgebraicdifferencebetweenthetravellanesslopeand
shoulderslopeis0.09m/m.Shoulderslessthan1.25metersshouldslopeinthesamedirectionasthe
travellane;seeFigure88.

Figure88.HighwaywithPavedShoulders
8.5.7 MinimumLaneWidthonCurves
Becausetherearwheelsofvehiclesdonotexactlyfollowthetrackofthefrontwheels,itisnecessaryto
widenthepavementonlowradiuscurves.Wideningisdependentonvehiclegeometry(wheelbase),
lanewidthandcurveradius.Wideningshouldbeappliedinbothdirectionsoftraveltoproducethelane
widthofthecircularcurveasshowninTable815.
Table815.MinimumLaneWidthonCurves
Radius(m) LaneWidth(m)
125300 4.5
300400 4.0
Morethan400 Normalwidth

8.6 VerticalAlignment
Thehighwayverticalalignmentiscontrolledby:Topography,trafficvolumesandoperating
characteristics,highwayclassification,safety,sightdistance,designspeed,horizontalalignment,
drainage,accesstoadjacentpropertiesandcost.Whereahighwaycrossesawaterway,thevertical
profileofthehighwaymustbeconsistentwiththedesignfloodfrequency.
8.6.1 Grades
Table816presentstherecommendeddesirableandmaximumhighwaygrades.Flattergradesshould
beusedwherepossible.Onalongascendinggradeitispreferabletoplacethesteepestgradeatthe
bottomandflattenthegradenearthetop.
Table816.RecommendedMaximumGrades
Atgradeseparatedinterchanges,themaximumgradefortheonandofframpsmaybeupto2%greater
thanthecorrespondingmaximumgradepermittedonthemainline.
FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION U/R TERRAIN 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
LEVEL .. .. .. .. .. 4 4 3 3 3
ROLLI NG .. .. .. .. .. 5 5 5 4 4
FREEWAY/ URBAN MOUNTAI NOUS .. .. .. .. .. 6 6 6 5 ..
EXPRESSWAY LEVEL .. .. .. .. .. 4 4 3 3 3
ROLLI NG .. .. .. .. .. 5 5 5 4 4
RURAL MOUNTAI NOUS .. .. .. .. .. 6 6 6 5 ..
LEVEL .. .. 8 7 6 6 5 5 .. ..
ROLLI NG .. .. 9 8 7 7 6 6 .. ..
ARTERIAL URBAN MOUNTAI NOUS .. .. 11 10 9 9 8 8 .. ..
LEVEL .. .. .. 5 5 4 4 3 3 3
ROLLI NG .. .. .. 6 6 5 5 4 4 4
RURAL MOUNTAI NOUS .. .. .. 8 7 6 6 6 5 5
LEVEL 9 9 9 9 8 7 7 7 5 ..
ROLLI NG 12 12 11 10 9 8 8 8 6 ..
COLLECTOR URBAN MOUNTAI NOUS 14 13 12 12 11 10 10 10 7 ..
LEVEL 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 5 4 ..
ROLLI NG 10 10 9 8 8 7 7 6 5 ..
RURAL MOUNTAI NOUS 12 11 10 10 10 9 9 8 6 ..
LEVEL
ROLLI NG
LOCAL URBAN MOUNTAI NOUS
LEVEL 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 5 .. ..
ROLLI NG 11 11 10 10 9 8 7 6 .. ..
RURAL MOUNTAI NOUS 16 15 14 13 12 10 10 .. .. ..
GRADEMAYBE1%STEEPERTHANTABLEVALUES.FORLOWVOLUMERURALHIGHWAYS,
DESIGNSPEED(KM/H)
SEENOTE4
ab e 8 6 CO U G S
Notes:1.FORGRADESOFLENGTHLESSTHAN150mANDFOR1WAYDOWNGRADES,THEMAXIMUM
4.GRADESSHOULDBEASFLATASISCONSISTENTWITHTHESORROUNDINGTERRAINANDLANDUSEINTHEAREA.
INRESIDENTIALAREAS,THEMAXIMUMGRADESHOULDBE15%INCOMMERCIALANDINDUSTRIALAREAS
WHERETRUCKUSEISEXPECTED,THEMAXIMUMGRADESHOULDBE8%ANDDESIRABLY5%.
GRADESMAYBE2%STEEPER.
2.INURBANAREAS,GRADES1%STEEPERMAYBEUSEDFOREXTREMECASESWHERE(A)EXISTINGDEVELOPMENT
PRECLUDESUSINGFLATTERGRADES,OR(B)1WAYDOWNGRADESINLEVELORROLLINGTERRAIN.
3.GRADESSHOWNFORRURALANDURBANCONDITIONSOFSHORTLENGTH,(LESSTHAN150m),ON1WAY
DOWNGRADESANDONLOWVOLUMERURALCOLLECTORSMAYBE2%STEEPER.

Inadditiontothemaximumgrade,thedesignermustconsiderthelengthofthegrade.Thegradientin
combinationwithitslengthwilldeterminethetruckspeedreductiononupgrades.Theguidelinesgiven
inTable817forthemaximumlengthofsustainedgradearebasedonaspeedreductionfortrucksof15
km/h.
Table817.CriticalGradeLengths
%Upgrade
Max.LengthofGrade
(m)
2 650
3 400
4 280
5 210
6 175
7 150
8andmore 130
MinimumGrade
Theminimumlongitudinalgradesforproperdrainageare:
0.3%forFreeways,ExpresswaysandArterials
0.2%forCollectorsandLocalRoads
8.6.2 VerticalCurves
Verticalcurvesareprovidedatallchangesingrade,exceptasshowninthefollowingTable818:
Table818.MaximumChangeinGradewithoutVerticalCurves
Thecurvatureandlengthofverticalcurvesshallbesuchthattherequiredsightdistancesaremet.
Designcontrolsfortheverticalcurvesaregenerallybasedonthefollowingformula,whereKimpliesthe
rateofcurvatureanditisagoodindicationforproperdrainage:
K=L/A
Where L=lengthofcurve(m)
A=algebraicdifferenceingrades(%)
ComputationsforverticalcurvesareshowninFigures89,810and811.
DESIGNSPEED
(KM/H) 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
MAXIMUMCHANGEIN
GRADEINPERCENT 1.00 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.40 0.30 0.20
g

Figure89.ParabolicVerticalCurves(a)

Figure810.ParabolicVerticalCurves(b)

Figure811.ParabolicVerticalCurves(c)

Theprimarycontrolforcrestverticalcurvesisprovidingadequatestoppingsightdistance.Theprimary
controlforsagverticalcurvesistheheadlightsightdistance,wheretheheightoftheheadlightsis
assumedtobe600millimeters.
Table819showstheminimumKvaluesfordesignasrequiredfortherangeofvaluesofstoppingsight
distancesforeachdesignspeed.
Table819.DesignControlsforCrestandSagVerticalCurves
DesignSpeed
(km/h)
StoppingSightDistance
(m)
RateofVerticalCurvature,K
CrestCurves SagCurves
30 35 2 6
40 50 4 9
50 65 7 13
60 85 11 18
70 105 17 23
80 130 26 30
90 160 39 38
100 185 52 45
120 250 95 63
8.6.3 CombiningHorizontalandVerticalAlignments
Toobtainanadequatealignmentitisimportanttointegratetheverticalandhorizontalgeometry,and
toconsidertheroadasathreedimensionalunit.Asummaryofdesirableandundesirablecombinations
ofalignmentsisprovidedinFigure812andFigure813.

Figure812.SummaryofUndesirableAlignmentCombinations

Figure813.SummaryofDesirableAlignmentCombinations
8.6.4 VerticalClearances
Minimumverticalclearancesareneededatalloverheadstructuresincludingbridges,overheadsigns
andcables,overheadtrafficlightsandsuspendedlighting.Theminimumclearancefornewconstruction
is5.5m.Thisclearanceincludesupto200mmforpavementoverlay,whichmaybeappliedduringthe
roadmaintenance,resultinginaclearanceof5.3mthatmustbemaintainedatalltimes.
Wherearoadpassingunderneaththebridgeisonasagcurve,theheadroomneedstobeincreasedto
allowforthelimitingeffectofthesag.Table820providestheadditionalheadroomvalues.
Table820.AdditionalClearanceforSagCurves
SagKValue
Additional
Headroom(m)
4and5 0.12
6and7 0.08
8and9 0.06
10to12 0.05
13to17 0.04
18to25 0.03
26to50 0.02
51to100 0.01
8.7 CrossSectionElements
8.7.1 General
Thelimitsoftheroadcrosssectionaregovernedbythewidthoftherightofwayavailable,whichis
typicallydeterminedattheplanningstage.Manyfactorsaffectanddeterminetheroadwaytypical

sectionsuchas:designspeed,roadwayclassification,rightofway,trafficvolume,environmentalissues,
existingorproposedutilities,bikers,andsomanyothers.
Thebasicelementsofaroadwaycrosssectionare:
Rightofwaylimits
Borders
DrainageDitches
Sideslopes
Sidewalks
Curbing
Shoulders
TravelLanes
CrossSlopes
Medians
HorizontalClearances
Others:
- ServiceRoads
- AuxiliaryLanes
- Bridges
- Tunnels
8.7.2 TravelLanes
Thenumberoftravellanesisprimarilybasedonacapacityanalysisfortheselecteddesignyear.The
widthofthetravellanewillvaryaccordingtothefunctionalclassofthehighway,trafficvolumes,design
speed,andlevelofdevelopmentaspresentedinTable821A&B.
Table821A.RecommendedRoadwaySectionWidthsFreeways/Expressways
TravelMinimumLane
Width
RightPavedUsable
ShoulderWidth
(Min.)
LeftUsableShoulderw/
4orMoreLanes
DesirableWidth
LeftUsableShoulder
Width(Min.)
3.7m 3.0m 2.44m(3.05m*) 1.22m
*Withtruckvolumesover250vehicles/day
Note: 610mmaddedtousableshoulderwidthforminimumoffsettoverticalelementsover200mmhigh.

Table821B.ArterialsMinimumLaneandShoulderWidths
Roadway
Classification
TravelLane(m)
UsableShoulder(m)
Right Left
Desirable Min. Desirable Min. Min.
Arterial 3.7 3.5 2.44 1.22 1.22
Collector 3.7 3.3 2.44 1.22 N/A
Local 3.7 3.0 1.22 0.61 N/A
Notes:
1. Onlyusedwhenthereisamedian
2. Widthsaretobedeterminedbasedontraffic,pedestrianvolumes,rightofwayrestrictions,andenvironmentalimpacts.
3. Absoluteminimumoffsetbeyondusableshouldertoverticalelementover200mm,orbeyondtravellaneifusable
shouldernotprovidedis0.50m.
4. Serviceroadsorsinglelanelocalroadsaretobe4.0minlanewidth.
5. Atsignalizedintersections,lanewidthsmaybereduced.Theabsoluteminimumis3.0m.
6. Forlanewideningoncurves,seeSection8.5.7ofthismanual.
8.7.3 Shoulders
Theouterusableshoulders(normally1.2to2.44monarterialandlowclassroads,and3.0mon
expresswaysandfreeways)serveseveralfunctions.Theyinclude:
3. Anareaforemergencystoppingwithoutdisruptiontotrafficflow
13. Anareaforevasiveactionandrecovery
14. Improvementstohighwaycapacity,safetyanddrivercomfort
15. Lateralsupportanddrainageforthepavementtokeeppondingawayfromtravellanes
16. Improvementofhorizontalsightdistancesandincreasedlateralclearancestoroadside
appurtenancesandotherobstructions.
17. Providingadditionallanesfordiversionsandspaceforroadmaintenanceoperations
Theusablewidthofshoulderistheactualwidththatcanbeusedwhenadrivermakesanemergency
stop.Asideslopeof1v:6horflattercanbeusedasausableshoulder.Therequiredwidthofusable
shoulderisprovidedinTable821A&B.
Outershouldersmaynotberequiredonurbanundividedordividedroads(otherthanfreewaysand
expressways),becausestructuralsupportisprovidedbythecurbsandchannels,anddisabledvehicles
cangenerallyfindasafeplacetostopindrivewaysandsidestreets.Neverthelesstheiradoptionon
collectorsinindustrialareascanbebeneficial.Atintersections,usableshouldersmaybeeliminatedin
ordertobetterprovideturningmovements.
8.7.4 Curbing
Curbsareusedextensivelyonurbanstreetsandhighways.Generally,theyarenotusedinruralareas,
exceptwithsidewalkswhereverticalbarriercurbisrequired.Curbsserveto:

Controldrainage
Restrictvehiclestothepavementarea
Definepointsofaccesstoabuttingproperties
Verticalcurbsshouldnotbeusedonhighwayswithdesignspeedsofmorethan70km/h.Ifacurbis
necessaryinthiscase,acurbclearanceof0.6mshouldbeaddedtotheoutsidelaneadjacenttocurbed
edges.Wherethereisashoulder,thereisnoneedtoprovideacurbclearance.
8.7.5 Borders,BufferStripsandSidewalks
Theborderistheareaactingasabufferzonebetweentheedgeofpavementandtherightofwayline.
Borderareasseparatethetrafficfrompropertiesabuttingtheroadorhighway.Onsomeroads,
sidewalksareincludedwithintheborderlimits.Inthosecases,aminimum600mmbufferstrip
separatingthesidewalkfromthecurbisdesirable,providedsufficientrightofwayisavailable.
Bordersarecapableofaccommodatingroadsignsandstructures,trafficcontroldevices,trafficsignals,
utilities,lightingandlandscapingfeatures.Thepreferredlocationfortheseappurtenances(utilitypoles,
firehydrants,lighting,andtrafficcontrolboxes)isbeyondthebackofthesidewalk,especiallywhena
travellaneisimmediatelyadjacenttothecurb.
Sidewalksareprovidedwheretheyarejustifiedbypedestrianactivity.Sidewalkwidthvariesaccording
toprojecteduseandavailablerightofway,with2.0mpreferred.Incommerciallydevelopedareas,the
entireareabetweenthecurbandbuildingsisoftenusedasapavedsidewalk.
8.7.6 Medians
Mediansareusedtoseparateopposingtrafficlanesonmultilaneroads.Amedianwillprovidemanyor
allofthefollowingbenefits:
Separationfromopposingtrafficreducingthelikelihoodofaccidentsandimprovingthetrafficflow
characteristics.
Refugeforemergencystops
Areaforcontroloferrantvehicles
Reductioninheadlightglare
AreafordecelerationandstorageofmainlineleftturningandUturningvehicles
Areaforstorageofvehiclescrossingthemainlineatintersection.
Areaforplacementofluminairesupports,trafficsigns,trafficsignals,guardrail,landscaping,and
bridgepiers.
Increaseddrainagecollectionarea
Refugeareaforpedestriansandbicyclists.
Areaforfutureadditionallanes
Mediansmayrangeinwidthfromaslittleas1.2minanurbanareato20mormoreinruralareas.
Medianwidthwilldependonthefollowing:
Functionalclass

Typeofmedian
Rightofwayavailable
Trafficoperationsatcrossingintersections
Safety
Itisrecommendedthaturbanmediansbecurbed.Ruralmediansshouldbeprovidedwitha0.60mor
1.22mshoulderandnotcurbed;adepressedmedianispreferredtoimprovedrainage.Acurbed
median,however,isdesirablewherethereisaneedtocontrolleftturnmovementsandwhenthe
medianistobelandscaped.Ifthemedianiscurbedandpaved,themediansurfaceshouldbedesigned
tohaveslopesof2percent,andshouldfallawayfromthecenterofthemedian.Nonpavedmedians
shouldbedepressedandslopetowardstheinsideat1V:6Hforproperdrainage,butconsideration
shouldbegiventoadditionalstoragecapacityoroutletsforstormconditions.Pavedmediansmay
requireincorporatingdrainagesystemssuchasmanholes,culverts,etc.Alldrainageinletsinthe
medianshouldbedesignedwiththetopflushwiththegroundandsafetygratingsforculvertends.
Table822setsouttheminimumwidthsforcertainfunctionalrequirementsofmedians.
Table822.MinimumMedianWidthsforCertainFunctions(m)
Requirements
AtSignalized
Intersections
Elsewhere
Minimumtoaccommodatesignalheads 1.2to1.6
Minimumcurbedtoseparatetraffic 1 1
Minimumtoaccommodatepedestrians 2.0to3.5 3.5
Minimumtoprovideleftturnlanes 4.2 4.75
MinimumtoprovideUturn n/a 5.0
Minimumforlandscapingprovision n/a 8
Table823providesthetypicalmedianwidthsbasedonroadwayclassifications.
Table823.TypicalMedianWidths(m)
Urban Rural
Min. Desirable Min. Desirable
FreewaysandExpressways 6.0 8.0to10.0 6.0 8.0to10.0
PrimaryArterials 6.0 8.0to10.0 6.0 8.0to10.0*
SecondaryArterials 4.0 6.0 4.0 12.1*
Collectors 2.0 6.0 4.0 6.0
* Considerationforfuturelanewidening

8.7.7 CrossSlopes
Surfacecrossslopesarenecessaryontravellanestofacilitatedrainage.Thisreducesthehazardofwet
pavementsandstandingwater.Onflexiblepavements,travellanesshouldbedesignedforacrossslope
of0.020m/m.Foroutsideshoulders,thecrossslopeistypically0.030m/m.
8.7.8 SideSlopes
Cutandfillslopesshouldbedesignedtoensurethestabilityoftheroadwayandbeasflataspossibleto
enhancethesafetyoftheroadside.Itisstronglyrecommendedthatanadequategeotechnical
investigationbecarriedoutpriortospecifyingtheanglesofsideslopes.Theengineershouldconsider
thefollowingwhenselectingacutorfilldesign:
1. Itisdesirableforfillslopesonhighspeedroadwaystobe1V:6Horflatter.Allsoils(except
possiblywetlandormuchmaterial)arestableatthisrate.Theangleofthesideslopesmust
haveregardtothenatureofthematerialconcerned.Rockcuttingsinmountainousareas,for
example,canbestableatrelativelysteepangles,whereasembankmentsbuiltupfromgranular
materialsrequireshallowangles.
Theslopesaregenerallytraversableat1V:6H.Forfillsgreaterthan5mhighinwetlandsandin
othersensitiveareas,1:2slopes(withguardrail)aretypical.Siteconditionsmayrequireslopes
upto1:1.Sloperetainingtreatmentssuchasgeotextilesshallbeconsideredforthese
situations.
2. Erosionpossibilitiesmustbeminimized.Severalruttedsideslopescancausevehiclerollover
evenonrelativelyflatslopes.Ingoodsoil,turfcanbeestablishedonslopesassteepas1:1.
However,flatterslopesreducetheerosionpotentialandshouldbeusedwherefeasible.All
slopesshallbeplantedwithsufficientvegetationtostabilizetheslope.
3. Wherethehighwaymainlineintersectsadriveway,sideroad,ormediancrossing,the
intersectingslopesneedtobeasflataspossible,preferably1:12orflatter;1:6slopesare
acceptable.
4. Forcutandfillsections,itmaybenecessarytoreducetherequiredrecoverywidthsfor
environmental,cost,rightofwayoraestheticconsiderations.Guardrailshouldbeusedonfill
slopewhererecoveryareaisnotavailable.Incutsections,aditchofsufficientwidthmustbe
providedtomaintaindrainageflowfromthehillside.
5. Sideslopescanexistunderthebackspansofoverheadbridges.Itistypicalforthesesideslopes
tobepaved.Aestheticsandbridgedesignnormallydictatetheslope.Amaximumslopeof1:1
istypicallyused.
8.7.9 DitchSections
Roadsideditchesdivertandremovewaterfromthesurfaceandsubsurfaceoftheroadway.Roadside
ditchescanhaveseveralshapes:V,radial,trapezoidal,orparabolic.Thetrapezoidalditchisthe
preferredshapewhenconsideringsafetyandeaseofdesign,construction,andmaintenance.Figure8
14providesthedesigninformationforatypicaltrapezoidalroadsideditch.Roadwayditchforeslopes
steeperthan1:6arenotdesirableforsafetyreasons.

Figure814.TypicalDitchSection
Notes:
2.Thebottomoftheditchshouldbebelowthebottomofthesubbase.
3.Widthcanbewidertomeethydraulicrequirements.
8.7.10 RightofWayLimits
Therightofwaywidthshouldpermitthedesignofawellbalancedcrosssection,takingintoaccount
theroadclass,theprojectedtrafficflows,topography,thesurroundinglanduses,andanyother
relevantparameters.Thenecessaryrightofwaywidthisthesummationofallcrosssectionelements:
lanes,shoulders,curbs,medians,sidewalks,bufferstrips,clearzones,drainageditches,utility
accommodations,andfrontageroads.Futureroadwaywideningshouldalsobetakeninto
consideration.
Rightofwaywidthshouldbeuniform.Inurbanareas,variablewidthsmaybenecessaryduetothe
existingdevelopment;varyingsideslopesandembankmentheightsmaymakeitdesirabletovaryROW
width;andROWlimitswilllikelyhavetobeadjustedatintersectionsandfreewayinterchanges.Other
specialROWcontrolsareasfollow:
Athorizontalcurvesandintersections,additionalROWacquisitionmaybewarrantedtoensurethat
thenecessarysightdistanceisalwaysavailableinthefuture.
InareaswherethenecessaryROWwidthscannotbeobtained,theengineerwillhavetoconsider
usingsteeperslopes,revisinggrades,orusingsloperetainingtreatments.
Rightofwayshouldbeacquiredandreservedforfutureimprovementssuchasroadwaywidening
andinterchangecompletion.
Temporaryslopeeasementsshouldbeconsideredtominimizepublicownershipofland.
8.7.11 HorizontalClearances
Itisimportantthatstructuresandotherroadsidefeaturesbesetbackadequatelyfromtheedgeofthe
traveledway.Whereadequateclearancescannotbeachieved,thestructureorfeaturewillrequire
protectionbymeansofasafetybarrier.
Thewidthofthenecessaryclearzoneisdependentmainlyonthedesignspeedoftheroad,butalso
variesaccordingtothesideslopeoftheembankment,ifany.Table824showsthevaluesoftheclear
zonewidthfordifferentroadconditions.

Table824.ClearZoneWidth(m)
Design
Speed
(km/h)
Fill
AtGrade
Cut
SideSlope
1:5*
SideSlope
1:6orFlatter
Side
Slope1:6or
Flatter
SideSlope
1:5and1:4
SideSlope
Steeper
Than1:4
60 6 5 5 5 5 5
70 7 6 6 6 5 5
80 8 7 7 7 6 5
90 10 8 8 7 6 5
100 13 10 9 8 7 6
120 15 11 10 9 8 7
140 17 12 11 10 9 8
*Safetybarrierisprovidedwheresideslopeexceeds1:5
Thesedistancesaremeasuredfromthenearestedgeofthetraveledwaytothestructure.Wherethis
clearzonecannotbekeptcompletelyfreefromobstructions,safetybarriersshouldbeprovidedto
protectthedriverfromacollisionwithastructureoranerrantvehicle.
Safetybarriersthemselvesneedtobesetbackfromtheedgeofthetraveledway.
Table825showstherelevantclearances.
Table825.MinimumHorizontalClearancestoSafetyBarriers
DesignSpeed(km/h)
ClearancesofSafety
BarriersfromEdgeof
TraveledWay(m)
50 1
60 1.5
70 1.7
80 2
90 2.2
100 2.5
120 3
140 3.7
8.7.12 Others
8.7.12.1 ServiceRoads
Service(Frontage)Roadsrunparallel,andareconnected,tothemainhighwayinbothruralandurban
areas.Theycontrolaccesstoabuttingproperties,andinurbanareas,theyremovetheroadsidefriction
andparkingfromthemainarterial.Serviceroadscanbecontinuousorintermittent;canbeononeor

bothsides,andcanbeonewayortwoway.Theysegregatethehigherspeedthroughtrafficfromthe
lowerspeedlocaltraffic.
Serviceroadsmayalsoprovideanalternativerouteifmaintenanceisrequiredonthemainline,orin
caseofanemergency.
Thewidthofserviceroadisdependentonthetypeandturningrequirementsofthetrafficexpectedto
useit.Serviceroadconnectionstoarterialsshouldbedesignedasatgradeintersections,whilethose
forhigherclassroadsshouldbedesignedasofframpsandonramps.
TheOuterSeparationbetweentheserviceroadandthemainlineshouldbe2.0minminimumwidth.
Thiswidthshouldincludeanysignsorstreetlighting.Awiderouterseparationthatincludes
landscapingtoenhancetheappearanceoftheroadispreferred.
8.7.12.2 AuxiliaryLanes
Thepurposeoftheauxiliarylanesisoneormoreofthefollowing:
Speedchangelaneusedforeitheraccelerationordeceleration.
Climbinglaneintroducedonsteepupgrades.
Turninglanepermitthosevehiclesnotproceedingaheadtoundertakethenecessarymaneuver
clearofthethrulanes.
Additionalstoragespacerequiredatsomeatgradeintersections.
Amethodofmaintaininglanebalance
Weaving
MorediscussionontheauxiliarylanesisincludedinSection8.8.5.
8.7.12.3 Bridges
Bridgesaredesignedforgradeseparatedintersections,continuousviaductsandcrossingrivers.The
followinggeneralguidelinesareimportantduringbridgedesignphase:
Theengineershouldestablishtheclearancerequirementsandtheapplicabledesignspeeds,
controllinggradesandverticalcurvaturelimitsbeforebeginningpreliminarydesign.
Forpreliminarydesignpurposes,thedepthofthebridgedeckmaybecalculatedasthesumof:
approximately1/8ofthelongestspan,0.3m,crossslopedifference,anddecksurfacing.Asthe
designprogresses,thispreliminaryestimateshouldbereplacedbythedesigneddepthofstructure,
alongwiththeproposedverticalgeometry.
Bridgeswithlongspans,largeskewangles,tapersorsplays,smallradiuscurvature,orlarge
superelevationshouldbeavoided,astheyarelikelytobecostlyanddifficulttoconstruct.Theymay
alsorequireagreaterconstructiondepth.
Thetypicalstandardsoftheapproachingroadwayshouldbeappliedacrossthebridge,ifpossible.
Thebridgehorizontalalignmentshouldbestraight.Ifhorizontalcurvatureisinevitable,thenthe
bridgeshouldbeonacircularcurveratherthanatransition,andtheradiusshouldbeaslargeas
possible.

Theskewangleshouldbelessthan45degrees.
Avoidtapersandflaredends.Ifthisisnotpossible,aimtostartsuchchangesincrosssectionata
pierposition.
Forintermediateandwidemedians,considerhavingtwoseparatestructures.
Bridgesshouldbesetonstraightgrades(6%max.and0.3%min.topermitlongitudinaldrainage)
ratherthanonverticalcurves.Ifthisisnotpossible,crestcurveshouldnotbelessthanK=30.
Avoidsagcurvesonbridgesduetodifficultieswithdrainage.
BridgesshouldhaveSymmetricalspans.Abutmentsshouldbeatthesameelevation.
Edgeofcurbprofilesshouldbethesametoavoidwarpeddeckwhichisdifficulttoconstruct.
Thehorizontalandverticalgeometriesofthebridgeshouldbecoordinated.
Visibilityrequirementsonasagcurveunderneathabridgeshouldalwaysbechecked.
8.7.12.4 Tunnels
TunnelsareexpectedtobedesignedandconstructedinmanylocationsinLibya.Shorterlengthsof
tunnelorunderpassareoftenrequiredandshouldbedesignedusingthenormalparameters.Ifit
provesuneconomictodoso,eachsituationshouldbeconsideredonitsownmerits.Thefollowing
generalguidanceisgiven:
Thetunnelshouldbeasshortandstraightaspossible.
Themainlinetypicalsectionshoulddesirablybecontinuedthroughthetunnel,butinsome
circumstancesitmaynotbeaneconomicalsolution.
Horizontalcurvatureintunnelsrestrictssightdistance.Wideningontheinsideofthecurveis
requiredtomaintainproperSSDanddesignspeed.
Desirableverticalclearanceshouldbemaintainedinsidethetunnel.Ifthisisnotpossible,special
arrangementsmustbemadeforthediversionofoversizedvehiclespriortoreachingthetunnel.
SightenvelopesgiveninSection4shouldbeconsideredforthetunnelasverticalcurvaturecan
restrictvisibility.
GradesfortunnelshouldbeselectedbasedonvaluesgiveninSection6,lightingandventilation
requirements.
Thedesignshouldavoidtheneedfortrafficsignstobeprovidedwithinthetunnel.
Merging,weaving,ordivergingmovementswithinatunnelareundesirable.Onrampsandoff
rampsshouldnotbeprovidedwithintunnels,orfor300moutsidetheendsofthetunnel.
EmergencyandFirealarmpointsaretobeimplementedinthetunnel.

Araisedsidewalk(minimumwidthis0.7m)needstobeprovidedforemergenciesandmaintenance
operations.
8.8 GradeSeparationsandInterchanges
Interchangesandgradeseparationsphysicallyseparatethethroughtrafficmovementsoftwo
intersectinghighways.Theyeliminatedangerouscrossingsandmaybeusedtobypassbusyurban
areas.Interchanges,unlikegradeseparations,provideaccessbetweenthetwohighwaysbyramps.
8.8.1 Warrants
Thegeneralwarrantsforinterchangeandgradeseparationsinclude:
1. DesignDesignationifafullyaccesscontrolledfacilityisprovided,eachintersecting
highwaymustbeterminated,rerouted,providedagradeseparation,orprovidedan
interchange.Aninterchangeshouldbeprovidedonthebasisoftheanticipateddemandfor
accesstotheminorroad.Interchangespacingisalsoafactor.Inurbanareas,ageneralrule
isa1.5kmminimumspacingbetweeninterchangestoallowtheentranceandexit
maneuvers.Closerspacingmayrequirecollectordistributorroadstoremovethemerging
andexistingtrafficfromthemainline.Inruralundevelopedareas,interchangesshouldbe
spacednocloserthan5.0kmapart.
2. CongestionAninterchangemaybewarrantedwherethelevelofserviceofanatgrade
intersectionisunacceptable,andtheintersectioncannotberedesignedtooperateatan
acceptablelevel.
3. SafetyTheaccidentreductionbenefitsofaninterchangemaywarrantitsselectionata
particularlydangerousatgradeintersection.
4. SiteTopographyAtsomesitesthetopographymayallowaninterchangethatwouldcost
lessthanthatofanatgradeintersection.
5. RoadUserBenefitsInterchangessignificantlyreducethetraveltimeandcostswhen
comparedtoatgradeintersections.Therefore,ifananalysisrevealsthatroaduserbenefits
overtheservicelifeoftheinterchangewillexceedthecosts,thentheinterchangewillbe
warranted.
6. TrafficVolumeInterchangesaredesirableatcrossstreetswithheavytrafficvolumes.The
eliminationofconflictsduetohighcrossingvolumegreatlyimprovesthemovementof
traffic.
8.8.2 InterchangeTypes
8.8.2.1 ThreeLeg
Threeleginterchanges,alsoknownasTorYinterchangesareprovidedwheremajorhighwaysbeginor
end.Figure815illustratesexamplesofthreeleginterchangeswithseveralmethodsofproviding
turningmovements.

Figure815.ThreeLegInterchanges
8.8.2.2 Diamond
Diamondinterchangesuseonewaydiagonalrampsineachquadrantwithtwoatgradeintersections
providedontheminorroad.Thediamondisusuallythebestchoiceofinterchangewherethe
intersectionroadisnotaccesscontrolled.Theadvantagesofdiamondinterchangesinclude:
1. Alltrafficcanenterandexitthemainlineatrelativelyhighspeeds.Adequatesightdistance
canusuallybeprovidedandoperationalmaneuversarenormallysimple.
2. Relativelylittlerightofwayisrequired
3. Allexitsfromthemainlinearemadebeforereachingthestructure
4. Leftturningmaneuversrequirelittleextratraveldistance

5. Thediamondinterchangeallowsmodificationstoprovidegreaterrampcapacity,ifneeded
inthefuture.
Figure816illustratesaschematicofatypicaldiamondinterchange.
Figure816.TypicalDiamondInterchange(Schematic)
8.8.2.3 Cloverleafs
Cloverleafinterchangesareusedatfourlegintersectionswithlooprampstoaccommodateleftturn
movements.Fullcloverleafinterchangesarethosewithloopsinallfourquadrants;allotherarepartial
cloverleafs.
Wheretwoaccesscontrolledhighwaysintersect,afullcloverleafistheminimumtypedesign
interchangethatwillsuffice.However,theseinterchangesintroduceseveralundesirableoperational
featuressuchas:
Thedoubleexitsandentrancesfromthemainline
Theweavingbetweenenteringandexitingvehicleswiththemainlinetraffic

Thelengthytraveltimeanddistanceforleftturningvehicles
Figure817providestypicalexamplesoffullcloverleafswithandwithoutCDroads.
Figure817.FullCloverleafs

Partialcloverleafsareappropriatewhererightofwayrestrictionsprecluderampsinoneormore
quadrants.Figure818illustratessixexamplesofpartialcloverleafs.Intheseexamples,thedesirable
featureisthatnoleftturnmovementsaremadeontothemajorroad.
Figure818.PartialCloverleafArrangements
8.8.2.4 GradeSeparatedRoundabouts
Agradeseparatedroundaboutinvolvesaconventionallayoutthatwouldhelpinmanagingqueueson
offramps.Figure819illustratestwoexamplesofagradeseparatedroundabout.

Figure819.GradeseparatedRoundabout
Arrangement(A)istheSimpleformofintersection,usingtwobridgesandalargerotarypavement.
Whentrafficvolumesincrease,thereisadequatespacetopermittheintroductionofsignalstothe
roundaboutentries,andtofurtherincreasecapacitybymodestwideningontheapproaches.
Athighervolumesstill,arrangement(B)canbeadopted.Thislayout,knownasathreelevel
roundabout,takesthecrosstrafficonadirectramp,leavingtheroundabouttohandleonlyturning
traffic.Suchalayoutcanbeintroducedincrementallyifthemedianofthecrossrouteisconstructedat
theoutsetwithawidthsufficienttoaccommodatethefutureflyover.Morediscussiononroundabouts
isincludedinSection8.12.
8.8.3 InterchangeAnalysis
Interchangesareexpensive,anditisnecessarytodevelopandstudyseveralalternativesindepth.Each
alternativeshouldbeevaluatedonthebasisofitscost,safety,capacity,operation,andcompatibility
withthesurroundinghighwaysystem.
8.8.3.1 CapacityandLevelofService
Aninterchangemustaccommodatetheanticipatedtrafficvolumes.TheyaredesignedusingtheDesign
HourVolumes(DHV)asdescribedinSection8.2.Thecapacityandlevelofserviceforaninterchange
willdependupontheoperationofitsindividualelementsalongwiththeinteractionandcoordinationof
eachoftheseelementsintheoveralldesign.
1. Basicfreewaysectionwhereinterchangesarenotpresent.
2. Freewayrampjunctionsorterminals
3. Weavingareas
4. Rampproper
5. Ramp/Minorroadintersection

Itshouldbenotedthatthepracticalcapacityofasinglelaneloopliesintherange800passengercars
perhour(pc/h)to1200pc/h.Loopsrarelyoperateastwolanepavements,regardlessoftheirwidth,
andingeneral,theyshouldnotbedesignedtodosobecauseofthedifficultiesindesigningproperramp
terminalsandfordriverdiscomfortreasons.Ingeneral,therefore,thenaDHVofaround1000pc/h
appliestotheonewayturningmovementinonequadrantofaninterchange,seriousconsideration
shouldbegiventotheadoptionofaformofconnectionotherthanaloop.
8.8.3.2 SelectionofInterchangeType
Freewayinterchangesareoftwogeneraltypes.Asystemsinterchangewillconnectfreewayto
freeway;aserviceinterchangewillconnectafreewaytoalesserfacility.Onceseveralalternative
interchangedesignshavebeendeveloped,theycanbeevaluatedconsidering:
1. Compatibilitywiththesurroundinghighwaysystem
2. Uniformityofexitandentrancepatterns
3. Capacityandlevelofservice
4. Operationalcharacteristics(singleversusdoubleexits,weaving,signing)
5. Roaduserimpacts(traveldistanceandtime,safety,convenienceandcomfort)
6. Constructionandmaintenancecosts
7. Rightofwayimpactsandavailability,and
8. EnvironmentalImpacts
8.8.4 TrafficLanePrinciples
8.8.4.1 BasicNumberofLanesandFreewayLaneDrops
Thebasicnumberoflanesistheminimumnumberoflanesneededoverasignificantlengthofa
highwaybasedontheoverallcapacityneedsofthatsection.Thenumberoflanesshouldremain
constantovershortdistances.
Freewaylanedrops,wherethebasicnumberoflanesisdecreased,mustbefullydesigned.Theyshould
occuronthefreewaymainlineawayfromanyotheractivity,suchasinterchangeexitsandentrances.
Thefollowingrecommendationsareimportantwhendesigningafreewaylanedrop:
1. LocationThelanedropshouldoccurapproximately6001000mbeyondtheprevious
interchange.Thisdistanceallowsadequatesigningandadjustmentsfromtheinterchange,
butyetisnotsofardownstreamthatdriversbecomeaccustomedtothenumberoflanes
andaresurprisedbythelanedrop.Inaddition,alaneshouldnotbedroppedona
horizontalcurveorwhereothersigningisrequired,suchasforanupcomingexit.
2. SightDistanceThelanedropshouldbelocatedsothatthesurfaceoftheroadwaywithin
thetransitionremainsvisibleforitsentiredistance.Thisfavorsplacingalanedropwithina
sagverticalcurveratherthanjustbeyondacrest.Decisionsightdistancetotheroadway
surfaceisdesirable.

3. TransitionThedesirabletaperrateis100:1forthetransitionatthelanedrop.The
minimumis70:1.
4. RightSideVersusLeftSideDropAllfreewaylanedropsmustbeontherightside,unless
specificsiteconditionsgreatlyfavoraleftsidelanereduction.
5. SigningMotoristsmustbewarnedandguidedintothelanereduction.Advancesigning
andpavementmarkingsshouldbeimplemented.
8.8.5 LaneBalance
Torealizeefficienttrafficoperationthroughandbeyondaninterchange,thereshouldbeabalancein
thenumberoftrafficlanesonthefreewayandramps.Designtrafficvolumesandacapacityanalysis
determinethebasicnumberoflanestobeusedonthehighwayandtheminimumnumberoflaneson
theramps.Variationsintrafficdemandshouldbeaccommodatedbymeansofauxiliarylaneswhere
needed.
Afterthebasicnumberoflanesisdeterminedforeachroadway,thebalanceinthenumberoflanes
shouldbecheckedonthebasisofthefollowingprinciples:
1. Atentrances,thenumberoflanesbeyondthemergingoftwotrafficstreamsshouldnotbe
lessthanthesumofalltrafficlanesonthemergingroadways,minusone.
2. Atexits,thenumberofapproachlanesonthehighwaymustbeequaltothenumberof
lanesonthehighwaybeyondtheexitplusthenumberoflanesontheexit,lessone.There
isoneexceptiontheshortlengthofauxiliarylanethatexistsonacloverleafinterchange
betweentheonloopentranceandtheoffloopexit.Inthiscase,thenumberofupstream
lanesmaybethesameasthesumofthedownstreamlanes.
3. Thetraveledwayofthehighwayshouldbereducedbynotmorethanonetrafficlaneata
time.
Figure820illustratesthetypicaltreatmentofthefourlanefreewaywithatwolaneexitfollowedbya
twolaneentrance.

Figure820.CoordinationofLaneBalanceandBasicNumberofLanes
8.8.5.1 AuxiliaryLanes
AsbrieflydiscussedinSection8.7.12,anauxiliarylaneisdefinedastheportionoftheroadwayadjoining
thetraveledwayforparking,speedchange,turning,storage,weaving,truckclimbing,andother
supplementarytothroughtrafficmovement.Anauxiliarylanemaybeprovidedtocomplywiththe
conceptoflanebalance,tocomplywithcapacityrequirementsinthecaseofadversegrades,orto
accommodatespeedchanges,weaving,andmaneuveringofenteringandleavingtraffic.Where
auxiliarylanesareprovidedalongfreewaymainlanes,theadjacentshoulderwoulddesirablybe2.0mto
3.7minwidth.
Auxiliarylanesmaybeaddedtosatisfycapacityandweavingrequirementsbetweeninterchangesandto
accommodatetrafficpatternsvariationsatinterchanges.Theprinciplesoflanebalancemustalwaysbe
appliedintheuseofauxiliarylanes.Whereinterchangesarecloselyspacedinurbanareas,the
accelerationlanefromanentrancerampshouldbeextendedtothedecelerationlaneofadownstream
exitramp.
Figure821showsalternativesindroppingauxiliarylanes.

Figure821.AlternativesinDroppingAuxiliaryLanes
8.8.6 Freeway/RampJunctions
8.8.6.1 ExitRamps
Exitrampsareonewayroadwaysthatallowtraffictoexitfromthefreewaytoprovideaccesstoother
crossinghighways.Theyareprovidedforallhighwayswhichintersectafreewaywherethewarrantsfor
aninterchangearesatisfied.
DecelerationLanes
Sufficientdecelerationdistanceisneededtoallowanexitingvehicletoleavethefreewaymainline
safelyandcomfortably.Alldecelerationshouldoccurwithinthefullwidthofthedecelerationlane.The

lengthofthedecelerationlanewilldependuponthedesignspeedofthemainlineandthedesignspeed
ofthefirst(orcontrolling)curveontheexitramp.Inaddition,ifcompoundcurvatureisused,there
shouldbesufficientdecelerationinadvanceofeachsuccessivelysharpercurve.
Decelerationlanescanbethetapertypeortheparallellanetype,withtheparalleltypepreferred.Itis
necessaryforafulldecelerationlanetobedevelopedandvisiblymarkedwellaheadofthegorearea.
Exitrampsdivergefromthemainlineatananglebetween2and5.Theparametersareshownin
Figures822thru825.
Figure822.TaperTypeExitRamp(1Lane)

Figure823.ParallelTypeExitRamp(1Lane)

Figure824.TaperTypeExitRamp(2LanewithLaneDrop)

Figure825.ParallelTypeExitRamp(2LanewithoutLaneDrop)
Figure826providesthedecelerationdistanceforvariouscombinationsofhighwaydesignspeedsand
exitcurvedesignspeeds.Decelerationlanesaremeasuredfromthepointwherethelanereaches

3.75mwidetothepaintednoseforparalleltypesandthefirstcontrollingcurvefortapertypes.
Greaterdistancesshouldbeprovidedifpractical.Ifthedecelerationlaneisonagradeof3%ormore,
thelengthofthelaneshouldbeadjustedaccordingtothecriteriainTable826.
Figure826.MinimumDecelerationLengthsforExitTerminalswithGradesof2%orLess
Superelevation
Thesuperelevationatanexitrampmustbedevelopedtotransitionthedriverproperlyfromthe
mainlinetothecurvatureattheexit.Theprinciplesofsuperelevationforopenhighways,asdiscussed

inSection5,shouldbeappliedtotheexitdesign.Thefollowingcriteriaapply:
1. Themaximumsuperelevationrateis0.06meter/mete
2. Preferably, full superelevation (0.06 m/m) is achieved at the PCC at the gore nose. However,
thisissubjecttotheminimumlongitudinalslopesinSection8.6.1.
3. Thepavedpartofthegoreisnormallyslopedata0.03m/mrate.
8.8.6.2EntranceRamps
Entrance ramps are oneway roadways that allow traffic from crossing highways to enter a freeway.
Theyareprovidedforallhighwaysthatintersectafreewaywherethewarrantsforaninterchangeare
satisfied.
AccelerationLanes
Aproperlydesignedaccelerationlanewillfacilitatedrivercomfort,trafficoperations,andsafety.The
lengthoftheaccelerationlanewillprimarilydependuponthedesignspeedofthelast(orcontrolling)
curveontheentrancerampandthedesignspeedofthemainline.Typicallayouts,showinggeometric
parameters,aregiveninFigures827thru830.Wherelanegainisindicated,theauxiliarylanemaybe
mergedwiththenearsidelaneafterafurtherdistanceof400m,usingataperrateof1:50fordesign
speedsof100km/handbelow,or1:70forhigherspeedroads.
Figure827.TaperTypeEntranceRamp(1Lane)


Figure828.ParallelTypeEntranceRamp(1Lane)


Figure829.TaperTypeEntranceRamp(2LanewithLaneGain)


Figure830.ParallelTypeEntranceRamp(2LanewithLaneGain)

Figure 8-31 provides the data for minimum lengths of acceleration lanes. These lengths are for the full
width of the acceleration lane, and are measured from the end of the painted nose for parallel types, and
from the end of the last controlling curve on taper types, to a point where the full 3.75 meter lane width is
achieved. Taper lengths, typically 100 meters, are in addition to the table lengths. Where grades of 3%
or more occur on the acceleration lane, adjustments should be made in its length according to Table 8-
26.


Figure831.MinimumAccelerationLengthsforEntranceTerminalsWithGradesof2%orLess


Table826.SpeedChangeLaneAdjustmentFactorsasaFunctionofGrade
Design
Speedof
Highway
(km/h)
DecelerationLanes
RatioofLengthonGradetoLengthfor
DesignSpeedofTurningCurve(km/h)
AllSpeeds
3to4%Upgrade
0.9
3to4%Downgrade
1.2
AllSpeeds
5to6%Upgrade
0.8
5to6%Upgrade
1.35
Design
Speedof
Highway
(km/h)
AccelerationLanes
RatioofLengthonGradetoLengthfor
DesignSpeedofTurningCurve(km/h)
40 50 60 70 80 AllSpeeds
3to4%Upgrade 3to4%Downgrade
60 1.3 1.4 1.4 0.7
70 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 0.65
80 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.65
90 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6
100 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
110 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
120 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
5to6%Upgrade 5to6%Downgrade
60 1.5 1.5 0.6
70 1.5 1.6 1.7 0.6
80 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 0.55
90 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.55
100 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.5
110 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.5
120 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.5 0.5

Superelevation
Therampsuperelevationshouldbegraduallytransitionedtomeetthenormalcrossslopeofthe
mainline.Theprinciplesofsuperelevationforopenhighways,asdiscussedinSection8.5,shouldbe
appliedtotheentrancedesign.Thefollowingcriteriashouldbeused:
1. Themaximumsuperelevationrateis0.06.
2. Preferably,thecrossslopeoftheaccelerationlanewillequalthecrossslopeofthethrough
land(0.02m/m)atthePToftheflathorizontalcurveneartheentrancegore.
3. ThesuperelevationtransitionshouldnotexceedtheminimumlongitudinalslopesinTable
814.
8.8.6.2 WeavingAreas
Weavingoccurswhereonewaytrafficstreamscrossbymerginganddivergingmaneuvers.This
frequentlyoccurswithinaninterchangeorbetweentwocloselyspacedinterchanges.Figure832
illustratesasimpleweavediagramandthelengthoverwhichaweavingdistanceismeasured.
Figure832.WeavingSections
Iftheweaveareaisonafreeway,includingweavingatcloverleafinterchanges,orifthesiteconditions
willnotallowthenecessarydistance,acollectordistributorroadshouldbeprovided.
8.8.6.3 CollectorDistributorRoads
CollectorDistributor(CD)Roadsareprovidedasameansofeliminatingweavingonthemainline.They
arenormallyfoundwithinaninterchange,butmaybeconsideredforusebetweeninterchangesif

weavingdifficultiesareanticipated.CDroadsareatleasttwolanesinwidth,andgenerallyadopta
designspeed10km/hto20km/hlessthanthatofthemainline.
CDroadsshouldbeconsideredforallcloverleafinterchanges,whichinherentlygeneratesignificant
weavingmovements.Whendesignweavingvolumesexceed1000pc/h,CDroadsshouldalwaysbe
provided.
8.8.7 CapacityandLevelofService
Factorsthatwillaffectthetrafficoperationconditionsatfreeway/rampjunctionsare:
1. Accelerationanddecelerationdistances
2. Sightdistance
3. Horizontalandverticalcurvatureatthejunction
4. Mergeanddivergevolumes
5. Freewayvolumes
Figure833illustratesseveralrampconfigurationswithatableshowingthevolumeswhichcanbe
accommodatedatarampjunctionforagivenlevelofservice.

Figure833.CapacityofRampConfigurations
8.8.7.1 MajorForksandBranchConnections
Majorforksarewhereafreewayorexpresswayseparatesintotwofreewaysorexpressways.Figure8
34illustratesthreeschematicsforamajorfork.Itisimportantthatoneinteriorlanehasanoptiontogo
ineitherdirection.Thisinteriorlaneshouldbewidenedoveradistanceofabout300550m.
Branchconnectionsarewheretwofreewaysconvergeintoonefreeway.Figure835illustratestwo
schematicsforabranchconnection.Whenalaneisdropped,asinB,thisshouldbedesignedasa
freewaylanedrop(seeFigure821)

Figure834.MajorForks
Figure835.BranchConnections

8.8.8 RampDesign
8.8.8.1 DesignSpeed
Ideally,therampdesignspeedwillapproximatethelowvolumerunningspeedontheintersecting
highways.Wherethisisnotpractical,thevaluesinTable827shouldbeusedastheminimumdesign
speed.Thesedesignspeedsapplytotherampproperandnottothefreeway/rampjunction.Ifthetwo
intersectingmainlineshavedifferentdesignspeeds,thehigherofthetwoshouldcontrolattheentrance
totheramp.However,therampdesignspeedshouldvary;theportionoftherampnearerthelower
speedhighwayisdesignedforthelowerspeed.Thereare3connectiontypes:
Freeflowlinksconnectthetwoalignmentsdirectly,turningthroughgenerallysmallangles.
Rampsconnectfromarampterminalononealignmenttoanatgradeintersectionontheother,
andviceversa.
Loopsarealsofreeflowbetweenthetwoalignments,buttypicallyturnthroughanangleof
around270degrees.
Table827.DesignSpeedsforConnectingRoadways
MainlineDesignSpeed
(km/h)
DesignSpeedforConnectingRoadway(km/h)
FreeflowLinks Ramps Loops
50 n/a 50 30
60 n/a 50 40
70 n/a 50 40
80 70 60 50
90 70 60 50
100 80 70 50*
120 100 80 50*
140 120 90 **
* HigherDesignSpeedsmaybeappropriateinruralareas.
**Loopsona140km/hdesignspeedroadshouldalwaysbeaccessedviaaCDroadwithalowerdesignspeed.
8.8.8.2 CrossSection
Thefollowingwillapplytotherampcrosssection:
1. RampWidthRampswithadesignspeedofmorethan60km/hshouldhavearight
shoulderof2.4to3.0mand3.0to1.8mleftshoulder.Fortheotherramps,thesumofthe
rightandleftshoulderwidthsshouldnotexceed3.6m,withashoulderwidthof0.6to1.2m
ontheleftandtheremainderastherightshoulder.Theminimumwidthis7mforonelane
rampsand9mfortwolaneramps.
2. CrossSlopeTangentsectionsoframpsshouldbeuniformlyslopedat0.02meter/meter
fromthemedianedgetotheoppositeedge.Themaximumsuperelevationis0.06m/m.

3. SideSlopesFillandcutslopesshouldbeasflataspossible.Iffeasible,theyshouldbe1:6
orflatterthuseliminatingtheneedforguardrail.
4. BridgesandUnderpassesThefullwidthoftheramporloopshouldbecarriedovera
bridgeorbeneathanunderpass.
5. LateralClearancestoObstructionsBestpracticecallsforthelateralclearancefromthe
edgeofthetravellanetobeequaltoitsclearzone,asdeterminedfromthecriteriain
Section7.
6. ExitRampsWherethethroughlaneandexitrampdiverge,thetypicalwidthwillbe
7.75m.Thiswillbemaintaineduntilthegorenoseisreachedandtransitionedtothe
standard7meterwidthatapproximatelya12:1rate.
7. EntranceRampsThestandard7meterwidthwillbetransitionedto5mwidthatthe
convergencewiththethroughlane.
8.8.8.3 HorizontalAlignment
Horizontalalignmentwilllargelybedeterminedbythedesignspeedandtypeoframp.Thefollowing
shouldbeconsidered:
1. Table828showstheminimumrampradiirequiredfortherampdesignspeed.Ramps
shouldbedesignedfor50km/horgreaterunlessrestrictedbysiteconditions.
Table828.MinimumRadiiforIntersectionCurves
Design(Turning)SpeedV(km/h) 15 20 30 40 50 60
SideFrictionFactor,f 0.40 0.35 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.17
AssumedMinimume 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Totale+f 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.25
CalculatedMin.Radius(m) 5 9 24 47 79 113
SuggestedMin.Radius
CurveforDesign(m)
7 10 25 50 80 115
AverageRunningSpeed(km/h) 15 20 28 35 42 51
Note: Fordesignspeedsofmorethan60km/h,usevaluesforopenhighwayconditions.
2. OuterConnectionTheouterconnectionatcloverleafinterchangesshouldbeas
directionalaspossible.However,ifsiteconditionsarerestrictive,itmaybeallowedto
followareversepathalignmentaroundtheinnerloop.
3. LoopsLooprampsshouldbeonacontinuouslycurvedalignmentinaspiralor
compoundcurvearrangement.
4. TwoLaneRampsTheminimumradiusis100m.

8.8.8.4 VerticalAlignment
Theminimumgradeis0.50%.GeneralvaluesoflimitinggradientforupgradesareshowninTable829,
butforanyoneramptheselectedgradientisdependentuponanumberoffactors.Thesefactors
includethefollowing:
1. Theflatterthegradientontheramp,thelongeritwillbe.
2. Thesteepestgradientsshouldbedesignedforthecenterpartoftheramp.Landingareasor
storageplatformsatatgradeintersectionswithrampsshouldbeasflataspossible.
3. Downgradesonrampsshouldfollowthesameguidelinesasupgrades.Theymay,however,
safelyexceedthesevaluesby2%with8%consideredthedesiredmaximumgrade.
4. Kvaluesanddesirablestoppingsightdistanceshouldbetheminimumdesignforvertical
curves.
Table829.RampGradientGuidelines
RampDesignSpeed(km/h)
30to40 40to50 60 70to80
MaximumDesirableGradeRange(%) 68 57 46 35
8.8.8.5 Capacity
Table830providesthevolumesforagivenrampdesignspeedandlevelofservice.1500pc/hshould
beusedasathresholdtowarrantatwolaneramp.Theminimumradiusofatwolanerampshouldbe
100m.Thecapacityofalooprampisabout1250pc/h;however,twolanerampsareundesirable
becauseoftheirrestrictivegeometry.Therefore,ifaleftturnmovementwillexceed1250,adirectional
orsemidirectionalconnectionmaybeneeded.Rampsmustbedesignedwithsufficientcapacityto
avoidbackupsonthemainline.
Table830.ServiceVolumesforSingleLaneRamps(PeakHourFactor=1.00;ValuesinPassengerCarsperHour)
LevelofService
RampDesignSpeed(km/h)
30 3050 5070 7080 80
A ** ** ** ** 700
B ** ** ** 1000 1050
C ** ** 1125 1250 1300
D ** 1025 1200 1325 1500
E 1250 1450 1600* 1650* 1700*
F WidelyVariable
* For2laneramps,multiplyabovevaluesby 1.7for30km/h
1.8For3050,7080km/h
1.9For5070km/h
2.0For80km/h
**Levelofservicenotachievableduetorestricteddesignspeed

8.8.9 SpacingofRampTerminals
8.8.9.1 PossibleArrangements
Therearefourpossibilitieswhenconsideringtwoadjacentrampterminals:
(1) Bothareexits
(2) Bothareentries
(3) Thefirstisanexit,thesecondanentry
(4) Thefirstisanentry,thesecondanexit
8.8.9.2 Exit/Exit
Table831showsminimumdistances,measuredfromonepaintednosetothenext.
Table831.MinimumSpacingbetweenSuccessiveExits
MinimumDistanceFrom
PrecedingExitNose(m)
Freeways/
Expressways
Arterials/
Collectors/
CDRoads
Alongthemainlane 300 250
Onarampor
connectingroadway
Inafreeflow
interchange
250
inother
interchange
180
8.8.9.3 Entry/Entry
Whentwotrafficstreamsjoin,thisgenerallyproducesanareaof"turbulence"foradistance
downstream.Asubsequententrythereforeneedstobelocatedfarenoughdownstreamtoavoidthis
unstablearea.Table832showstherecommendedspacing.
Table832.MinimumSpacingbetweenSuccessiveEntries
MinimumDistanceFrom
PrecedingExitNose(m)
Freeways/
Expressways
Arterials/
Collectors/
CDRoads
Alongthemainlane 300 250
Onarampor
connectingroadway
Inafreeflow
interchange
250
inother
interchange
180

8.8.9.4 Exit/Entry
Thisisthesafestofthefourlayouts,andthisisreflectedintheshorterdistancesshowninTable833.
Table833.MinimumSpacingbetweenanExitandanEntry
MinimumDistanceFromPrecedingExitNose(m)
FreewayExpressway
Arterials/Collectors/
CDRoads
150 120
8.8.9.5 Entry/Exit
Thisisthemostcomplexofthefourlayouts,asweavingoftrafficstreamsgenerallyoccurs.Three
considerationsapply:
(1) Thereisaminimumdistancebetweennosestoensuresafeoperationevenundervery
lightflowconditionsthisistheminimumspacing.
(2) Thereisaminimumdistancebetweennosestopermitthetrafficstreamsinthedesign
yeartocrosseachothersafetythisistheweavinglength.
(3) Thereisaspacingbeyondwhichweavingisconsiderednottobearelevantfactorthis
istheupperboundforweaving.
Considerations1and3arepurelygeometricandtherelevantvaluesaregiveninTable834.
Consideration2isdeterminedbythevolumesofweavingtraffic,andisdealtwithinSection8.8.6.
Table834.SpacingCriteriaforEntry/Exit
DistancefromPrecedingEntryNose(m)
MinimumSpacing Upperbound
Freeways/
Expressways
Arterials/
Collectors/
CDRoads
ForClover
LeafLoops
AllTypes
Leadingto,orleading
from,freeflow
interchange
600 480 Theminimumis
dependenton
thegeometric
designofthe
cloverleafloops
3000
Betweentwo
other
interchange
480 300 2000
8.8.10 Appendices
StandardDesignsforFreeway/MinorRoadInterchanges(CloverleafandDiamond),Figure836through
Figure844.

Figure836.FreewayExitatInterchange
(ViaOuterConnectionofCloverleafTypeRamp)

Figure837.FreewayExitatInterchange(FromInnerLoopCloverleafTypeRamp)

Figure838.FreewayExitatDiamondInterchange

Figure839.FreewayEntranceatInterchange
(FromOuterConnectionCloverleafTypeRamp)

(FromInnerLoopCloverleafTypeRamp)

(DiamondTypeRamps)

Figure842.FreewayEntranceExitatInterchange
(InnerLoopEntranceInnerLoopExitofCloverleafTypeRamp)

Figure843.ExitatInterchange
(PartialCloverleafTypeRamp)

Figure844.DiamondRamps
(MinorRoadwayExitsandEntrances)

8.9 SummaryofDesignParameters
Thefollowingsectionssummarizethekeygeometricparametersrelatingtopreferreddesignspeedsfor
allroadwayclassifications.
8.9.1 LocalRoadsandStreets
Table834.SummaryofGeometricParametersforLocalRoadsandStreets
GeometricParameter
Rural
LocalRoad
Urban
MajorLocal
Street
MinorLocal
Street
Traffic
Calmed
Layout
PreferredDesignSpeed(km/h) 60 50 40 30
StoppingSightDistance(m)(levelroad) 85 65 50 35
MinimumHorizontalRadius(m)
150
(e=4%)
110
(e=2%)
70
(e=2%)
40*
(e=2%)
MaximumSuperelevation(%) 4 2 2 2
MaximumLongitudinalGrade(%) 8 8 10 10
MinimumLongitudinalGrade(%) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
MinimumSagCurveKvalue 18 13 9 6
MinimumCrestCurveKvalue 11 7 4 2
MinimumVerticalClearance(m) 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
*Lowerradiiarepermissibleforspeedlimitingbends

Figure845.TypicalSectionforLocalRoadsandStreets
1way,1laneLocalStreetwithParallelParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW40')

Figure846. TypicalSectionforLocalRoadsandStreets
2way2laneLocalStreetwithParallelParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW60')

Figure847.TypicalSectionforLocalRoadsandStreets
2way2laneLocalStreetwithParallel/AngledParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW80')

8.9.2 Collectors
Table835.SummaryofGeometricParametersforCollectors
GeometricParameter Rural Urban
PreferredDesignSpeed(km/h) 80 60
StoppingSightDistance(m)(levelroad) 130 85
SafePassingSightDistance(m)(levelroad) 540 410*
MinimumHorizontalRadius(m)(fore=4%) 280 150
MaximumSuperelevation(%) 6 4
MaximumLongitudinalGrade(%) 6 6
MinimumLongitudinalGrade(%) 0.2 0.2
MinimumSagCurveKvalue 30 18
MinimumCrestCurveKvalue 26 11
MinimumVerticalClearance(m) 5.5 5.5
*Itisrarelynecessarytoprovidesafepassingsightdistanceonanurbancollector.

Figure848.TypicalSectionforCollectors
2way2laneCollectorwithParallelParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW80')

2way4laneCollectorwithParallelParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW125')


2way2laneCollectorRural(ROW80')

8.9.S Aiteiials
Table836.SummaryofGeometricParametersforArterials
GeometricParameter Rural
Urban
Generally InCBD*
PreferredDesignSpeed(km/h) 100 100 80
StoppingSightDistance(m)(levelroad) 185 185 130
DecisionSightDistance(m)(levelroad) 400 400 305
MinimumHorizontalRadius(m)(fore=4%) 490 490 280
MaximumSuperelevation(%) 8 4 4
MaximumLongitudinalGrade(%) 6 6 6
MinimumLongitudinalGrade(%) 0.3 0.3 0.3
MinimumSagCurveKvalue 45 45 30
MinimumCrestCurveKvalue 52 52 26
MinimumVerticalClearance(m) 5.5 5.5 5.5
*CBD=CentralBusinessDistrict

Figure851.TypicalSectionforArterials
2way6lanePrimaryArterialwithServiceRoadandAngledParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW220')

2way8lanePrimaryArterialwithServiceRoadandAngledParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW280')

2way4laneSecondaryArterialwithServiceRoadandAngledParkingResidential/Commercial(ROW180')

2way4laneSecondaryArterialRural(ROW125')

2way4laneSecondaryArterialRural(ROW180')

8.9.4 Freeways/Expressways
Table837.SummaryofGeometricParametersforFreeways/Expressways
GeometricParameter Rural Urban
PreferredDesignSpeed(km/h) 120 100
StoppingSightDistance(m)(levelroad) 250 185
SafePassingSightDistance(m)(levelroad) 470 400
MinimumHorizontalRadius(m)(fore=4%) 670 400
MaximumSuperelevation(%) 8 8
MaximumLongitudinalGrade(%) 4 4
MinimumLongitudinalGrade(%) 0.3 0.3
MinimumSagCurveKvalue 63 45
MinimumCrestCurveKvalue 95 52
MinimumVerticalClearance(m) 5.5 5.5

Figure856.TypicalSectionforExpressways
2way6laneExpresswaywithServiceRoadandAngledParking(ROW300')

Figure857.TypicalSectionforExpressways
2way8laneExpresswaywithServiceRoadandAngledParking(ROW300')


Figure858.TypicalSectionforFreeways
2way8laneFreeway(ROW300')

8.10 Bighway Facilities
8.10.1 General
Thissectiondiscussesthefollowingfacilitiesandroadwayfeatures,andprovidesguidanceontheir
designandprovision:
PedestrianFacilities
PublicTransportFacilities
ParkingFacilities
SafetyBarriers
ImpactAttenuatorSystems
Trafficcalming
PedestrianFacilities
8.10.1.1 Safety
Mostpedestrianaccidentsoccurinurbanareasandmostoftheseoccuratatgradeintersections,but
pedestriansafetyisaconcernineveryhighwaydesign.Thedesignercanthendevelopsafety
countermeasures.Schoollocationsandareasofhighpedestrianvolumesdeserveparticularattention.
Followingareexamplesofpedestriansafetymeasures:
5. Crosswalksshouldbeprovidedateveryintersectionwherepedestrianscross.
5. Sidewalksandotherwalkwayswhicharedesignedtoaccommodateprojected
pedestrianvolumeslimittheuseofstreetsandshouldersaswalkways.
6. Signalphaseswhichfavorthepedestrianaredesirable.Theseincludepedestrian
actuatedsignalsandanexclusivepedestriansignalphase.
7. Whereseverepedestriansafetyproblemsexistorwherethereisaneedtocrossafree
flowhighspeedhighway,apedestrianoverpasswouldberequired.
8. Otherpedestriansafetymeasuresincludelighting,barriersandparkingrestrictions.
8.10.1.2 Sidewalks
Sidewalksareprovidedwheretheyarejustifiedbypedestrianactivity.Sidewalkwidthvariesaccording
toprojecteduseandavailablerightofway.Incommerciallydevelopedanddowntownareas,theentire
areabetweenthecurbandbuildingsisoftenusedasapavedsidewalk.
Allurbanroadsshouldallowspaceforsidewalks,unlesstheyarebeingspecificallydesignedtoprohibit
walking.Inareaswithhighvolumesofpedestriantraffic,sidewalksshouldbeprovidedonbothsidesof
theroad.Mostserviceroads,however,requireasidewalkononesideonly.Sidewalksshouldbe
continuousoverthefullpedestrianroute.
Itisdesirabletohaveasidewalkthatis3.0minwidthwhichwouldaccommodatehighpedestrian
volumesortoaccommodatebothpedestriansandbicyclistsinbusycommercialareas.However,the
recommendedminimumsidewalkwidthis1.8m.Itisalsodesirabletoprovidea1.2mormorebuffer
stripbetweenthecurbandsidewalkforpedestriansafetyfromwalkingclosetotraffic.

8.10.1.3 PedestrianCrossings
Crossingsaredesignatedsafetypathsforpedestrianscrossingatintersectionsoracrossaroadwayfor
thecontinuityofpedestrianwalkways/sidewalks.Thechoiceofcrossingfacilitiesisasfollow:
UncontrolledMarkedCrossing.Thistypeofcrossingismarkedwithstripesonthepavement.It
shouldonlybeprovidedonroadswithapostedspeedof60km/horless,oronunsignalizedright
turningroadwayswithinasignalizedintersectionwhereadequateSafeCrossingSightDistanceis
available.
ControlledMarkedCrossing.Signalsareusedtobringtraffictoahaltandtoindicatetopedestrians
thattheymaycrosswithcare.Thistypeofcrossingexistsmostfrequentlywithinasignalized
intersection,butcanbeprovidedonafreestandingbasisonroadswithapostedspeedof80km/h
orlower.
GradeSeparatedCrossing.Thisistheformofcrossingwhichisinvariablyrequiredonfreewaysand
expressways,andwhichmayalsobejustifiedonarterials,dependingontrafficvolumeandspeed,
andthenumberandnatureofpedestrianscrossingtheroad.Itisprovidedbymeansofa
pedestrianoverpassorbyasidewalkonagradeseparatedroadcrossing.
Thewidthofthepedestriancrossingshouldgenerallybe3.0m,but2.44mshouldbetheminimumwidth
fora2waycrossing.
8.10.1.4 PedestrianOverpasses
Pedestrianoverpassesshouldbeconsideredwhereacombinationofpedestrianvolumes,traffic
volumes,andpedestrianaccidentsindicatestheiruse.Thefollowingaregeneralguidelines:
6. Freewaysmaydivideareaswherepedestriancrossingswouldotherwisebehigh.Ifhighway
crossingsarespacedrelativelyfarapart,apedestrianoverpassmaybejustified.
9. Pedestrianoverpassesmaybewarrantedwhereasignificantsafetyhazardexists.
10. Theoverpassmustbeabletoaccommodatehandicappedestriansbyprovidingramps
withmaximumgradesof8%andlevellandingareasofatleast1.5minlength.
8.10.2 PublicTransportFacilities
ThelocationofbusstopsisprimarilytheconcernofthetransportationauthorityinLibya,whowillseek
toprovidestopswithinreasonablewalkingdistanceoftripgeneratorsandattractors.Thebusstop
spacingisnormally3to4stopsperkilometerinurbanareas.Theengineershouldconsultwiththe
transportationauthoritytodeterminewhethertheroadistobeusedasabusroute,and,ifso,to
establishthedesiredgenerallocationofstops.Busesshouldbeabletostopwithoutobstructingthe
flowoftraffic.Therefore,itisrecommendedtoprovidebusbays,whichwouldallowthebusestostop
withoutobstructingtheflowoftraffic.ApreferredarrangementforabusbayisshowninFigure859.

Figure859.PreferredBusBayLayout
Onsecondaryarterialsandcollectors(andonlocalroadsandstreetsiftheyareusedbybuses),itmay
beacceptabletopermitbusestostopbythecurb,providedthat:
Thebusstopareaiskeptfreefromparkedvehicles
Thebusstopisnotlocatedclosetoamajor/minorintersection,and
Thepresenceofastationarybuswouldnotobstructanyrelevantsightlines,and
Onanundividedroad,theavailableforwardvisibilityisatleasthalfoftheSafePassingSight
Distance.
Inaddition,parkingshouldbeprohibitedoveradistanceof12mbeforeand8mbeyondthebusstop
area.Busstopsonundividedroadsshouldbestaggered,beyondeachother,sothattheviewof
crossingpedestriansfromonebusisnotobstructedbythepresenceofthebustravelingintheopposite
direction.Thisarrangementalsoensuresthatwheretwobusesaredroppingoffpassengers
simultaneously,theydonothavetosetoffthroughthecrossingpedestriansdroppedoffbytheother
bus.Whenprovidingbusstoppingpointsinthevicinityofintersections,thefollowingpointsshouldbe
considered:
Ingeneral,itispreferabletolocatebusstopsontheexitsideoftheintersection.Adistanceofat
least10mbeyondthelimitoftheintersectionwouldgenerallyberequired.
Ifabusstopistobeprovidedontheapproachside,thenitmustbepositionedsufficientlyfarin
advancethatthebuscanmoveoffsafelyandjointherelevanttrafficlanewithoutundue

interferencetoothervehicles.Aminimumdistanceof20mfromtheendofthebaytothestartof
anyrightturningmaneuverorauxiliarylaneshouldgenerallybeadequate,butthebayshouldbe
locatedsuchthatastationarybusisclearoftheintersectionsighttriangles.
Whereabusrouteturnsrightatanintersection,itmaybepossibletolocatethestoponthe
approachsideoftheintersection,withthebusbaybeinglocatedatthestartofanextendedright
turningauxiliarylane.
Ifabusstopislocatedontheapproachtoaroundaboutorsignalizedintersection,itshould
normallybelocatedclearofanyqueuingvehicles,sothatthereisnolossofcapacityatthe
intersection.
Figure860.BusStopsatIntersections
8.10.3 ParkingFacilities
8.10.3.1 General
Wherepossible,parkingshouldbeprovidedremotefromtheroad,inconvenientlylocatedparkinglots
designedforthepurpose.Onserviceroadsandsomecollectorsandlocalstreets,itishowever
beneficialtoincludecurbsideparkingwheretheadjoininglandusewarrantsit.
Curbsideparkingshouldnotbeprovided:
withinsighttrianglesatintersections,inorderthatvisibilitycanbemaintained,andpedestrianscan
crossunmasked;
oppositeaccesspointstoproperties,unlessthereisadequatewidthforvehiclestoenterandleave
thepropertywithoutimpingingontheparkingspace;

onbends,inorderthatadequateforwardvisibilitycanbemaintainedandthatanyencroachment
intothepathofoncomingvehiclesiseliminated(notethatparkingontheoutsideofbendsonlocal
streetsmaybeacceptable);
atpedestriancrossingpoints,tominimizethewidthtobecrossedbypedestrians;
inadvanceofpedestriancrossingpoints,sothatpedestrianscanclearlyseeandbeseen(notethat
anabsoluteminimumof5mfreeofparkingshouldbeprovided,andideallySafeCrossingSight
Distance,assetoutinSection8.11,shouldbeprovidedatunsignalizedcrossings);
athydrants;
onlocalroads,within6mofthetangentpointofanyintersection;
atanyotherlocationwhereitwouldcreateunsafeconditions
8.10.3.2 CurbsideParallelParking
Parallelparkingmaybeprovidedadjacenttotheouterlaneoftheroad.Itisrecommendedthatparallel
parkingshouldbeprovidedonlyonroadsofsecondaryarterialorlowerclass,oronserviceroads
runningadjacenttoprimaryarterialsandexpressways.
Thestandardwidthrequiredforaparallelparkinglaneis2.5m,eachbaybeingnominally6.5min
length.Ifthemajorityofvehiclesexpectedtousethefacilityareshorterthanaverage,thebaylength
maybereducedtoanabsoluteminimumlengthof6.0m.Whereresidentialdevelopmentisdenseand
therequirementforadditionalonstreetparkingisgreat,itispossibleinexceptionalcircumstancesto
useanarrowerbaywidth,buttheabsoluteminimumis2.2m.
8.10.3.3 CurbsideAngledParking
Ifthewidthofavailablerightofwaypermits,considerationshouldbegiventoangledparkinglayout.
Thesecouldbeperpendiculartotheroadoratanangleinordertoensurethatvehiclesdriveforwards
intothebayandreverseout.Parkingbaysizeforangledparkingis2.5mwideby5.0minlength,butif
desiredandifspacepermits,thesizemaybeincreasedto2.7mby5.5m(byincreasingwidthand
lengthdimensionsby10%)inordertoprovideamoregenerouslayoutwhichiseasiertouse.
(Intermediatevaluesofwidthand/orlengthmayalsobeused.)
Theamountofspacewhichthebaysoccupywithinthecrosssectionoftheroaddependsontheirangle
relativetotheroad,asshowninTable838below.
Table838.CurbsideAngledParkingWidthOccupiedwithinCrossSectionoftheRoad(fora5.0mx2.5mbay)
ParkingAngle
Widthoccupied(m)
allowingbumper
overhangatcurb
45 4.70
60 4.90
75 4.75
90 4.25

Thereisaneedforadequatespacetomaneuverintoanangledbay,andthisusuallyrequiresthe
adjacentthroughlanetobewiderthannormal.Ifspacepermits,itisalsogoodpracticetoprovidea
bufferlanebetweentheedgeofthetraveledwayandthenearestpartoftheparkingbay.Thisis
particularlybeneficialonServiceRoads,Collectors,andSecondaryArterials.Table839showsthese
values.
Table839.CurbsideAngledParking
MinimumWidthforAdjacentThroughLane
ParkingAngle
Minimumwidthfor
throughlane(m)
Bufferlanewidth
(m)
TotalWidth
(m)
45 3.75
2.5
(desirable)
1.0
(minimum)
ORNONE
3.756.25
60 4.5 4.507.00
75 6.5 6.509.00
90 7.0 7.009.50
8.10.3.4 ParkingLots
Parkinglotsaregenerallydesignedonthebasisofangledparking,asthisprovidesthemostspace
efficientlayout.Thegroupsofbaysareservedbyaisles,whichgenerallyoperateoneway.Inthecase
of90angledbays,twowaycirculationisalsopossiblewithoutanyincreaseinaislewidthbeing
required.Bufferlanesarenotnormallyprovidedinparkinglots.
Whenlayingoutaparkinglot,itisgenerallyfoundmostefficienttoaligntheaisleswiththelongaxisof
theplot,andtoseektomaximizethenumberofbayslocatedattheouterperipheryoftheavailable
land,ifitisregularinshape.Figure861showsaparkinglotlaidoutontheseprinciples,andadoptinga
90degreeangle.

Figure861.ParkingLotLaidoutwitha90DegreeAngle
Figure862.ParkingBayDimensions

Table840.ParkingLotDimensions(m)
Dimensions
(forabaysizeof
2.5mx5.0m)
DIM
Angle
30 45 60 75 90
Baywidth A1 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50
Baywidth,paralleltoaisle A2 5.60 3.50 2.80 2.70 2.50
Baylength B1 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Lengthoflinebetweenbays B2 10.00 7.50 6.25 5.65 5.00
Baydepthtowall C1 4.50 5.30 5.60 5.50 5.00
Baydepthtocurb C2 4.15 4.70 4.90 4.75 4.25
Baydepthtointerlock C3 3.40 4.40 5.05 5.15 5.00
Aislewidthbetweenbaylines D 3.50 3.75 4.50 6.00 7.00
Bumperoverhang(typical) E 0.35 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.75
Module,walltointerlock F1 11.40 13.45 15.65 17.75 18.00
Module,curbtointerlock F2 11.05 12.85 14.95 17.00 17.25
Module,interlocktointerlock F3 10.30 12.55 14.80 17.40 18.00
Fortrucksandotherlargevehicles
Baydimensionsaredictatedbythesizeofthedesignvehicle,assetoutinTable84,andtherelevant
templatesneedtobeappliedtodeterminetheoptimumlayout.Itisnormaltoprovideabaywhichis
1mwiderthanthewidthofthevehicle,withnoadditiontovehiclelength,soasportsutility(SU)vehicle
wouldrequireabayof3.6mby9.1m.Shallowparkinganglesof30to45degreesaregenerally
appropriate,withaislewidthsbeingdependentonthedesignvehicle,buttypicallyaround15to20m.
8.10.4 SafetyBarriers
8.10.4.1 General
Asafetybarrierisusedtoprotecterrantvehiclesfromimpactingroadsideobjectsandstructures;and
protectspedestriansandbicyclistsfromanoutofcontrolvehicle.Safetybarriercanbelocatedoutside
oftheroadwayorinthemedian,dependingontheproximityofthehazardtotheclearzonearea.
Singlefacedlongitudinalbarrierinstalledeitherinthemedianorontheoutsideoftheroadwayisa
RoadsideBarrier.Doublefacedlongitudinalbarrierwhichisdesignedtoredirectvehiclesstriking
eithersideofthebarrierisMedianBarrier.
Roadsidebarriersareusuallycategorizedasflexible,semirigid,orrigid,dependingontheirdeflection
characteristicsonimpact.Flexiblesystemsaregenerallymoreforgivingthantheothercategoriessince
muchoftheimpactenergyisdissipatedbythedeflectionofthebarrierandlowerimpactforcesare
imposeduponthevehicle.Rigidsystemsaregenerallymoreeffectiveinperformanceandrelativelylow
incostwhenconsideringtheirmaintenancefreecharacteristics.

8.10.4.2 WarrantsforUseofSafetyBarriers
Thedecisiononwhetherornottoprovideasafetybarriercanoftenbesimplifiedusingthefollowing
analysis,withcostsandlikelihoodsbeingconsideredwherethedecisionismarginal.
Option1:Removeorreducethehazardsothatitnolongerrequirestobeprotected.
Option2:installanappropriatesafetybarrier.
Option3:Leavethehazardunprotected.
Medians
Headonimpactwithanopposingvehicleoftenleadstofatalities,andsoacontinuoussafetybarrieris
oftenprovidedinthemedianofadividedroadtoseparateopposingtraffic.Suchabarriershould
alwaysbeprovidedonfreewaysandexpressways,andshouldbeconsideredonotherroadscarrying
largetrafficvolumesathighspeedsorwherethereisafallacrossthemedian.
Embankments
Theprovisionofsafetybarriersshouldbeconsideredwhenslopesaresteeperthan1in5(20%)orthe
heightoftheslopeisgreaterthan6m.Thebarriershouldbesetbackfromtheusableshoulder,forward
ofthetopoftheslope,andnotontheslopeitself.Wherebarriersarenottobeprovided,roundingof
thetopoftheslopereducesthechancesofanerrantvehiclebecomingairborne.
CutAreas
Safetybarriersareseldomrequiredincutareas.Exceptionsarewherethereisasteeprockfaceor
wherelargebouldersofotherobstaclesarelocatedinthecuttingslope.
RoadsideObstacles
Asafetybarriershouldonlybeinstalledifitisclearthattheresultofavehiclestrikingthebarrierwould
belessseverethantheaccidentresultingfromhittingtheunprotectedobject.Generally,ifthe
clearancefromtheobjecttotheedgeofthetraveledwayisgreaterthan10mprotectionisnot
required.Refertotheclearzonecriteria.
Protectionofbystanders
Althoughroadsidebarriersarenotparticularlyinstalledtoprotectbystandersorpedestriansbutto
protectvehiclesfromhittingroadsidehazards,theyprovideprotectionandsafetyforpedestriansand
bystandersfromoutofcontrolvehicles.
Onceithasbeendecidedthataroadsidebarrieriswarranted,theengineermustchosetheappropriate
typeofbarrier.Thischoiceisbasedonanumberoffactorsincludingperformancecriteria,cost
(constructionandmaintenance),andaesthetics.Table841summarizesthefactorsthatshouldbe
considered.

Table841.SelectionCriteriaforRoadsideBarriers
Criteria Comments
1. PerformanceCapability Barriermustbestructurallyabletocontainandredirectdesignvehicle.
2. Deflection Deflectionofbarriershouldnotexceedavailableroomtodeflect
3. SiteConditions
Slopeapproachingthebarrier,anddistancefromtraveledway,may
precludeuseofsomebarriertypes.
4. Compatibility
Barriermustbecompatiblewithplannedendanchorandcapableof
transitiontootherbarriersystems(suchasbridgerailing)
5. Cost
Standardbarriersystemsarerelativelyconsistentincost,buthigh
performancerailingscancostsignificantlymore.
6. Maintenance
A. Routine Fewsystemsrequireasignificantamountofroutinemaintenance
B. Collision
Generally,flexibleorsemirigidsystemsrequire
Significantlymoremaintenanceafteracollisionthanrigid
Orhighperformancerailings.
C. MaterialsStorage
Thefewerdifferentsystemsused,thefewerinventory
items/storagespacerequired.
D. Simplicity
Simplerdesigns,besidescostingless,aremorelikelytobe
Reconstructedproperlybyfieldpersonnel
7. Aesthetics Occasionally,barrieraestheticsisanimportantconsiderationinitsselection.
8. FieldExperience
Theperformanceandmaintenancerequirementsofexisting
systemsshouldbemonitoredtoidentifyproblemsthat
couldbelessenedofeliminatedbyusingadifferentbarriertype.
8.10.4.3 FlexibleBarriers
Aswasmentionedbefore,flexiblebarriersaregenerallymoreforgivingthantheothercategoriessince
muchoftheimpactenergyisdissipatedbythedeflectionofthebarrierandlowerimpactforcesare
imposeduponthevehicle.Therearetwobasictypesofflexiblesystem:
7. CableFencenormallycomprising4strandsoftensionedcable.Cablefencesredirect
impactingvehiclesaftersufficienttensionisdevelopedinthecable,withthepostsinthe
impactareaprovidingonlyslightresistance.Thecloserthepostspacing,however,theless
thebarriercandeflect.Animportantfeatureofthecablefenceisthat,aftermostimpacts,
itreturnstoitsoriginalposition,anddamagedpostsareeasilyreplaced.

11. SteelBeamthesecondtypeutilizesastandardsteelbeamsectionmountedon
relativelyweakposts.Thissystemactsinasimilarmannertothecablefence.Itretains
samedegreeofeffectivenessafterminorcollisionsduetotherigidityofthebeamrail
element.However,aftermajorcollisionsitrequiresfullrepairtoremaineffective.As
withthecablesystem,lateraldeflectioncanbereducedtosomeextentbycloserpost
spacing.Thissystem,aswithallbarriershavingarelativelynarrowretrainingwidth,is
vulnerabletovaultingorvehicleunderridecausedbyincorrectmountingheightor
irregularitiesintheapproachterrain.
8.10.4.4 SemiRigidBarriers
Semirigidsystemsworkontheprinciplethatresistanceisachievedthroughthecombinedflexureand
stiffnessoftherail.Postsnearthepointofimpactaredesignedtobreakortearaway,distributingthe
impactforcetoadjacentposts.Lateraldeflectionofasemirigidbarriermaytypicallybeasmuchas
1.5m.
Semirigidbarriersusuallyremainfunctionalaftermoderatecollisions,therebyeliminatingtheneedfor
immediaterepair.Therearedifferenttypesofsystemswitheachhavingitsownperformance
requirementsandcapabilities.Afewexamplesarelistedbelow.
BoxBeam
OpenBoxBeam
WBeam(corrugatedtypeofbarrier)
BlockedOutWBeam
SelfrestoringSafetyBarrier
Theselfrestoringsafetybarrierisahighperformancebarrierdesignedtobemaintenancefreeformost
impactsandcapableofcontainingandredirectinglargevehicles.Thecombinationofhighinitialcost
andhighperformancemakesthisbarriermoresuitedforuseathighaccidentfrequencylocations.
Whentrafficspeedsareexpectedtobegreaterthan50km/hthesemirigidsystemshouldbe
tensioned.Tensionedsystemsusuallyrequireaminimumlengthandradiustobeeffective(typically
50mminimumlengthand150mminimumradius).Individualbarriermanufacturersspecifications
shouldbeadheredto.
8.10.4.5 RigidBarriers
Rigidsystemsoffernodeflectionwhenhitbyavehicle.Theimpactenergyisentirelyabsorbedbythe
vehicle.Forthisreason,rigidbarriersystemsarenotgenerallyrecommendedforuseonroadswith
designspeedsover100km/h,andtheirproposedadoptiononhigherspeedroadsshouldbecarefully
evaluatedbythedesigner.CommonlyusedrigidsystemsaretheNewJerseyshapeandFshapeBarriers
intheUSA,andtheBritishConcreteBarrierintheUK.Fshapebarrierispreferredbecauseofitsbetter
performancewithsmallvehicleimpactwithrespecttoverticalrollandredirection.
Typicallythesystemisrelativelylowcost,hasgenerallyeffectiveperformanceforpassengersized
vehicles,andhasmaintenancefreecharacteristics.Thedetailsforthissystemareshowninthe
ConstructionStandards.

8.10.4.6 Placement
Lateraloffsetfromtheroad:
Asarule,safetybarriersshouldbeplacedasfarfromthetraveledwayasconditionspermit.Thisgives
theerrantdriverthebestchanceofregainingcontrolofthevehiclewithouthavinganaccident.Italso
providesbettersightdistance.Table842givessuggestedlateraloffsetsrelatedtothedesignspeed,
anditshouldbenotedthatthesearefromtheedgeoftraveledway,notthepavement.
Table842.SuggestedSetbackfromEdgeofTraveledWay
DesignSpeed
Setbackfrom
EdgeofTraveled
Way(m)
50 1
60 1.5
70 1.7
80 2
90 2.2
100 2.5
120 3
140 3.7
Clearancebetweenbarrierandobjectbeingprotected:
Thedesirableminimumdistancebetweenbackofbarrierandrigidhazardsshouldnotbelessthanthe
dynamicdeflectionofthesafetybarrierbasedonavehicleimpactconditionofapproximately25
degreesand100km/h.
Manufacturersspecificrequirementsmustbefollowed.However,asaguide,theclearancessetoutin
Table843aretypical.
Onembankmentscareshouldbetakentoensurethatatfulldeflectionofthebarrierthewheelsofthe
vehicledonotoverhangtheedgeoftheslope.
Theuseofcurbswithsemirigidorrigidsafetybarriersshouldgenerallybeavoided,asimpactwiththe
curbcausesinstabilityinthevehiclesprogresspriortoimpactwiththebarrier.However,ifthefaceof
thesafetybarrierislaterallywithin225mmofthecurbfaceavehicleisnotlikelytovaultthebarrier,
andtheperformanceofthebarriershouldbewithinnormaltolerances.
Table843.ClearancebetweenBarrierandObjectBeingProtected
BarrierType
ClearancefromBackof
BarriertoHazard(m)
Tensionedwirerope 2
Tensionedbeam 1.2

Boxbeam 1.2
Rigid 0
LengthofNeed:
Thebarriermustbelongenoughtosufficientlyshieldthehazardfromerrantvehicles.Figure863
illustratesthetypicalguardraillayoutforprotectionofahazard.Theminimumlengthofneedforfull
heightguardrailfor60km/h,100km/h,and110km/his60m,90m,and100mrespectively.Barrier
endtreatmentisinadditiontothelengthofneed.SeeConstructionStandardsfortypicalinstallation
detailsofguardrailandconcretebarrier.
Onanundividedhighway,theminimumguardraillengthonthedownstreamendoftheruntoprotect
theopposingtrafficfromthehazardfor60km/h,80km/h,100km/hand110km/his50m,60m,70m
and70mrespectively.
Figure863.BarrierLengthofNeed
EndTreatments:
Theuntreatedendofanysafetybarrierisextremelyhazardousifhit,asthebeamelementcan
penetratethepassengercompartmentandwillgenerallystopratherthanredirectthevehicle.A
crashworthyendtreatmentisthereforeconsideredessentialifthesafetybarrierterminateswithin10m
ofthetraveledwayorinanareawhereitislikelytobehitendonbyanerrantvehicle.

Theterminationofthesafetybarriershouldnotspear,vaultorrollavehicleforendonorangled
impacts.Forimpactsanywherewithinthelengthofneed,theperformanceofthebarrierdependson
thatofthelengthsadjacenttothepointofimpact.Forpotentialimpactsclosetotheendtreatment
zoneitisthereforeessentialthattheendtreatmentshouldhavethesameredirectionalcharacteristics
asthestandardsection.Thismeansthattheendmustbeproperlyanchored.
Anumberofdifferentendtreatmentsareavailable,workingonarangeofprinciples.Someoftheseare
listedbelow.
BreakawayTerminals
TurnedDownTerminals
EnergyAbsorptionSystems
SpecialAnchorageforCableFence
AnchorageintoEmbankment
Furtherreferenceisessentialtoselectthemostappropriatesystemforeachparticularsituation.
PlacementonSlopesandBehindCurbs:
Ifguardrailisimproperlylocatedonslopesorbehindcurbs,anerrantvehiclecouldimpactthebarrier
toohighortoolow,withundesirableresults.Therefore,thesecriteriaapply:
(a) Guardrailheightismeasuredfromthegroundorpavementsurfaceattheguardrailface.
ForWbeamandThriebeamthisdimensionistypically550mmfromthesurfacetothe
centerpostbolt.
(b) Bermandcurbmustbelocatedtominimizevaultingpotential.SeetheConstruction
Standardsfordetails.
(c) Whereguardrailisrequiredtobeoffsetfromtheedgeofpavement,itshouldnotbe
placedonaslopesteeperthan1V:12H.
Transitions:
Transitionsectionsofsafetybarrieractasalinkbetweenlengthsofdifferentstrengthorrigidity,andare
necessary:
toprovidecontinuityofprotectionwhentwodifferentbarriersjoin;or
whereabarrierjoinsanotherbarriersystemsuchasabridgerail;or
wherearoadsidebarrierisattachedtoarigidobjectsuchasabridgepier
Thetransitionsectionshouldbeatleastasstrongasthestrongerofthetwosectionswhichitlinks.
Itshouldbelongenoughsothatsignificantchangesindeflectioncharacteristicsdonotoccurwithina
shortdistance.Generallythetransitionlengthshouldbe10to12timesthedifferenceinthelateral
deflectionofthetwosystemsinquestion,forexampleinatransitionbetweenabeamwithadesign
deflectionof1.5mandarigidbarrierorabutment,thetransitionlengthshouldbearound15to18m.

Drainagefeaturessuchasditchesshouldbeavoidedattransitionpositionsastheymayinitiatevehicle
instability.
Thestiffnessofthetransitionshouldincreasesmoothlyandcontinuouslyfromthelessrigidtothemore
rigidsystem.Thiscanbeachievedbydecreasingthepostspacing,increasingpostsizeorstrengthening
therailelement.
8.10.5 ImpactAttenuatorSystems
Energyabsorbingbarriers,alsoknownascrashcushionsorimpactattenuatorsystems,areprotective
devicestopreventerrantvehiclesfromimpactingfixedobjecthazards.Thisisachievedbyrapidly
slowingdownavehicle,ifpossible,bringingittoasafestopbeforethepointofimpactwiththehazard.
Ifstoppingisnotachievable,slowingitdownwouldbetosuchanextentthattheseverityoftheimpact
withtheobjectiskeptwithinsustainablelimits.Somedesignsofimpactattenuatorsalsohavethe
capabilitytodeflectandredirectashallowangleimpact.
Impactattenuatorsystemsarethereforedesignedspecificallyforuseatlocationswherefixedobjects
cannotberemoved,relocatedormadetobreakaway,andcannotbeadequatelyprotectedbyanormal
safetybarrier.Theyprimarilyservetolessentheseverityofanimpactwithafixedobject,unlikesafety
barrierswhichattempttoredirectthevehicleawayfromtheobject.
Impactattenuatorsworkononeoftwoprinciples,namelyabsorptionofkineticenergyortransferof
momentum.
Inthefirstcase,thekineticenergyofamovingvehicleisabsorbedbyhydraulicenergyabsorbersor
crushablematerials.Thiscanbeachievedbytheuseofwaterfilledcontainersfromwhichthewater
willbeexpelledinacollision,orbyaprogressivelycrushablemechanicalarrayofelements.Crash
cushionsofthistyperequirearigidbackstoptoresisttheimpactforceofthevehicle.
Thesecondconceptinvolvesthetransferofmomentumofamovingvehicletoanexpendablemassof
materialorweights.Thismassisoftenprovidedbyaseriesoffreestandingsandfilledcontainers.
Devicesofthistyperequirenorigidbackstop.
Energyabsorbingbarriersaregenerallyappropriateforcarstravelingatspeedsofupto100km/h,but
thesystemcouldbedesignedfortrucksandbusestoowithvariousconfigurations.
Themostcommonapplicationofenergyabsorbingbarriersisatanofframpinadepressedorelevated
structure,whereabridgepierorgoreparapetrequiresprotectionandthereisinsufficientspacefora
conventionalsafetybarrierleadin.Figure864showsanenergyabsorbingbarrierprotectingan
obstructionlocatedinthegoreareaofanofframpterminal.

Figure864.ImpactAttenuatorProtectionto
ObstructionLocatedintheGoreArea
Foroptimumperformance,thebarriershouldideallybeonarelativelylevelsurface.Curbsshouldnot
beprovidedastheymaycausethevehicletobecomeairborne,thuscomingintocontactonlypartially
withthecrashcushion.
Therearemanydifferentdesignsofimpactattenuatorsystems,eachofwhichhasitsownparticular
meritsandapplications.Intheselectionprocess,theroaddesignermustconsiderthesite
characteristics,cost,maintenancerequirements,andstructuralandsafetycharacteristicsofthe
differentsystems.
FurthergeneralreferenceonthissubjectisgivenintheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayand
TransportationOfficialspublication,RoadsideDesignGuide.Fordetailsofanyspecificimpact
attenuatorsystems,themanufacturerstechnicalliteratureshouldbereferredto.
8.10.6 TrafficCalming
8.10.6.1 General
Excessivevehiclespeedisasignificantfactorinthemajorityofaccidentsinurbanareas.Althoughthe
vehiclesconcernedmaynothaveexceededthepostedspeed,theyhavetraveledfasterthanthe
prevailingconditionsrequired.Thisisfrequentlyduetothedriverbeing"giventhewrongsignals"from
theroadinfrastructurebeingunawarethatheisdrivingataspeedmuchgreaterforthecircumstances
inwhichhefindshimself(eitherassociatedwiththeroadlayoutorrelatedtootherroadusersand
thoselivinginthearea).
Trafficcalmingisagenericnamefortechniquesofspeedreductionthroughroaddesign.Theobjective
istoalterthedriversperceptionoftheroadsothathedrivesataspeedwhichisappropriate.Onroads
ofarterialstandardandabove,trafficcalmingisneverappropriatebecausetheyrequirehigherdesign

speeds.Onurbancollectorroads,someelementsoftrafficcalmingmaybeappropriate,buttheplace
wherecalmingtechniquesareparticularlyrelevantisinthedesignoflocalstreets.
8.10.6.2 ObjectivesofTrafficCalming
Themainobjectivesare:
toimproveroadsafety
toimprovethequalityoflifeforresidentsofthearea
Secondaryobjectivesare:
tosmooththeflowoftraffic;
toreducethevolumeoftraffic;
toimprovetheenvironmentalqualityofroads;
todiscouragetheuseofunsuitableroutesbyheavyvehiclesorstreamsofunnecessarythrough
traffic;
tolimitvehicularatmosphericpollution;and
toreducetrafficnoiselevels
Theintroductionofanareaspeedlimitcanassistinachievingtheseobjectives,butunlesstheroadis
designedproperly,thepostedspeedsarelikelytobedisregardedbymanydrivers.
Therearefourgenerictypesofcalmingtechniques:trafficengineeringmeasures,visualfeatures,
horizontalalignmentfeaturesandverticalalignmentfeatures.
8.10.6.3 TrafficEngineeringMeasures
Intersectionprioritychange
Thiscanbeintroducedtobreakupalengthofroadwhichhasprioritythroughaseriesofintersections.
Careneedstobetakeninthesigningofsuchameasure.
Onewaystreets
Theintroductionofshortlengthsofonewayoperationcancreatea"maze"likeroadsystem,thus
discouragingthroughtraffic.Thetechniquecanalsobeusedtolimittrafficspeedsbybreakingup
straightlengthsofroadintoshortsections,andcanalsopermitthetransferofspacefrompavementto
sidewalkorlandscapeuse.
Sharedsurfaces
Inappropriatecircumstancesitmaybepossibletoprovideanareatobeusedbybothpedestriansand
motorizedtraffic.Itisessentialinsuchareastoensurethatonlyverylowvehiclespeedsareachievable.
8.10.6.4 VisualFeatures
Barmarkings

Thesearecoloredroadmarkingswhichcanbelaidacrosstheroad,particularlytodrawattentiontoa
changeinspeedlimits.Theymayalsobeperceivedbychangesintirenoise.
Entrytreatment
Wheredriversenteracalmedroadorarea,itisusuallyhelpfultodrawthistotheirattentionbyuseof
differentvisualsignalspavingcolor,texture,ormaterialbeingtheusualmethod.Alignmentfeatures
areoftenprovidedinassociationwithentrytreatments.
Gateways
Gatewaysareaformofentrytreatment,butwithaddedverticalfeaturessuchaswallsorfencesatright
anglestotheroad,relativelyclosetotheedgeofthetraveledway,togiveavisualeffectofnarrowness.
Planting
Thepresenceoftongsightlinescanbeacontributoryfactortohighspeeds.Plantingservestwo
purposes;first,toprovideanenhancedenvironmentalappearance,andsecond,toassistinkeeping
sightlinesasshortaspossible,compatiblewiththeverylowdesignspeedswhichtrafficcalmingadopts.
Rumbledevices
Thesearetexturedareasofpavementwhichcausetirenoisetobedistinct,thusraisingdrivers
awareness.
8.10.6.5 HorizontalAlignmentFeatures
SpeedLimitingBends
Thesearetightcurves,withinnercurbradiiintherange10mto15m.Theyshouldonlybeusedwhere
theotherelementsoftheroadscapemakeitevidenttodriversthattrafficcalmedbehaviorisexpected.
Driversshouldbeabletoseethebendclearlyonapproach,butsightdistancesaroundthebendshould
deliberatelybereducedbytheprovisionofplantingorhardlandscaping.Astoppingdistanceof30m
shouldbeprovided.
Buildouts
Thesearelocalprotrusionsofthesidewalkintothepavementarea,effectivelynarrowingthevehicular
traveledway.Theyareoftenprovidedincombinationwithverticalfeatures.
Chicanes
Theseconsistofapairofbuildoutsonalternatesidesoftheroadbutnotoppositeeachother,thus
creatinghorizontaldeflectionswhichcanonlybenegotiatedbyvehiclestravelingatlowspeeds.
Medians
Theintroductionofamedian(whichmayberaisedorflushwiththetraveledway)onanundividedroad
hastheeffectofreducinglanewidthsandachievingeffectivevisualnarrowing.Ifspacepermits,the
mediancanbeplanted,andapartfromimprovingtheamenityoftheroadthispreventsexcessive
forwardvisibility.Figure865showsthislayout.

Figure865.TrafficCalmingLayoutUsingPlantedMedian
Pinchpoints
Thesearelocationswheretheroadisdeliberatelymadetoonarrowtopermittwowayoperation,and
vehicleshavetooperatein"shuttle"fashion,onedirectionatatime.Onbusierroadsitmaybe
necessarytogiveprioritybysigningtoonedirectionoftravel.Figure866showssuchanarrangement.
Figure866.TrafficCalmingLayoutUsingPinchPoint
Sidewalkwidening
Reallocationofspacewithintherightofwaycansometimesbeachievedbywideningsidewalksand
reducingtrafficspaceaccordingly.
8.10.6.6 VerticalAlignmentFeatures
Sidewalkcrosswalks
Theseallowpedestrianstocontinueatsidewalklevelacrossanintersection,withtheroadbeing
rampeduptosidewalklevelanddownagain.Intheseinstallations,driversareexpectedtogivewayto
pedestrians.
Roadhumps
Humpsarelocallyraisedareasofpavement,typically100to200mmhighand4mlong(parallelto
trafficdirection),whichcanonlybecrossedcomfortablybyvehiclestravelingatverylowspeeds.

Speedcushions
Theseareaformofflattoppedroadhumpwhichextendsacrossonlypartofthetraveledway,allowing
buses(withwiderwheelbase)topassonthelevel,butrequiringcarstorunoneorbothwheelsoverthe
cushion.
Speedtables
Theseareraisedareasofpavementflushwiththesidewalk,andareoftenprovidedoverthewholearea
ofanintersection.
Speedbumps
Thesearesmallroadhumps,typicallyupto75mmhigh.Theyarenormally0.3mlong(paralleltotraffic
direction)andlaidinthrees,at1.3mcenters.
8.11 Intersections
8.11.1 GeneralDesignConsiderations
Anintersectionistheareawheretwoormoreroadsjoinorcrossatgrade.Itcanbeamajororminor
intersectionoraroundabout,whichwillbecoveredinSection8.12.Theintersectionshouldbe
designedtoaccommodateanacceptablelevelofservice.ThevaluesinTable82shouldbemet,when
feasible,sothatthehighwayfacilitywilloperateataconsistentlevelofservice.Ataminimum,theat
gradeintersectionshouldoperateatnomorethanonelevelbelowthevaluesinthetable.
Keyissuestobeaddressedinthedesignofintersectionsinclude:
Visibility
Driverperception
Signingandroadmarking
Trafficcontrol
Designvehicleandgeometricimplications
Pedestriansafety
8.11.1.1 IntersectionSpacing
Thelocationofmainintersectionsisgenerallydictatedbythegeographicalpositionoftheroadswithin
thenetwork,andintermediateintersectionsareusuallyafunctionofthesurroundingareaandits
currentorfuturedevelopment.Thespacingofintermediateintersectionsisabalancebetweenthe
needsofthroughtrafficontheroadandtherequirementtoaccessadjacentdevelopment.
Factorswhichshouldbetakenintoaccountwhendeterminingtheneedforanintersection(andhence
thespacingofintersections)include:
Roadwayclassification
Thegeneralintersectionspacingwhichappliestosucharoadclass
Thepotentialtrafficdemandforaccessto/fromthemainroad

Thelengthofthealternativerouteifnointersectionisprovided
Thedesignspeedandpostedspeedoftheroad
Thelengthsrequiredforanyweavingtooccursafely
Decisionsightdistances
Thephysicaldimensionsoftheintersectionitself
Measuresthatcanbeusedtoreducethenumberofintersectionsalongarouteinclude:
Serviceroadsforcollectinglocaltrafficmovementstogether
Theclosureofminorroadsatthemainroadprovidingalternativeaccess.
TheinformationshowninTable844shouldonlybeusedasbroadguidancewhenconsideringthe
minimumspacingofintersections.
Table844.MinimumIntersectionSpacing(Measuredcentertocenter)
IntersectionSpacing(m)
UrbanAreas RuralAreas
Freeway 1500 2000
Expressway 1000 2000
PrimaryArterial 400 1500
SecondaryArterial 200 1000
Collector 100 100
LocalRoad Nominimumspecified 100
8.11.1.2 CapacityandLevelofService
Acapacityanalysismustbeperformedduringthedesignofanyatgradeintersection.Afuturedesign
year,typically20yearsfromthedatethefacilityiscompleted,shouldbeused.Often,theanalysiswill
dictateseveralgeometricdesignfeaturessuchasapproachwidth,channelization,exitwidth,and
numberofapproachandexitlanes.Aswasmentionedbefore,theintersectionshouldbedesignedto
accommodateanacceptablelevelofservice.RefertoSection8.11.1.1.
8.11.1.3 VehicleConsiderations
Vehicleturningpathsyieldminimumturningradiiwhichareusedinthedesignofintersections.
ComputerprogramsutilizeturningmovementanalysisfortheP,SU,BUS,ABUS,WB12,WB15,and
WB18vehicles.Normally,WB18vehicleisnotusedforintersectiondesignbutgenerallyrestrictedfor
freeways/expresswaysandtheiraccessroads.Avehiclemustbeabletonegotiatetheverticalprofileat
anintersectionwithoutdraggingitsundersideorfrontandrearedges.Thisvehiclecharacteristicmost
oftenpresentsproblemsatdrivewayentrancesandexits.
8.11.1.4 Alignment
Atgradeintersectionsshouldoccurontangentsectionsofhighway.Whereaminorroadintersectsa
majorroadonahorizontalcurve,thiscomplicatesthegeometricdesignoftheintersectionparticularly
sightdistance,channelization,andsuperelevation.Preferably,theintersectionshouldberelocatedtoa

tangentsectionofthemajorroad.Anotherpossibilityistorealigntheminorroadtointersectthemajor
roadperpendiculartoatangentatapointonthehorizontalcurve.However,thisarrangementwould
stillresultindifficultturningmovementsifthesuperelevationishigh.
Atgradeintersectionsshouldbeascloseto90degreesaspossible.Skewedintersectionsincreasethe
traveldistanceacrossthemajorhighway,adverselyaffectsightdistance,andcomplicatethedesignfor
turningmovements.Intersectionanglesofmorethan30degreesfromtheperpendicularcause
particularproblems.Skewedintersectionsshouldberealignedto90degrees,ifpossible,particularlyfor
thosewhichdeviatebymorethan30degrees.Realignmentshallbeconsideredwhenaccidentdataor
trafficvolumesindicateaneedtodoso.
8.11.1.5 Profile
Theverticalprofileofanatgradeintersectionshouldbeaslevelaspossible,subjecttodrainage
requirements.Thisalsoappliestothedistancealonganyintersectionleg,calledthestorageplatform,
wherevehiclesstopandwaittopassthroughtheintersection.Thestorageplatformtypicallyshould
accommodate3vehicleswithagradientof2%.
Gradesapproachingorleavingtheintersectionwillaffectvehicledecelerationdistances(andtherefore
stoppingsightdistance)andvehicleaccelerationdistances.Wherethegradesexceed3%,thestopping
sightdistancemustbeadjustedaccordingtothecriteriainTable88inSection8.4.
Ingeneral,theprofileandcrosssectionofthemajorroadwillbecarriedthroughtheintersection,and
theminorroadwillbeadjustedtofitthemajorroad.Thiswillrequiretransitioningthecrownofthe
minorroadtoaninclinedsectionslopedtofitthelongitudinalgradientofthemajorhighway.The
transitionshouldbegradualandcomparabletothetransitionratesforsuperelevationasdiscussedin
Section5.6.Intersectionsoftwomajorroadwaysshouldbegradedtomeetdrainageandcomfort
considerations.
8.11.1.6 VehicularSafety
Atgradeintersectionscontributesignificantlytothenumberofhighwayaccidents.Manypedestrian
accidentsoccuraturbanintersections.Inruralareas,thereisnormallyalargespeeddifferential
betweenthroughvehiclesandturning/enteringvehicles.Allatgradeintersectionsafetyproblemscan
beminimizedbyproperdesignofitsgeometricelements:sightdistance,roadwaywidth,turninglanes,
alignmentandprofile,channelization,andturningradii.
Whenredesigninganexistingatgradeintersection,thedesignershouldreviewtheaccidenthistory
and/oranalyzetheaccidentpatternsatthatintersection.Thedesignershouldtheninclude
countermeasurestocorrecttheproblem.Forexample,severalangleorrearendaccidentsinvolving
leftturningvehiclesatanunsignalizedintersectionmayindicatetheneedforanexclusiveleftturnlane.
Thetypeandlevelofsophisticationoftrafficcontrolwillaffectthesafetyandgeometricdesignofthe
intersection.Followingareexamplesofhowgeometricdesignandtrafficcontrolarerelatedatan
intersection:
1. Atintersectionswithnosignalcontrol,thefullpavementwidths,includinglanealignments,
shouldbecontinuedthrough.
2. Stopcontrolmaysufficientlyreducecapacitytowarrantadditionalapproachlanes.

3. Stopandsignalizationcontrolrequiretheconsiderationofstoppingordecisionsight
distancefortheapproachingvehicles.
4. Signalizationwillimpactthelengthandwidthofstorageareas,location,andpositionof
turningroadways,andchannelization.Thenumberandtypeoflanesforsignalized
intersectionswillbesignificantlydifferentthanforunsignalizedintersections.
5. Theintersectionmustbedesignedtoallowforphysicalplacementofthetrafficcontrol
devicesinthesafestlocation.Trafficcontroldevicesconfigurationmustbecoordinated
withthelocalauthority.
8.11.1.7 Control
Signsandsignalsareemployedtoconveycontrolinformationtothedriver.Trafficsignalshavedefinite
disadvantagesandadvantagesandshouldbeinstalledonlyafterotherlessrestrictivemeansofcontrol,
suchasSTOPandYIELDsigns,havebeenemployedwithoutsuccess.
Trafficcontrolsignalscontrolvehicularandpedestriantrafficbyassigningtherightofwaytovarious
movementsforcertainpretimedortrafficactuatedintervalsoftime.Theyareoneofthekeyelements
inthefunctionofmanyintersections.Carefulconsiderationshouldbegiveninplandevelopmentto
intersectionandaccesslocations,horizontalandverticalcurvaturewithrespecttosignalvisibility,
pedestrianrequirements,andgeometricschematicstoensurethebestpossiblesignaloperation
(individualsignalphasingandtrafficcoordinationbetweensignals).
Trafficcontrolsignalsshouldnotbeinstalledunlessoneormoreofthesignalwarrantsaremet.
Informationshouldbeobtainedbymeansofengineeringstudiesandcomparedwiththerequirements
setforthinthewarrants.Iftheserequirementsarenotmet,atrafficsignalshouldneitherbeputinto
operationnorcontinuedinoperation(ifalreadyinstalled).
Aninvestigationoftheneedfortrafficsignalcontrolshouldincludewhereapplicable,atleastan
analysisofthefactorscontainedinthefollowingwarrants:
Warrant1Minimumvehicularvolume.
Warrant2Interruptionofcontinuoustraffic.
Warrant3Minimumpedestrianvolume.
Warrant4Schoolcrossings
Warrant5Progressivemovement.
Warrant6Accidentexperience.
Warrant7Systems
Warrant8Combinationofwarrants.
Warrant9FourHourVolumes
Warrant10PeakHourDelay

Warrant11PeakHourVolume
Whentrafficcontrolsignalsarenotwarrantedbutsomecontroloftheintersectionisrequired,
considerationmaybegiventotheinstallationofSTOPorYIELDsigns.
Anumberoftechniquesareavailableforevaluatingtheoperationofasignalizedintersection,
determiningappropriatesignaltiming,andconsideringdesignalternatives.Amongthesetechniques,
themostimportantare:
(1) Thecriticalmovementbasedtechniqueofthe2000HighwayCapacityManual(HCM),
latestedition.
(2) ComputersoftwarepackagesbasedontheHCMincluding:HighwayCapacitySoftware
(HCS),SIDRA(SignalizedandUnsignalizedIntersectionDesignandResearchAid),94
CINCH,andEzSignals.
(3) Thesignaloptimizationtechniquesincorporatedinthelatestversionsofthefollowing
softwarepackages:Synchro,94CINCHandSIG/Cinema.
(4) Vehiclequeuelengthsusingthefollowingsoftwarepackages:SIDRA,94CINCH,and
EzSignals.
Thelatestversionofanyoftheaboveprogramsisacceptableforsignaldesignandevaluationatisolated
intersections.
Forproblemsinvolvingsignalprogressionorcoordination,theuseofoneofthefollowingprogramsis
encouraged:
(1) ThelatestversionsofPASSER,Transyt,orSynchroareusefulfordesigningorevaluating
signalsystemsalonganarterialorinanetwork.
(2) Forsimulationofsignaloperationsonanarterialorinanetwork,thelatestversion
CORSIM(TrafNETSIM)isrecommended.
8.11.1.8 OtherConsiderations
1. Expectancy.Intersectionsarepointsofconflictbetweenvehicles,pedestrians,bicycles,and
otherusers.Intersectiondesignshouldpermituserstodiscernandperformreadilythe
maneuversnecessarytopassthroughtheintersectionsafelyandwithaminimumof
interference.
2. Pedestrians.Intersectionsarethemostsignificantpointwherevehiclesandpedestrians
shareroadways.Whenpedestriansapproachanintersection,thereisamajorinterruption.
Thesidewalkshouldprovidesufficientstorageareaforthosewantingtocrossplusareafor
crosstraffictopass.Thestoragearea(SA)necessaryforpedestriansatasignalized
intersectioncanbecomputedbythefollowingformula:
SA=R(CGw)Ap
Where: R=rateofflowofpedestriansfordesignperiod,number/sec
C=cyclelengthofsignal,sec
Gw=lengthofwalkindicationonthepedestriansignal,sec

Ap=storageareaperpersoninqueue(generally0.5squaremeterper
person).
Thedesignershouldprovideforthecriticaldesignperiodsuchasthatcontainingthe
peakpedestrianflow,aperiodofheavypedestriancrosstraffic,orfrequent
interferencefromturningmotorvehicles.
Oncepedestriansaregiventhewalkindication,thecrosswalkwidthbecomes
important.
Thecrosswalkmustbewideenoughtoaccommodatethepedestrianflowinboth
directionswithinthedurationofpedestriansignalphase.Thenecessarycrosswalk
widthXwcanbeestimatedbythefollowingequation:
Xw=(RC/P)(C/Gw)
Orthelevelofserviceatwhichanexistingcrosswalkisoperatingcanbecomputed
from:
P=(RC/Xw)(C/Gw)
When: R=Rateofflowofpedestriansfordesignperiod,number/sec
C=cyclelengthofsignal,seconds
Gw=lengthofwalkindicationonthepedestriansignal,seconds
Xw=crosswalkwidth,m;and
P=pedestriancrossingvolumeinnumber/meter/minute.
Fromapedestrianperspective,shortcrosswalksaredesirable.Iftheintersectionisnot
signalizedorifstopsignsdonotprohibitconflictwithvehiculartraffic,pedestriansmust
waitforsufficientgapsinthetraffictocross.Itisdesirableforthepedestriantocross
theentireroadwayinasinglecycleandnotbecaughtinthemedian.Theclearareaon
thesidewalkfreeofobstructionsshouldhaveaminimum1.5meterclearancebetween
objects(poles,controlboxesetc.).
3. TheHandicapped.Designconsiderationsforthehandicappedshouldbeincludedat
intersections.Theintersectionplanshouldbeevaluatedfortheconvenientandsafe
locationsoftherampsforthehandicapped.Drainageinletsshouldbelocatedonthe
upstreamsideofallcrosswalksandsidewalkramps.Thisdesignoperationwillgovernthe
pedestriancrosswalkpatterns,stopbarlocations,regulatorysigns,andinthecaseofnew
construction,establishthemostdesirablelocationofsignalsupports.
4. BusStopsandTurnouts.Thelocationofbusstopsandturnoutscanhaveaconsiderable
impactontrafficflow,turningmovements,sightdistance,andpedestriansafety.
5. Bicycles.Intersectionsfrequentlypresenthazardsforbicyclists.Pedestriancrosswalksat
intersectionscanbeutilizedbybicycliststocrossover.
6. AccesstoAbuttingProperty.Intersectiondesignelements,suchaschannelization,can
eliminateaccesstoabuttingproperty.Whilesuchaccesscontrolcontributestosafety,it
mayupsetthedesiredbalancebetweenaccessandmobility.Eachintersectionmustbe

evaluatedindependentlytoassurethatdesignfeaturesareconsistentwithsafetyandthe
functionalclassoftheroadways.
8.11.2 IntersectionSightDistance
Twosightdistancecriteriamustbemetatintersections.First,thedrivermustbeabletoseethe
intersectionitself.Ataminimum,stoppingsightdistancemustbeprovidedtotheintersection.
However,decisionsightdistanceisoftenthedesirabletreatmentatintersectionsbecause:
1. Manyatgradeintersectionspresentroadwayconditionsthataretoocomplexforthe
2.5secondperception/reactiontimefactoredintothestoppingsightdistances.
2. Decisionsightdistanceallowstimetoconductanevasivemaneuver,whichisdesirableat
intersectionswhereslowermoving,stopped,orcrossingvehiclesmaybeinthethroughlane.
3. Intersectionsoftenhavehighnumbersofaccidents.Therefore,theadditionalvisibilityproved
bydecisionsightdistancemaybewarranted.
Whenmeasuringforsightdistance,theintersectionsurfaceshouldbeusedasa0.0meterheightof
object.DecisionsightdistanceanditsvaluesarediscussedinSection8.4.3.
Thesecondsightdistancecriterionwhichmustbemetisthecornersightdistancealongthelegsofthe
intersectinghighway.Oneoffivesightdistanceconditions(oracombination)mayapplyatthe
intersection;thesecasesarediscussedinthefollowingsections.Foreachcase,thecriteriawill
determinewhatminimumsighttrianglemustbefreeofobstructionstoallowtheintendedmaneuver.
Inaddition,forCaseIIIAtheapplicabledesignvehiclemustbeselectedbasedonthetypeandfrequency
ofvehiclesusingtheintersection.
Norigidcriteriacanbeestablishedforcaseselection.Thedesignermustdecidewhichofthefivecases
willbethedesigncontrolbasedonanassessmentofthefunctionalclassesoftheintersectinghighways,
trafficcontrol,trafficvolumes,trafficcomposition,andhighwaydesignspeed.Accidentpatternsmay
indicatewhereacriticalproblemexistsandthereforewhichsightdistancecaseshouldbeselected.
8.11.2.1 CaseINoControl:EnablingEitherVehicletoAdjustSpeed
Atintersectionswithouttrafficcontrol,driversshouldataminimumbeabletoadjusttheirspeedto
avoidacollision.Figure867providestheminimumsightdistancesalongeachintersectinglegassuming
3secondsofperception/reactiontime.Distancesd
a
andd
b
canbeextractedfromthetableforthesight
triangle.

Figure867.SightDistanceatIntersectionsMinimumSightTriangle
NoControlorYieldControlonMinorRoad
TheCaseIdistancesareconsiderablylessthanthelowerstoppingsightdistances.Therefore,theuseof
theCaseIcriteriashouldbelimitedtolowvolume,lowspeedintersectionswhereattaininggreater
sightdistancewouldbetoocostly.Theytypicallyapplytointersectionsinresidentialareasandbetween
minorruralroads.
8.11.2.2 CaseIINoControl:EnablingEitherVehicletoStop
Atintersectionswithouttrafficcontrols,itisdesirabletoprovideenoughsightdistancealongthe
intersectinglegstoalloweithervehicletostop.TheCaseIIsightdistancesareprovidedinFigure867,
whicharethegreaterstoppingsightdistances.Atrestrictedsites,thelowerstoppingsightdistances
maybeused.

Whereitistoocostlytoremoveanobstructionwhichblockstheneededsighttriangle,theCaseII
criteriacanbeusedtodeterminethesafespeedthroughtheintersection.Advancewarningsigns
shouldthenbeusedtonotifyapproachingdriversofthehazard
8.11.2.3 CaseIIIAStopControl:EnablingVehiclestoCrossaMajorHighway
Atanintersectionwithstopcontrolontheminorroad,thedriverofastoppedvehiclemusthave
sufficientsightdistanceinbothdirectionstocrossamajorroadwithoutinterferingwithoncoming
vehicles.Figure868providesanillustrationoftheCaseIIIAlayoutandthenecessaryequationsfor
computationof"d,thesightdistanceneededineitherdirection.Thefollowingstepsarenecessaryin
thecalculation:
1. Selectthedesignvehicle.Thisshouldbethevehiclewhichwillbemakingthecrossing
maneuverwithconsiderablefrequencytojustifythesightdistanceprovided.
2. CalculatethedistanceSthecrossingvehiclemusttraverse.AsshowninFigure868,this
willdependuponthelengthofthevehicle,thewidthofthemajorhighway,andthetypical
setbackdistance(usually3m).
3. Findtathetimeneededtotraveldistance"S,fromFigure869.Thiswilldependuponthe
selecteddesignvehicle.Thevaluesfromthefigurearevalidforrelativelyflatconditions.
4. Selectavalue"J,theperception/reactiontimeforadrivertobeginmovingthevehicle.
Normally,Jisassumedtobe2.0seconds.However,asomewhatlowervaluemaybe
justifiedinurbanareaswheredriversusemanyintersectionswithstopcontrol.
5. Calculate"d",theminimumsightdistancealongthemajorhighway,fromtheequationin
Figure868.
d=0.28V(J+t
a
)
Whentestingforadequatesightdistance,useaheightofeyeof1070mmandheightof
objectof1300mm.

Figure868.SightDistanceatIntersections
(VehicleCrossingMajorHighwayfromStopCaseIIIA)

Figure869.SightDistanceatIntersections
CaseIII,AccelerationfromStop)
Example(CaseIIIA)
Given: Designspeedofmajorhighway100km/hr
W=13m
Problem: Determinerequireddistance"d"forapassengervehicletocrossthehighwaysafely.
Solution: Step1: Useapassengervehicle.
Step2: D=3m;W=13m;andL=6m;Therefore:
S=3+13+6=22m

Step3: FromFigure11.3for"assumedPt
a
=5.7sec,
Step4: J=2.0sec.
Step5: d=0.28x100(2.0+5.7)
d=216m
8.11.2.4 CaseIIIB(LeftTurn)andIIIC(RightTurn)StopControl
Ifavehicleoperatorintendstoturnleftorrightontoahighwayfromastoppedposition,additionalsight
distanceisneeded.Figure870illustratesCaseIIIBandCaseIIIC.Figure871providesthedesign
criteriaforthesightdistanceneededalongthemajorhighway.Preferably,thecriteriafordesignspeed
shouldbeused;thecriteriaforaveragerunningspeedareacceptableasaminimum.Normally,sight
distancesforCaseIIIBandIIICshouldbesatisfied.(Note:Criteriaforbusesandtruckshavenotbeen
established.Thecornersightdistancesforthesevehicleswouldobviouslybemuchgreater.)
CasesIIIBandIIICshouldbeusedatanintersectionwherethefrequencyofleftturningand/orright
turningvehiclesjustifiestheadditionalcostsofprovidingthesightdistance.Areviewoftheintersection
accidenthistorymayindicatetheextentofanysightdistanceproblems.
Figure870.IntersectionSightDistanceatAtGradeIntersections

Figure871.IntersectionSightDistances
atAtGradeIntersection(CaseIIIBandCaseIIIC)
8.11.2.5 CaseIVSignalControl
Duetoavarietyofoperationalcharacteristicsassociatedwithallintersections,sightdistancebasedon
theCaseIIIproceduresmustbeavailabletothedriver.Thisprincipleisbasedontheincreaseddriver
workloadatintersectionsandtheproblemsinvolvedwhenvehiclesturnontoorcrossthemajor
highway.Theproblemsassociatedwithunanticipatedvehicleconflictsatsignalizedintersections,such
as,violationofthesignal,rightturnsonred,malfunctionofthesignal,oruseofflashingred/yellow
mode,furthersubstantiatetheneedforincorporationofCaseIIIsightdistanceevenatsignalcontrolled
intersections.

Abasicrequirementforallcontrolledintersectionsisthatdriversmustbeabletoseethecontroldevice
soonenoughtoperformtheactionitindicates.Atintersectionswhererightturnsonredarepermitted,
thedeparturesightlineforrightturningvehiclesshouldbedeterminedbythemethodsdiscussedin
"CaseIIIC,TurningRightintoaMajorHighway."
Inaddition,whendeterminingsightlinesforthedesignmaneuver,thedesignershouldconsiderthe
effectsofroadsideappurtenances,parkedcars,oranyotherrestrictiontothesightline.
8.11.2.6 EffectofSkew
Sightdistancecalculationsmustbeadjustedwhentheangleofintersectionislessthan60degrees.
Figure872showstheadjustedsighttrianglesofobliqueangleintersections.Thefollowingalterations
arenecessaryintheanalysis:
Becauseofthedifficultyoflookingforapproachingtraffic,theintersectionshouldneverbetreatedas
CaseI,evenwheretrafficislight.
TreatmentsbyCaseIIorCaseIII,whicheverislarger,shouldbeusedatobliqueangleintersections.
Theddistancealongthehighwaycanbecomputedfromtheequationd=0.28v(Jta)byreadingtafrom
Table845.
Figure872.SightDistanceatSkewedIntersections

Table845.AccelerationRatesforPassengerVehicles
Speed
(km/h)
Distance
(m)
ta
(s)
30 25 5.7
40 40 7.3
50 70 9.8
60 110 12.3
70 160 15.2
80 235 18.8
90 325 22.4
100 455 27.4
110 650 33.9
8.11.2.7 EffectofVerticalProfile
Avehicledescendingagraderequiresasomewhatgreaterdistancetostopthandoesoneonlevel
grade:also,avehicleascendingagraderequireslessdistanceinwhichtostop.Theeffectofgradeon
accelerationcanbeexpressedasamultiplicandtobeappliedtot
a
asdeterminedforlevelconditionsfor
agivendistance.SeeTable846.
Table846.EffectofGradientonAcceleratingTime(t
a
)atIntersections
Ratio,AcceleratingTimeonGradeToAcceleratingTimeonLevelSection
CrossroadGrade(%)
DesignVehicle 4 2 0 +2 +4
P 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3
SU 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3
WB15 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.7
8.11.3 IntersectionTurns
8.11.3.1 DesignofRightTurns
Thefollowingstepsapplywhendesigninganatgradeintersectiontoaccommodaterightturning
vehicles:
1. Selectthedesignvehiclebasedonthelargestvehiclelikelytomaketheturn,unlessthis
wouldbearelativelyinfrequentoccurrence.(TypicallyusetheSemitractorcombinationor
SUdesignvehiclewhereapplicable).

2. Selectthedesignspeedatwhichthevehicleshouldbeallowedtomaketheturn.The
turningradiidesignsdiscussedinSection8.11.3.1.1arenegotiableatspeedsof15km/hor
less.Ifhigherturningspeedsaredesired,thenaturningroadwayshouldbeused(Section
8.11.3.1.2).
3. Determinethetolerableencroachmentontootherlanes.Thiswillvarywithtrafficvolumes,
lanewidth,andonewayortwowayoperation.
4. Determinetheneedforauxiliaryturnlanes.
5. Determinetheavailabilityofrightofway.
6. Considertheeffectsofparkingonturningmovements.
7. Evaluatetheneedtoaccommodatepedestrianmovements.
8. Selecttheappropriatechannelizationtreatment.
Tuining Rauii
Turningradiiallowvehiclestonegotiatearightturn.Acurveradiuswithorwithoutmodificationis
used.Theedgeofpavementorcurblineforarightturncanbedesignedbythesemethods.
1. Simpleradius,
2. Simpleradiuswithtaperoffsets,
3. 3centeredsymmetriccompoundcurve,
4. 3centeredasymmetriccompoundcurve,or
5. Spiralcurve
Thesimpleradiuswithtaperoffsetprovidesagoodtransitionfortheturningvehicle.Therefore,they
shouldbeusedwherepractical.Table847&Table848providethedataforthetwomethodsfor
variousdesignvehiclesandturningangles.Thesedesignswillallowthedesignvehicletoturnatspeeds
upto15km/h.Figure873illustratesminimumdesignsforsimplecurvesforpassengerandsingleunit
vehicles.Figures874to877providethedesigndetailsandexamplesforsimplecurveradiiwithtaper
offsetsfor90degrees,lessthan90degrees,andgreaterthan90degreesangleofturns.
Table847.MinimumEdgeofTraveledWayDesignsforTurnsatIntersection
SimpleCurveRadiuswithTaper
Angle
ofTurn
(degrees)
Design
Vehicle
Simple
Curve
Radius (m)
Radius
(m)
Offset
(m)
Taper
(m:m)
30
P 18
SU 30

Angle
ofTurn
(degrees)
Design
Vehicle
Simple
Curve
Radius(m)
Radius
(m)
Offset
(m)
Taper
(m:m)
WB12 45
Ws15 60
WB19 110 67 1.0 15:1
WB20 116 67 1.0 15:1
we29 77 37 1.0 15:1
WB35 145 77 1.1 20:1
45
P 15
SU 23
WB12 36
WB15 53 36 0.6 15:1
WB19 70 43 1.2 15:1
WB20 76 43 1.3 15:1
WB29 61 35 0.8 15:1
WB35 61 1.3 20:1
60
P 12
SU 18
WB12 28
WB15 45 29 1.0 15:1
WB19 50 43 1.2 15:1
WB20 60 43 1.3 15:1
WB29 46 29 0.8 15:1
WB35 54 1.3 20:1
75
P 11 8 0.6 10:1
SU 17 14 0.6 10:1
WB12 18 0.6 15:1
WB15 20 1.0 15:1
WB19 43 1.2 20:1
WB20 43 1.3 20:1
WB29 26 1.0 15:1

Angle
ofTurn
(degrees)
Design
Vehicle
Simple
Curve
Radius(m)
Radius
(m)
Offset
(m)
Taper
(m:m)
WB35 42 1.7 20:1
90
P 9 6 0.8 10:1
SU 15 12 0.6 10:1
WB12 14 1.2 10:1
WB15 18 1.2 15:1
WB19 36 1.2 30:1
WB20 37 1.3 30:1
WB29 25 0.8 15:1
WB35 35 0.9 15:1
105
P 6 0.8 8:1
SU 11 1.0 10:1
WB12 12 1.2 10:1
Ws15 17 1.2 15:1
WB19 35 1.0 30:1
WB20 35 1.0 30:1
WB29 22 1.0 15:1
WB35 28 2.8 15:1
120
P 6 0.6 10:1
SU 9 1.0 10:1
WB12 11 1.5 8:1
WB15 14 1.2 15:1
WB19 30 1.5 25:1
WB20 31 1.6 25:1
WB29 20 1.1 15:1
WB35 26 2.8 15:1

Angle
ofTurn
(degrees)
Design
Vehicle
Simple
Curve
Radius(m)
Radius
(m)
Offset
(m)
Taper
(m:m)
135
P 6 0.5 15:1
SU 9 1.2 8:1
WB12 9 2.5 6:1
WB15 12 2.0 10:1
WB19 24 1.5 20:1
WB20 25 1.6 20:1
WB29 19 1.7 15:1
WB35 25 2.6 15:1
150
P 6 0.6 10:1
SU 9 1.2 8:1
WB12 9 2.0 8:1
WB15 11 2.1 6:1
WB19 18 3.0 10:1
WB20 19 3.1 10:1
WB29 19 2.2 10:1
WB35 20 4.6 10:1
180
P 5 0.2 20:1
SU 9 0.5 10:1
WB12 6 3.0 5:1
WB15 8 3.0 5:1
WB19 17 3.0 15:1
WB20 16 4.2 10:1
WB29 17 3.1 10:1
WB35 17 6.1 10:1

Table848.CrossStreetWidthOccupiedbyTurningVehiclefor
VariousAnglesofIntersectionandCurbRadii

Figure873.MinimumDesignsforSimpleCurves

Figure874.DetailedLayoutofSimpleCurveRadiuswithTaperOffset
(90DegreeTurn)

(AngleofTurn90Degrees)

(AngleofTurn90Degrees)

Figure877a.EffectofCurbRadiionTurningPaths
ofVariousDesignVehicles
Figure877b.EffectofCurbRadiionTurningPaths
ofVariousDesignVehicles
Tuining Roauways
Turningroadwaysarechannelizedareaswhichallowarightturntobemadeawayfromtheintersection
area.Theyshouldbeconsideredwhere:
1. itisdesirabletoallowrightturnsat25km/hormore
2. intersectionsareskewed;or

3. busesorsemitrailersmustbeaccommodated
Table849providesthedesigndataforthehorizontalalignment,width,andsuperelevationforvarious
designspeeds.Figure878illustratesatypicaldesignforaturningroadway.Thesecriteriaapplytothe
designofaturningroadway.
1. Curvature3centeredcompoundcurvesshouldbeused.Table850andFigure879show
theminimumdesigncriteria.
2. SpiralsMayalsobeusedforsmoothertransitions.SeeTable851forminimumspiral
lengths.
3. SuperelevationSuperelevationonturningroadwaysdoesnotneedtobedevelopedtothe
strictcriteriaofopenhighways.Aflexibleapproachmaybeusedwheresuperelevationis
providedassiteconditionsallow.Themaximumsuperelevationis0.04m/m.Ifpossible,
thesuperelevationshouldbedevelopedinthesamemannerasdescribedinSection5for
decelerationlanesatfreewayexits.
4. SpeedChangeLanesForlargedifferencesbetweenthedesignspeedsofmainlineand
turningroadway,thedesignershouldconsiderdecelerationandaccelerationlanes.The
decisiontouseaspeedchangelanewilldependuponthefunctionalclassificationofthe
twohighways,trafficvolumes,accidenthistory,designspeed,andthespeeddifferential
betweenthemainlineandturningroadway.Speedchangelanesshouldbeprovidedfrom
highvolume,highspeedurbanandruralarterials.Accelerationlanesarenormallyprovided
whentheturningroadwayismergingwiththesefacilities.A15:1taperissufficientfor
decelerationlanes,anda25:1taperispreferredfortheaccelerationlane.
Preferably,thelengthofthespeedchangelaneshouldbedeterminedfromthecriteriain
Section8.8forinterchanges.
Table849.DesignsforTurningRoadways
Design
1
Speed
(km/h)
Side
Friction
(f)
Assumed
2
Superelevation
(e)
e+f
Minimum
3
Radius
(m)
Width
4
(m)
A B C
30 .27 .02 .29 28 4.50 5.0 5.5
40 .23 .04 .27 46 4.25 5.0 5.25
50 .20 .04 .26 70 4.0 5.0 5.0
Notes:
1
Fordesignspeedsgreaterthan50km/huseopenhighwayconditions.
2
Superelevationistypicallybetween.02and.04
3
Aflattercurve,nomorethantwicetheminimumradius,shouldbeusedtotransitionintoandoutofthesharper
radius.Theminimumlengthoftheflattertransitioncurvewillbe:
Radius(m) 30 45 60 75 90 120 150+
MinimumLength
(m)
12 15 18 24 30 36 43
DesirableLength
(m)
18 20 27 36 42 41 60

4
Addaminimumof0.5manddesirable1.25moneachsideofabarriercurb.
Trafficconditionsare:
APredominantlyPvehicles,butsomeconsiderationforSUtrucks;
BPredominantlySUvehicles,butsomeconsiderationsforsemitrailers;
CSufficientbusandsemitrailervehiclestogoverndesign(>10%)
Figure878.TypicalDesignforTurningRoadway

Table850.MinimumDesignsforTurningRoadways

3Centered
CompoundCurve

Angle
ofTurn
(degrees)
Design
Classification
Radii
(m)
Offset
(m)
Width
ofLane
(m)
Approx.
Island
Size(m
2
)
75
A 452345 1.0 4.2 5.5
B 452345 1.5 5.4 5.0
C 552855 1.0 6.0 5.0
90*
A 451545 1.0 4.2 5.0
B 451545 1.5 5.4 7.5
C 552055 2.0 6.0 11.5
105
A 361236 0.6 4.5 6.5
B 301130 1.5 6.6 5.0
C 551455 2.4 9.0 5.5
120
A 30930 0.8 4.8 11.0
B 30930 1.5 7.2 8.5
C 551255 2.5 10.2 20.0
135
A 30930 0.8 4.8 43.0
B 30930 1.5 7.8 35.0
C 481148 2.7 10.5 60.0
150 A 30930 0.8 4.8 130.0

B 30930 2.0 9.0 110.0
C 451148 2.1 11.4 160.0
NOTES:Asymmetricthreecenteredcompoundcurveandstraighttaperswithasimplecurvecanalsobeusedwithout
significantlyalteringthewidthofroadwayorcornerislandsize.
Paintedislanddelineationisrecommendedforislandslessthan7m
2
insize
DesignClassification:
APrimarilypassengervehicles;permitsoccasionaldesignsingleunittrucktoturnwithrestrictedclearances.
BProvidesadequatelyforSU;permitsoccasionalWB15toturnwithslightencroachmentonadjacenttrafficlanes.
CProvidesfullyforWB15.
Table851.MinimumLengthsofSpiralsforIntersectionCurves
Design(turning)speed(km/h) 30 40 50 60 70
Minimumradius 25 50 80 125 160
AssumedC 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8
CalculatedLengthofSpiral(m) 19 25 33 41 57
SuggestedMinimumLengthOfSpiral 20 25 35 45 60
CorrespondingCircularCurve
OffsetFromTangent(m)
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9

Figure879.DesignsforTurningRoadways
withMinimumCornerIslands

8.11.3.2 AuxiliaryTurningandStorageLanes
Waiiants foi RightTuin Lanes
Exclusiverightturnlanesshouldbeconsideredforatgradeintersections,asfollows:
1. atintersectionswithhighspeedand/orhighvolumeturningmovements;
2. atunsignalizedintersectionsontwolaneurbanorruralhighwayswhichsatisfythecriteria
inFigure880.
3. atintersectionswheretheaccidentexperience,existingtrafficoperation,orengineering
judgmentindicateasignificanthazardorcapacityproblemrelatedtorightturningvehicles

Figure880.RightTurnWarrantsat
UnsignalizedIntersectionson2LaneHighways
Waiiants foi LeftTuin Lanes

Exclusiveleftturnlanesshouldbeconsideredforatgradeintersections,asfollows:
1. atintersectionswithmajorroadsonurbanandruralarterials;
2. atunsignalizedintersectionsontwolaneurbanorruralhighwayswhichmeetthecriteria;
RefertoTable851.
3. atintersectionswheretheaccidentexperience,existingtrafficoperations,orengineering
judgmentindicateasignificanthazardorcapacityproblemrelatedtoleftturningvehicles


Length of Auxiliaiy Tuin anu Stoiage Lanes
Thelengthoftheturninglaneisthesumofitstaper,deceleration,andstoragelengths:
1. TaperAtaperof15:1shouldbeused.Shortcurvesshouldbeusedatthebeginningand
endofthetaper.
2. DecelerationItisdesirableforthelengthsfordecelerationtobethesameasthosegiven
fordecelerationlanesatfreewayexitsinChapter8(Table81),andforalldecelerationto
occurwithinthefullwidthoftheturnlane.Figure881providestheminimumcriteriafor
thelengthofturnlanes.
3. StorageLengthThestoragelengthshouldbelongenoughtostorethenumberofvehicles
likelytoaccumulateinthedesignperiod.Thefollowingminimumcriteriawillapply:
(a) Atunsignalizedintersectionsthestoragelengthshouldaccommodatethe
numberofturningvehicleslikelytoarriveinanaveragetwominuteperiod
withinthepeakhour.Asaminimum,15mshouldbeallowed;iftheturning
trafficisover10%trucks,aminimumof25mshouldbeprovided.
(b) Atsignalizedintersections,thestoragelengthshouldbebasedon1.5or2.0
timestheaveragenumberofvehiclesthatwouldstorepercycle.
Table852.GuideforLeftTurnLanesonTwoLaneHighways
AdvancingVolume/Hour
Opposing
Volume/Hour
LeftTurns
5% 10% 20% 30%
60km/hOperatingSpeed
800 330 240 180 160
600 410 305 225 200
400 510 380 275 245
200 640 470 350 305
100 720 515 390 340
800 800 280 210 135
600 600 350 260 170
400 400 430 320 210
200 200 550 400 270
100 100 615 445 295
800 230 170 125 115

600 290 210 160 140
400 365 270 200 175
200 450 330 250 215
100 505 370 275 240
Rightandleftturnlanesshouldbedesignedasfollows:
1. Figure882illustratesatypicalrightturnlaneandatypicalleftturnlane(onadivided
highway).Minimumdistancesfordecelerationareprovided.
2. Figure883illustratesthetypicaltreatmentfordevelopingaleftturnlaneonanundivided
highway.
3. Figure884illustratesthetypicaldesignforabypasslaneonlowspeedfacilitiesin
developedareas.Thisisarelativelyinexpensivedesigntoprovideforthroughandleftturn
movementsatunsignalizedintersections.ItisappropriateforTintersectionswhereleft
turningvolumesarelighttomoderate,whererightofwayisrestricted,andaccidenthistory
isnegligible.
Figure882.TypicalRightandLeftTurnLanesonDividedHighway
TYPICAL RIGHT TURN LANE
TYPICAL LEFT TURN LANE

NOTES:
1. Widthsmustbeincreasedforcurboffsetsorshoulders,whereapplicable.

2. Asshowninthefigure,alldecelerationwilldesirablyoccurafterthefullwidthoftheturninglanebegins.Ifpossible,
thecriteriainTable853shouldbeused.However,inareasofrestrictedrightofway,thismaynotbepractical.Usethe
followingminimumdistancesfordeceleration:
DesignSpeed
(km/h)
Length(m)
(DecelerationandTaperGrades2%orLess)
50 70m
60 100m
80 130m
Figure883.TypicalLeftTurnLaneonanUndividedHighway
NOTES:
1. Tablesarebasedon:
A. Curveradiiareminimumradiiforopenhighwayconditionsforgivendesignspeedandanormalcrownof0.02m/m,
whichisthetypicalcrossslope.
B. TangentDistanceAssumesATaperOf:L=Ws/100
2. SeeTable882ForDetailsofTurningLaneTaper.
3. SeeTable882fordetailsofturninglanelength.
4. Islandmayberaised,painted,orscoredconcrete.

Figure884.ByPassLaneinHighlyDevelopedAreas
onanUndividedHighwayatLessthan60km/h
NOTES:
1. L=Length,m
W=ByPassLaneWidth,m
S=DesignSpeed,km/h
2. IncreaseLengthIfStorageRequirementsExceed30m.
3. MaybeusedasanalternativetoFigure883inhighlydevelopedareas,whererightofwayisrestricted.
0thei Consiueiations
Whendesigninganauxiliaryturningandstoragelane,thesefactorsshouldalsobeconsidered:
4. Wheretheproperlengthofaturnlanecannotbeprovidedorbecomesprohibitive,the
designermayconsideradualturnlane.Generally,adualturnlaneapproximately60%as
longasasingleturnlanewilloperatecomparably.However,doubleleftturnsrequirea
protectedturnphasetooperateproperly.
12. Arightturnlaneinanurbanareawilloftenrequireparkingrestrictionsbeyondthe
usualrestricteddistancesfromtheintersection.Also,itmayrequirerelocatingnear
sidebusstopstothefarsideoftheintersection.
13. Withsufficientlywidemedians,aleftturnlanemaybeoffset0.5mormorefromthe
insidethroughlanetoprovideastripedislandbetweenthetwo.
14. Mediansmustbedesignedtoaccommodatetheturningradiiofthedesignvehicle.
15. Pavementmarkingsforlanesmustlineupfromonesideoftheintersectiontothe
other.
16. Thewidthoftheturnlaneshouldbe3.0mminimum.
17. MedianopeningsshouldbedesignedaccordingtothecriteriainSection8.11.3.4.
8.11.3.3 TwoWayLeftTurnLanes
Acontinuousortwowayleftturnlane(2WLTL)isapaved,flush,traversablemedianwhichcanbeused
forleftturnstorageineitherdirection.A2WLTLmaybeconsideredindevelopedareaswithfrequent
commercialroadsideaccessandwithnomorethantwothroughlanesineachdirection.

Althoughthe2WLTLoffersadvantages,theyarehazardousunlessthereissufficientsightdistanceand
adequatedelineation.Thefollowingshouldbeusedasguidanceinselectinganddesigninga2WLTL:
5. A2WLTLislimitedtoarterialswithoperatingspeedsof70km/hrorless.
18. Thepreferredlanewidthis4.5mwithaminimumlanewidthof3.75m.
19. Atminorintersections,the2WLTLshouldbeextendeduptotheintersection.Atmajor
and/orsignalizedintersections,the2WLTLshouldbeterminatedinadvanceofthe
intersection.Anexclusiveleftturnlaneoftheproperlengthshouldbeprovided.
20. Any2WLTLmustbeclearlymarkedandadequatelydelineatedtopreventpossibleuse
asapassinglane.Overheadsigningshouldbeused.
21. A2WLTLmaybeusedwhereaveragedailytrafficthroughvolumesare10,000to20,000
(4lane)and5,000to12,000(2lane)andleftturnsconsistofatleast70midblockturns
per300mduringpeakhourand/or20%ormoreofthetotalvolume.Highleftturning
volumescombinedwithhighaveragedailytraffic(ADT)couldpossiblyleadto
operationalandsafetyproblems.Restrictingallleftturnsexceptatpublicroad
intersectionsandindirect(jughandle)Uturns,orprovidingaraisedmedian,withleft
turnand/orUturnlanesshouldalsobeconsidered.Eachsiterequirescareful
evaluationofthesuitabilityofthe2WLTL.
8.11.3.4 MedianOpenings
Medianopeningsshouldbeprovidedprimarilyatpublicroadintersectionsandtoallowleftturnstoand
fromthemainhighway.
Inordertoprovidecoordinatedsignalprogressionformainlinetraffic,medianopeningsshouldnotbe
closelyspaced.Onmajorarterials,signalizedintersectionswithmedianopeningsshouldbespacedno
closertogetherthan500mto600m.Onminorarterials,signalizedintersectionswithmedianopenings
shouldbespacednoclosertogetherthan400mto500m.
Medianopeningsmustbedesignedtoaccommodateleftturningvehiclesproperly.Leftturning
vehiclestraceessentiallythesamepathasrightturningvehicles.Figures885and886illustratethe
designvehiclepathsandprovidethecriteriaforintersectionswithcontrolradii15mand23m.The
followingcriteriaapply:
1. Thenoseshouldbedesignedtoaccommodatethetrafficmovementattheintersection.
2. Theminimumlengthsofmedianopeningsare12mandareshownonTable853toTable8
56.Intersectionsonaskewmayrequirelargeropenings.
3. Theacceptableencroachmentistheprimaryfactorinselectingthedesignvehicle.The
medianopeningfiguresillustratehowmuchthelargervehiclesencroachontheadjacent
lanesforagivendesign.ThedecisiontousetheSUorWB15designisbasedontruck
volumes,throughtrafficvolumes,designspeed,accidenthistory,costs,signalization,and
judgment.

Figure885.MinimumDesignofMedianOpenings
(SUDesignVehicle,ControlRadiusof15m)

Figure886.MinimumDesignofMedianOpenings
(WB12DesignVehicle,ControlRadiusof23m)

Table853.MinimumDesignofMedianOpenings(SUDesignVehicle,ControlRadiusof15m)
Width
Median
(m)
L=MinimumLengthofMedianOpening(m)
Semicircular BulletNose
1.2 28.8 28.8
1.8 28.2 22.8
24 27.6 20.4
3.0 27.0 1&6
3.6 26.4 17.4
4.2 25.8 15.9
4.8 212 15.0
&0 24.0 13.2
7.2 22.8 12.0MIN
8.4 21.6 12.0MIN
46 20.4 12.0MIN
10.8 19.2 12.0MIN
12.0 18.0 12.0MIN
15.0 15.0 12.0MIN
18.0 12.0MIN 12.0MIN
21.0 12.0MIN 12.0MIN
Table854.MinimumDesignofMedianOpenings(WB12DesignVehicle,ControlRadiusof23m)
Width
Median
(m)
1.2 43.8 35.6
1.8 43.2 34.5
2.4 42.6 33.0
3.0 42.0 31.5
3.6 41.4 30.0
4.2 40.8 28.8
4.8 40.2 27.6
6.0 39.0 2T5
7.2 37.8 23.4
8.4 36.6 21.9
9.6 35.4 20.1

Width
Median
(m)
10.8 34.2 18.6
12.0 30.0 17.1
18.0 27.0 12.0MIN
24.0 21.0 12.0MIN
30.0 15.0 12.0MIN
33.0 12.0MIN 12.0MIN
36.0 12.0MIN 12.0MIN
Table855.EffectofSkewonMinimumDesignforMedianOpenings
(TypicalValuesBasedonControlRadiusof15m)
Skew
Angle
(degree)
Widthof
Median
(m)
LengthofMedianOpeningMeasured
NormaltotheCrossroad(m)
Semi
Circular
A
BulletNose
RFor
DesignC
(m)
Symmetrical
B
Asymmetrical
B
0
3 27 19
6 24 13
9 21 12MIN.
12 18 12MIN.
15 15 12MIN.
18 13 12MIN.
10
3 32 24 23
6 28 17 16
9 25 14 12MIN.
12 21 12MIN. 12MIN.
15 18 12MIN. 12MIN.

Skew
Angle
(degree)
Widthof
Median
(m)
LengthofMedianOpeningMeasured
NormaltotheCrossroad(m)
Semi
Circular
A
BulletNose
RFor
DesignC
(m)
Symmetrical
B
Asymmetrical
B
18 14 12MIN. 12MIN.
20
3 36 29 27 29
6 32 22 20 28
9 28 18 14 26
12 24 14 12MIN. 25
15 20 12MIN. 12MIN. 23
18 16 12MIN. 12MIN. 21
30
3 41 34 32 42
6 36 27 23 39
9 31 23 17 36
12 27 19 13 33
15 23 15 12MIN. 30
18 18 12 12MIN. 27
40
3 44 38 35 63
6 39 32 27 58
9 35 27 20 53
12 29 23 15 47
15 24 19 12MIN. 42
18 19 15 12MIN. 36

Table856.DesignControlsforMinimumMedianOpenings
ControlRadius(m)
DesignVehiclesAccommodated 12 15 23
Predominant P SU WB12
Occasional SU WB12 WB15
8.12 Roundabouts
8.12.1 General
Roundaboutsarecircularintersectionswithspecificdesignandtrafficcontrolfeatures.Thesefeatures
includeyieldcontrolofallenteringtraffic,channelizedapproaches,andappropriategeometric
curvaturetoensurethattravelspeedsonthecirculatoryroadwayaretypicallylessthan50km/h.Thus,
roundaboutsareasubsetofawiderangeofcircularintersectionforms.
Aroundaboutcanbeprovidedonanyclassofroadwhereatgradeintersectionsarepermissible,andso
isanappropriateformofintersectiononallroads,exceptforfreewaysandexpresswayswhereatgrade
intersectionsarenottobeused.
ItisreasonabletoassumethatroundaboutsonLocalRoadswilloperatewithincapacity,anditislikely
thatroundaboutsonCollectorscanbedesignedtodosotoo.OnArterials,adequatecapacitymayoften
bedifficulttoachievewhilemaintainingasafelayout.
8.12.2 DesignPrinciples
Theprincipalobjectiveofroundaboutdesignistosecurethesafeinteractionoftrafficbetweencrossing
trafficstreamswithminimumdelay.Thisisachievedbyacombinationofgeometriclayoutfeaturesthat
shouldbematchedtothevolumesoftrafficinthevariousstreams,tovehiclespeeds,andtoany
locationconstraintsthatapply.Roundaboutsaredefinedbytwobasicoperationalanddesign
principles:
YieldatEntry: Also known as offside priority or the yieldtoleft rule, yieldatentry requires
that vehicles on the circulatory roadway of the roundabout have the rightofway and all
enteringvehiclesontheapproacheshavetowaitforagapinthecirculatingflow.Tomaintain
freeflowandhighcapacity,yieldsignsareusedastheentrycontrol.
Deflection of Entering Traffic: Entrance roadways that intersect the roundabout along a
tangent to the circulatory roadway are not permitted. Instead, entering traffic is deflected to
therightbythecentralislandoftheroundaboutandbychannelizationattheentranceintoan
appropriatecurvedpathalongthecirculatingroadway.
Fromasafetyviewpoint,theroundaboutshouldbedesignedtolimitthroughspeedsbymeansof
adequatedeflectionanglesandentrypathcurvature,andthismayconstrainpavementwidthsandthus
limittheavailablecapacity.SeeFigure887.

Figure887.DeflectionofEnteringTraffic

8.12.3 GeneralFeaturesofaRoundabout
8.12.3.1 Layout
Aroundabouthasaonewaycirculatingpavementaroundacentralislandwhichis4mormorein
diameter.Theentriesaregenerallydesignedtopermitmorethanonevehicletoentertheroundabout
sidebyside,andtheapproachesmaybe"flared"toachieveadequateentrywidth.Figures888and8
89depictbasicdesignandgeometricelementsofaroundabout.Entriesfromundividedroadsshouldbe
providedwithmediansofdividedroadsshouldbewidenedinasimilarmanner.Theminimumdiameter
foracentralislandis4m.Flushpavingshouldbeconsideredforroundaboutswithislanddiametersin
therange4mto12m.

Figure888.TypicalRoundaboutDesign
Figure889.BasicGeometricElementsofaRoundabout

8.12.3.2 NumberofEntries
Thenumberofentriesrecommendediseitherthreeorfour.Roundaboutsperformparticularlywell
withthreelegs,beingmoreefficientthansignals,providedthatthetrafficdemandisevenlybalanced
betweenthelegs.Ifthenumberofentriesisgreaterthanfour,drivercomprehensioncanbeadversely
affected.Theroundaboutalsobecomestarget,anditislikelythathighercirculatingspeedswilloccur.
Sixlegsshouldbeconsideredastheabsolutemaximum.
8.12.4 SpeedsthroughtheRoundabout
Becauseithasprofoundimpactsonsafety,achievingappropriatevehicularspeedsthroughthe
roundaboutisthemostcriticaldesignobjective.Awelldesignedroundaboutreducestherelative
speedsbetweenconflictingtrafficstreamsbyrequiringvehiclestonegotiatetheroundaboutalonga
curvedpath.
8.12.4.1 Speedprofiles
Figure890showstheoperatingspeedsoftypicalvehiclesapproachingandnegotiatingaroundabout.
Approachspeedsof40,55,and70km/habout100mfromthecenteroftheroundaboutareshown.
Decelerationbeginsbeforethistime,withcirculatingdriversoperatingatapproximatelythesamespeed
ontheroundabout.Therelativelyuniformnegotiationspeedofalldriversontheroundaboutmeans
thatdriversareabletomoreeasilychoosetheirdesiredpathsinasafeandefficientmanner.
8.12.4.2 Designspeed
Internationalstudieshaveshownthatincreasingthevehiclepathcurvaturedecreasestherelativespeed
betweenenteringandcirculatingvehiclesandthususuallyresultsindecreasesintheentering
circulatingandexitingcirculatingvehiclecrashrates.However,atmultilaneroundabouts,increasing
vehiclepathcurvaturecreatesgreatersidefrictionbetweenadjacenttrafficstreamsandcanresultin
morevehiclescuttingacrosslanesandhigherpotentialforsideswipecrashes.Thus,foreach
roundabout,thereexistsanoptimumdesignspeedtominimizecrashes.

Figure890.SampleTheoreticalSpeedProfile(UrbanCompactRoundabout)
Recommendedmaximumentrydesignspeedsforroundaboutsatvariousintersectionsitecategories
areprovidedinTable857.
Table857.RecommendedMaximumEntryDesignSpeeds
8.12.4.3 VehiclePaths
Todeterminethespeedofaroundabout,thefastestpathallowedbythegeometryisdrawn.Thisisthe
smoothest,flattestpathpossibleforasinglevehicle,intheabsenceofothertrafficandignoringalllane
markings,traversingthroughtheentry,aroundthecentralisland,andouttheexit.Usuallythefastest
possiblepathisthethroughmovement,butinsomecasesitmaybearightturnmovement.
Avehicleisassumedtobe2mwideandtomaintainaminimumclearanceof0.5mfromaroadway
centerlineorconcretecurbandflushwithapaintededgeline.Thusthecenterlineofthevehiclepathis
drawnwiththefollowingdistancestotheparticulargeometricfeatures:

1.5mfromaconcretecurb,
1.5mfromaroadwaycenterline,and
1.0mfromapaintededgeline
Figure891and892illustratetheconstructionofthefastestvehiclepathsatasinglelaneroundabout
andatadoublelaneroundabout,respectively.Figure893providesanexampleofanapproachat
whichtherightturnpathismorecriticalthanthethroughmovement.
Figure891.FastestVehiclePaththroughSinglelaneRoundabout


Figure892.FastestVehiclePaththroughDoublelaneRoundabout

Figure893.ExampleofCriticalRightturnMovement
Thedesignspeedoftheroundaboutisdeterminedfromthesmallestradiusalongthefastestallowable
path.Thesmallestradiususuallyoccursonthecirculatoryroadwayasthevehiclecurvestotheleft
aroundthecentralisland.However,itisimportantwhendesigningtheroundaboutgeometrythatthe
radiusoftheentrypath(i.e.,asthevehiclecurvestotherightthroughentrygeometry)notbe
significantlylargerthanthecirculatorypathradius.

8.12.5 DesignVehicle
Animportantfactordeterminingaroundaboutslayoutistheneedtoaccommodatethelargest
motorizedvehiclelikelytousetheintersection.Theturningpathrequirementsofthisdesignvehicle
willdictatemanyoftheroundaboutsdimensions.Beforebeginningthedesignprocess,thedesigner
mustbeconsciousofthedesignvehicleandpossesstheappropriatevehicleturningtemplatesoraCAD
basedvehicleturningpathprogramtodeterminethevehiclessweptpath.
Thechoiceofdesignvehiclewillvarydependingupontheapproachingroadwaytypesandthe
surroundinglandusecharacteristics.Commonly,WB15vehiclesarethelargestvehiclesalong
collectorsandarterials.Smallerdesignvehiclesmayoftenbechosenforlocalstreetintersections.
Ingeneral,largerroundaboutsneedtobeusedtoaccommodatelargevehicleswhilemaintaininglow
speedsforpassengervehicles.However,insomecases,landconstraintsmaylimittheabilityto
accommodatelargesemitrailercombinationswhileachievingadequatedeflectionforsmallvehicles.At
suchtimes,atruckapronmaybeusedtoprovideadditionaltraversableareaaroundthecentralisland
forlargesemitrailers(Figure894).Truckaprons,though,providealowerlevelofoperationthan
standardnonmountableislandsandshouldbeusedonlywhenthereisnoothermeansofproviding
adequatedeflectionwhileaccommodatingthedesignvehicle.
Figure894.DesignVehiclewiththeUseofanApron
8.12.6 InscribedCircleDiameter
Theinscribedcirclediameteristhedistanceacrossthecircleinscribedbytheoutercurb(oredge)ofthe
circulatoryroadway.AsillustratedinFigure889,itisthesumofthecentralislanddiameter(which
includestheapron,ifpresent)andtwicethecirculatoryroadway.Theinscribedcirclediameter(ICD)is
determinedbyanumberofdesignobjectives.Ingeneral,theICDshouldbeaminimumof30mto
accommodateaWB15designvehicle.Smallerroundaboutscanbeusedforsomelocalstreetor
collectorstreetintersections,wherethedesignvehiclemaybeabusorsingleunittruck.
Atdoublelaneroundabouts,accommodatingthedesignvehicleisusuallynotaconstraint.Thesizeof
theroundaboutisusuallydeterminedeitherbytheneedtoachievedeflectionorbytheneedtofitthe

entriesandexitsaroundthecircumferencewithreasonableentryandexitradiibetweenthem.
Generally,theinscribedcirclediameterofadoublelaneroundaboutshouldbeaminimumof45m.
ThesizeofthesmallestacceptableICDisdeterminedbytheselecteddesignvehicle.Itisgoodpractice
toallowatoleranceof1.5mfrombothinnerandoutercurbs,andsotypicalminimumlCDsareasset
outinTable858.
Table858.RecommendedInscribedCircleDiameters
SiteCategory
Typical
DesignVehicle
InscribedCircle
DiameterRange*
MiniRoundabout SingleUnitTruck 1325m
UrbanCompact SingleUnitTruck/Bus 2530m
UrbanSingleLane WB15 3040m
UrbanDoubleLane WB15 4555m
RuralSingleLane WB20 3540m
RuralDoubleLane WB20 5560m
*Assumes90degreeanglesbetweenentriesandnomorethan4legs.
Ingeneral,smallerinscribeddiametersarebetterforoverallsafetybecausetheyhelptomaintainlower
speeds.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatifroundaboutsarebelow40mICDitcanprovedifficultto
achieveadequatedeflections.Insuchcasesconsiderationcouldbegiventotheuseofalarger,low
profilecentralislandwhichwouldprovideadequatedeflectionforstandardvehiclesbutallowoverrun
ofallorpartoftheislandbytherearwheelsofarticulatedvehiclesandtrailers.
Inhighspeedenvironments,however,thedesignoftheapproachgeometryismorecriticalthaninlow
speedenvironments.Largerinscribeddiametersgenerallyallowfortheprovisionofbetterapproach
geometry,whichleadstoadecreaseinvehicleapproachspeeds.Largerinscribeddiametersalsoreduce
theangleformedbetweenenteringandcirculatingvehiclepaths,therebyreducingtherelativespeed
betweenthesevehiclesandleadingtoreducedenteringcirculatingcrashrates.
8.12.7 CirculatingRoadwayWidth
Thecirculatingroadwaypavementwidthshould,ifpossible,becircularinplan,anditswidthshould
generallynotexceed15m.However,flushblockpaved'collars'aroundthecentralislandcanbeusedto
provideadditionalwidthiflongvehicleturningmovementsneedtobecateredforonsmaller
roundabouts.
Thewidthofthecirculatingpavementshouldbeconstantandshouldbebetween1.0and1.2timesthe
widthofthewidestentry.Itmaybenecessarytoexceed1.2onsmallerICDroundabouts,butcare

shouldbetakentoensurethatthewiderpavementdoesnotpermitvehiclepathswithlessthan
adequatedeflection.
Itisnormalpracticetoavoidshortlengthsofreversecurvebetweenanentryandthesubsequentexit
byjoiningthosecurveswithtangentsbetweentheentryandexitcurves.Onemethodistoincreasethe
exitradius.However,wherethereisaconsiderabledistancebetweentheentryandthenextexit,as
withthreeleglayouts,reversecurvaturemaybeunavoidable.Thecirculatingpavementmustbewide
enoughtoallowthosevehicleswhichhaveenteredtheroundaboutsidebysidetocontinuesideby
side.Allowanceshouldbemadeforincreasedwidthbecauseofthecurve,assetoutinTable859.For
islanddiameterslessthan30m,thewidthrequirementsshouldalwaysbecheckedusingarelevant
softwarepackageorsweptpathtemplates.
Table859.MinimumWidthofCirculatingPavement
IslandDiameter
(m)
Circulation
2Lane 3Lane
30 12.6 Check
using
Template
50 11.1
75 10.3 15.0
100 9.9 14.7
150 9.3 13.8
200 9.0 13.2
250 8.7 12.6
8.12.8 EntryWidth
Entrywidthisthelargestdeterminantofaroundaboutscapacity.Thecapacityofanapproachisnot
dependentmerelyonthenumberofenteringlanes,butonthetotalwidthoftheentry.Inotherwords,
theentrycapacityincreasessteadilywithincrementalincreasestotheentrywidth.Therefore,thebasic
sizesofentriesandcirculatoryroadwaysaregenerallydescribedintermsofwidth,notnumberoflanes.
Entriesthatareofsufficientwidthtoaccommodatemultipletrafficstreams(atleast6.0m)arestripedto
designateseparatelanes.However,thecirculatoryroadwayisusuallynotstriped,evenwhenmore
thanonelaneoftrafficisexpectedtocirculate.Thepracticalrangeforentrywidthis6.0mto15.0m,
butforundividedroads,theupperlimitshouldbe10.5m.
AsshowninFigure897,entrywidthismeasuredfromthepointwheretheyieldlineintersectstheleft
edgeofthetraveledwaytotherightedgeofthetraveledway,alongalineperpendiculartotheright
curbline.Thewidthofeachentryisdictatedbytheneedsoftheenteringtrafficstream.Itisbasedon
designtrafficvolumesandcanbedeterminedintermsofthenumberofentrylanes.Thecirculatory
roadwaymustbeatleastaswideasthewidestentryandmustmaintainaconstantwidththroughout.
Tomaximizetheroundaboutssafety,entrywidthsshouldbekepttoaminimum.Thedesignshould
providetheminimumwidthnecessaryforcapacityandaccommodationofthedesignvehicleinorderto

maintainthehighestlevelofsafety.Typicalentrywidthsforsinglelaneentrancesrangefrom4.3to
4.9m;however,aminimumentrywidthshouldnotbelessthan4mfortheaccommodationoftrucks
andbuses.
Whenthecapacityrequirementscanonlybemetbyincreasingtheentrywidth,thiscanbedoneintwo
ways:
Byaddingafulllaneupstreamoftheroundaboutandmaintainingparallellanesthroughtheentry
geometry;or
Bywideningtheapproachgradually(flaring)throughtheentrygeometry.
Figures895and896illustratethesetwowideningoptions.
Figure895.ApproachWideningbyAddingFullLane

Figure896.ApproachWideningbyEntryFlaring

Flaringisaneffectivemeansofincreasingcapacitywithoutrequiringasmuchrightofwayasafulllane
addition.Whileincreasingthelengthofflareincreasescapacity,itdoesnotincreasecrashfrequency.
Entrywidthsshouldthereforebeminimizedandflarelengthsmaximizedtoachievethedesiredcapacity
withminimaleffectoncrashes.Generally,flarelengthsshouldbeaminimumof25minurbanareasand
40minruralareas.However,ifrightofwayisconstrained,shorterlengthscanbeusedwithnoticeable
effectsoncapacity.
8.12.9 EntryCurves
Theentryradiusisanimportantfactorindeterminingtheoperationofaroundaboutasithassignificant
impactsonbothcapacityandsafety.Theentryradius,inconjunctionwiththeentrywidth,the
circulatoryroadwaywidth,andthecentralislandgeometry,controlstheamountofdeflectionimposed
onavehiclesentrypath.Largerentryradiiproducefasterentryspeedsandgenerallyresultinhigher
crashratesbetweenenteringandcirculatingvehicles.Incontrast,theoperationalperformanceof
roundaboutsbenefitsfromlargerentryradii.
Theentrycurveisdesignedcurvilinearlytangentialtotheoutsideedgeofthecirculatoryroadway.
Likewise,theprojectionoftheinside(left)edgeoftheentryroadwayshouldbecurvilinearlytangential
tothecentralisland.Figure897showstypicalroundaboutentrancegeometry.

Figure897.TypicalRoundaboutEntranceGeometry
8.12.9.1 EntryCurvesatSinglelaneRoundabouts
Forsinglelaneroundabouts,itisrelativelysimpletoachievetheentryspeedobjectives.Withasingle
trafficstreamenteringandcirculating,thereisnoconflictbetweentrafficinadjacentlanes.Thus,the
entryradiuscanbereducedorincreasedasnecessarytoproducethedesiredentrypathradius.
Providedsufficientclearanceisgivenforthedesignvehicle,approachingvehicleswilladjusttheirpath
accordinglyandnegotiatethroughtheentrygeometryintothecirculatoryroadway.
Entryradiiaturbansinglelaneroundaboutstypicallyrangefrom10to30m.Largerradiimaybeused,
butitisimportantthattheradiinotbesolargeastoresultinexcessiveentryspeeds.Atlocalstreet
roundabouts,entryradiimaybebelow10mifthedesignvehicleissmall.
Atruralandsuburbanlocations,considerationshouldbegiventothespeeddifferentialbetweenthe
approachesandentries.Ifthedifferenceisgreaterthan20km/h,itisdesirabletointroduceapproach
curvesorsomeotherspeedreductionmeasurestoreducethespeedofapproachingtrafficpriortothe
entrycurvature.
8.12.9.2 EntryCurvesatDoublelaneRoundabouts
Atdoublelaneroundabouts,thedesignoftheentrycurvatureismorecomplicated.Overlysmallentry
radiicanresultinconflictsbetweenadjacenttrafficstreams.Thisconflictusuallyresultsinpoorlane
utilizationofoneormorelanesandsignificantlyreducesthecapacityoftheapproach.Itcanalso
degradethesafetyperformanceassideswipecrashesmayincrease.
8.12.10 ExitCurves
Exitcurvesusuallyhavelargerradiithanentrycurvestominimizethelikelihoodofcongestionatthe
exits.This,however,isbalancedbytheneedtomaintainlowspeedsatthepedestriancrossingonexit.
Theexitcurveshouldproduceanexitpathradius(R3inFigure898)nosmallerthanthecirculatingpath
radius(R2).Iftheexitpathradiusissmallerthanthecirculatingpathradius,vehicleswillbetraveling
toofasttonegotiatetheexitgeometryandmaycrashintothesplitterislandorintooncomingtrafficin

theadjacentapproachlane.Likewise,theexitpathradiusshouldnotbesignificantlygreaterthanthe
circulatingpathradiustoensurelowspeedsatthedownstreampedestriancrossing.
Theexitcurveisdesignedtobecurvilinearlytangentialtotheoutsideedgeofthecirculatoryroadway.
Likewise,theprojectionoftheinside(left)edgeoftheexitroadwayshouldbecurvilinearlytangentialto
thecentralisland.Figure899showsatypicalexitlayoutforasinglelaneroundabout.
Figure898.VehiclePathRadii

Figure899.TypicalRoundaboutExitGeometry
8.12.10.1 ExitCurvesatSinglelaneRoundabouts
Atsinglelaneroundaboutsinurbanenvironments,exitsshouldbedesignedtoenforceacurvedexit
pathwithadesignspeedbelow40km/hinordertomaximizesafetyforpedestrianscrossingtheexiting
trafficstream.Generally,exitradiishouldbenolessthan15m.
Inrurallocationswheretherearefewpedestrians,exitcurvaturemaybedesignedwithlargeradii,
allowingvehiclestoexitquicklyandacceleratebacktotravelingspeed.This,however,shouldnotresult
inastraightpathtangentialtothecentralislandbecausemanylocationsthatareruraltodaybecome
urbaninthefuture.Therefore,itisrecommendedthatpedestrianactivitybeconsideredatallexits
exceptwhereseparatepedestrianfacilities(paths,etc.)orotherrestrictionseliminatethelikelihoodof
pedestrianactivityintheforeseeablefuture.
8.12.10.2 ExitCurvesatDoublelaneRoundabouts
Aswiththeentries,thedesignoftheexitcurvatureatdoublelaneroundaboutsismorecomplicated
thanatsinglelaneroundabouts.
8.12.11 VerticalConsiderations
Elementsofverticalalignmentdesignforroundaboutsincludeprofiles,superelevation,approach
grades,anddrainage.
8.12.11.1 Profiles
Theverticaldesignofaroundaboutbeginswiththedevelopmentofapproachroadwayandcentral
islandprofiles.Thedevelopmentofeachprofileisaniterativeprocessthatinvolvestyingtheelevations
oftheapproachroadwayprofilesintoasmoothprofilearoundthecentralisland.

Generally,eachapproachprofileshouldbedesignedtothepointwheretheapproachbaseline
intersectswiththecentralisland.Aprofileforthecentralislandisthendevelopedwhichpasses
throughthesefourpoints(inthecaseofafourleggedroundabout).Theapproachroadwayprofilesare
thenreadjustedasnecessarytomeetthecentralislandprofile.Theshapeofthecentralislandprofileis
generallyintheformofasinecurve.ExamplesofhowtheprofileisdevelopedcanbefoundinFigures
8100,8101and8102whichconsistofasampleplan,profilesoneachapproach,andaprofilealong
thecentralisland,respectively.Notethatthefourpointswheretheapproachroadwaybaseline
intersectsthecentralislandbaselineareidentifiedonthecentralislandprofile.
Figure8100.SamplePlanView

Figure8101.SampleApproachProfile

Figure8102.SampleCentralIslandProfile

8.12.11.2 Superelevation
Asageneralpractice,acrossslopeof2%awayfromthecentralislandshouldbeusedforthecirculatory
roadway.Thistechniqueofslopingoutwardisrecommendedforfourmainreasons:
Itpromotessafetybyraisingtheelevationofthecentralislandandimprovingitsvisibility;

Itpromoteslowercirculatingspeeds;
Itminimizesbreaksinthecrossslopesoftheentranceandexitlanes;and
Ithelpsdrainsurfacewatertotheoutsideoftheroundabout.
Theoutwardcrossslopedesignmeansvehiclesmakingthroughandleftturnmovementsmust
negotiatetheroundaboutatnegativesuperelevation.Excessivenegativesuperelevationcanresultinan
increaseinsinglevehiclecrashesandlossofloadincidentsfortrucks,particularlyifspeedsarehigh.
However,intheintersectionenvironment,driverswillgenerallyexpecttotravelatslowerspeedsand
willacceptthehighersideforcecausedbyreasonableadversesuperelevation.
Figure8103providesatypicalsectionacrossthecirculatoryroadwayofaroundaboutwithoutatruck
apron.Figure8104providesatypicalsectionforaroundaboutwithatruckapron.Wheretruckaprons
areused,theslopeoftheapronshouldbe3to4percent;greaterslopesmayincreasethelikelihoodof
lossofloadincidents.
Figure8103.TypicalCirculatoryRoadwaySection
Figure8104.TypicalSectionwithaTruckApron
8.12.11.3 LocatingRoundaboutsonGrades
Itisgenerallynotdesirabletolocateroundaboutsinlocationswheregradesthroughtheintersection
aregreaterthanfourpercent.Theinstallationofroundaboutsonroadwayswithgradeslowerthan
threepercentisgenerallynotproblematic.Atlocationswhereaconstantgrademustbemaintained
throughtheintersection,thecirculatoryroadwaymaybeconstructedonaconstantslopeplane.This
means,forinstance,thatthecrossslopemayvaryfrom+3percentonthehighsideoftheroundabout
(slopedtowardthecentralisland)to3percentonthelowside(slopedoutward).Notethatcentral
islandcrossslopeswillpassthroughlevelataminimumoftwolocationsforroundaboutsconstructed
onaconstantgrade.

Caremustbetakenwhendesigningroundaboutsonsteepgrades.Onapproachroadwayswithgrades
steeperthan4percent,itismoredifficultforenteringdriverstosloworstopontheapproach.At
roundaboutsoncrestverticalcurveswithsteepapproaches,adriverssightlineswillbecompromised,
andtheroundaboutmayviolatedriverexpectancy.However,underthesameconditions,othertypesof
atgradeintersectionsoftenwillnotprovidebettersolutions.Therefore,theroundaboutshouldnot
necessarilybeeliminatedfromconsiderationatsuchalocation.Rather,theintersectionshouldbe
relocatedortheverticalprofilemodified,ifpossible.
8.12.11.4 Drainage
Withthecirculatoryroadwayslopingawayfromthecentralisland,inletswillgenerallybeplacedonthe
outercurblineoftheroundabout.However,inletsmayberequiredalongthecentralislandfora
roundaboutdesignedonaconstantgradethroughanintersection.Aswithanyintersection,careshould
betakentoensurethatlowpointsandinletsarenotplacedincrosswalks.Ifthecentralislandislarge
enough,thedesignermayconsiderplacinginletsinthecentralisland.
Normalcrossslopesfordrainageonroundaboutsshouldnotexceed2%.Toavoidponding,longitudinal
edgeprofilesshouldbegradedatnotlessthan0.5%.
8.12.12 Visibility
8.12.12.1 EyeandObjectHeights
Visibilitytotheleftandacrossthecentralislandofaroundaboutshouldbeobtainablefromadriver's
eyeheightof1.05mtoanobjectheightof1.05m,andtheenvelopeofvisibilityshouldextendto2.4m
abovetheroadsurface.ItisthereforethesameenvelopeasforPassingSightDistance.Allother
visibilitiesshouldbeassessedinaccordancewiththeenvelopeforStoppingSightDistancesetoutin
Figure81.
Wheresignsaretobeerectedonamedian,vergeordeflectionislandwithintheenvelopeofvisibility,
includingtotheleft,themountingheightshouldnotbelessthan2.4mabovethepavementsurface,and
theenvelopeneedstobecarefullycheckedonsiteswheretherearesignificantchangesofgrade.
8.12.12.2 VisibilityontheApproach
Ontheapproachtoaroundabout,normalStoppingSightDistance(SSD)applies,inaccordancewiththe
appropriatedesignspeed,asdescribedinSection4ofthismanual.TheSSDismeasuredtothe"Give
Way"lineasshowninFigure8105.

Figure8105.StoppingSightDistanceonApproachtoRoundabout

8.12.12.3 VisibilitytotheLeft
Driversofallvehiclesatthe"GiveWay"lineshouldbeabletoseethefullwidthofthecirculating
pavementtotheirleft,fromthe"GiveWay"lineforanadequatedistance"a"(measuredalongthe
centerlineofthecirculatingpavementasindicatedinTable860,andshowninFigure8106.
Table860.VisibilityatRoundabouts
InscribedCircleDiameter
(m)
VisibilityDistancea
(m)
Lessthan40 WholeIntersection
40to60 40
Morethan60to100 50
Morethan100 70
Theareawhichshouldbeabletobeseenfromthecenterlineoftheinnerapproachlaneforadistance
of15mbackfromthe"GiveWay"lineisasshowninFigure8107.

Theserequirementsapplytoallroundabouts,includingthosewithparapetsoneithersideofthe
circulatingpavement.Acheckshouldalsobemadetoensurethatthecombinationofcrossslopesand
longitudinalgradesdoesnotrestrictvisibility.
Figure8106.VisibilitytotheLeftfromtheGiveWayLine
Figure8107.VisibilitytotheLeftoverthe15mbeforetheGiveWayLine

8.12.13 EntryCurbing
Onuncurbedapproachroadswithorwithoutshoulders,careshouldbetakenwhenintroducingthe
curbsattheroundabout.Normally,thecurbshouldbeintroducedatthebackoftheshoulder,withthe

shoulderrunningoutasasmoothcurvedlengthatanaverageratenotexceeding1:10.Figure8108
and8109showtypicalarrangementsforundividedanddividedroads.
Figure8108.ShoulderRunoutonanUndividedRoad
Figure8109.ShoulderRunoutonaDividedRoad
8.12.14 SafetyatRoundabouts
Roundaboutsgenerallyhavealoweraccidentsratethansignalizedintersectionshandlingsimilartraffic
flows.Theseverityofaccidentsatroundaboutsisalsoconsiderablylowerthanatothertypesof
intersection.

Thefactorwhichhasthegreatestinfluenceonsafetyatroundaboutsisvehiclespeed,attheentryor
withintheroundabout.Geometricfeaturesthatcanhaveamajorcontributoreffectincausing
excessiveentryandcirculatingspeedsare:
Inadequateentrydeflection
Averysmallentryanglewhichencouragesfastmergingmaneuverswithcirculatingtraffic
Poorvisibilitytothe"GiveWay"line
Morethanfourentries,necessitatingalargeroundaboutconfiguration
Additionalsafetyaspectstobeconsideredwhendesigningaroundaboutlayoutinclude:
Visibilitytotheleftatentry:Thishascomparativelylittleinfluenceuponaccidentrisk;thereis
nothingtobegainedbyincreasingvisibilityabovetherecommendedlevel.
CrestCurves:Roundaboutsshouldnotbesitedoncrestcurves,asthisimpairsforwardvisibilityand
drivercomprehension.
Speeds:Adesignwhichencouragesentrytotheroundaboutatlowspeedandwhichenablesdrivers
toacceleratesteadilyonexitcontributessignificantlytosafety,allowingtheintersectiontobeleft
clearforfollowingroadusers.Thiscanbeachievedbyadoptingsmallercurbradiionentryand
largercurbradiionexit.
Inurbanareas,whenapproachspeedsarelow,aringofcontrastingpavingcanbelaidinachevron
patterninsidethecentralislandperimeteratagentleslope,toaidroundaboutvisibility.
TheprovisionofyellowRumbleStrips,inassociationwiththeadvancesigningforaroundaboutmaybe
beneficialonfastapproaches.Inothercountries,accidentreductionsofmorethan50%havebeen
reportedfromsimilarmarkings.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 FLEXIBLEPavementDesignManual91

9 FlexiblePavementDesignManual
9.1 Purpose
TheobjectiveofthismanualistoprovideaPavementDesignEngineerwithsufficientinformationso
thatthenecessaryinputdatacanbedevelopedandproperengineeringprinciplesappliedtodesigna
newflexiblepavement,ordevelopaproperlyengineeredrehabilitationproject.Thisdesignmanual
addressesmethodstoproperlydeveloparehabilitationproject,pavementmilling,andthe
computationsnecessaryforthepavementdesignprocess.
ItistheresponsibilityofthePavementDesignEngineertoinsurethatthedesignsproducedconformto
HIBpolicies,procedures,standards,guidelines,andgoodengineeringpractices.
9.2 General
Thestandardsinthismanualrepresentminimumrequirements,whichmustbemetforflexible
pavementdesignfornewconstructionandpavementrehabilitationofHIBprojects.Anyvariances
shouldbedocumentedinprojectfiles.
Pavementdesignisprimarilyamatterofsoundapplicationofacceptableengineeringcriteriaand
standards.Whilethestandardscontainedinthismanualprovideabasisforuniformdesignpracticefor
typicalpavementdesignsituations,thedesignermustalsoapplysoundengineeringjudgment.
9.3 References
ThedesignproceduresincorporatedinthisdocumentarebasedonAmericanStandards.SeeSection
9.12attheendofthismanualforthereferences.
9.4 DesignConsiderations
Becausepavementlifeissubstantiallyaffectedbythenumberofheavyloadrepetitionsapplied,a
poorlydesignedpavementwillnotbeevidentuntilseveralyearsafterconstruction.Todesigna
pavementstructureproperly,thedesignermustrelyonhisownexpertiseaswellasthatofsoilsand
planningengineers.Considerationsinclude:
1. Evaluateexistingpavementtodetermineappropriatestrategy,valueofexisting
materialsorstructurefornewpavement,andthereasonsforitspresentcondition.
Checkwithmaintenanceforcesforhistoryofroadwayperformance,groundwater
problemsandotherbackgroundinformation;
2. Evaluatesubgradefordrainagecharacteristicsandbearingcapacity;
3. Makestructuralcalculations.Afterselectingtheappropriatepreliminaryrehabilitation
strategy,thetraffic,soils,andpavementmaterialsdatamustbeusedtocalculate
specificpavementlayerrequirements;
4. Comparefeasiblealternatives(newpavement,recycling,overlay,etc.)andselectthe
mosteconomicallysoundmethodforconstruction;

5. Setspecifications.Thepavementmaterials,constructionmethods,andfinishedproject
requirementsmustbebothpracticaltoattainandclearlydefined.Thedesignermust
ensurethattheplans,standardspecifications,supplementalspecifications,andspecial
provisionsclearlyandunambiguouslydefinetherequirements.
9.5 PavementTypes
Thismanualoutlinesthedesignmethodsforflexiblepavement(bituminousconcrete).Aflexible
pavementconsistsofthreelayerssubbase(foundation),base,andsurface.Thesubbaseconsistsof
granularmaterialgravel,crushedstone,oracombination.Thebaseconsistsofacoarsebituminous
concretemixture("blackbase").Thesurfaceconsistsoftwocoursesofbituminousconcrete,eachwith
adifferentconsistencybindermaterialandsurfacematerial.
9.6 DefinitionsandAbbreviations
Equivalent80kNLoadTheconversionofmixedvehiculartrafficintoitsequivalentsingleaxle,
80kNLoad.Theequivalenceisbasedontherelativeamountofpavementdamage.
DailyEquivalent80kNLoad(T80)Theaveragenumberofequivalent80kNloadswhichwillbeapplied
tothepavementstructureinoneday.Normally,a20yeardesignperiodisusedtodeterminethedaily
load.(SeeTable9.1)
Table9.1:EQUIVALENT80kNAXLEAPPLICATIONSPER1000TRUCKSFLEXIBLEPAVEMENTS(ESAL)
HighwayClass ESAL
Freeways/Expressways 1000
MajorArterial 800
MinorArterial(Urban) 800
MinorArterial(Rural) 600
Collector(Urban) 800
Collector(Rural) 600
LocalRoads 600
Equivalent80kNAxleApplicationsper1000TrucksandCombinationsAfactorwhichreflectsthe
relativemixofsizesandweightsoftrucksonvariousclassesofhighways(e.g.,interstate,majorprimary,
andcitystreets.)TruckpercentagesprovidedbyPlanningexcludetwoaxle,fourtirepickuptrucks,the
effectofwhichmaybeignored.

ServiceabilityIndexAmeasureofapavement'sabilitytoservehighspeed,highvolumeautomobile
andtrucktrafficonascaleof0to5.Itreflectstheextentofpavementdistress.
TerminalServiceabilityIndex(Pt)Apavementdesignfactorwhichindicatestheacceptablepavement
serviceabilityindexattheendoftheselecteddesignperiod(usually20years).HIBdesignsfora
terminalserviceability(Pt)equalto2.5.
BearingRatioTheloadrequiredtoproduceacertainpenetrationusingastandardpistoninasoil,
expressedasapercentageoftheloadrequiredtoforcethepistonthesamedepthinaselectedcrushed
stone.ThetestproceduresfortheCaliforniaBearingRatio(CBR)areused.
DesignBearingRatio(DBR)Theselectedbearingratiousedtodesignthepavement.Itisbasedonan
evaluationoftheCBRtestresultsonthesoilsamples.
SoilSupportValue(SSV)Anindexoftherelativeabilityofasoilorstonetosupporttheappliedtraffic
loads.ItisspecificallyusedforthepavementdesignmethodintheAASHTOInterimGuideforDesignof
PavementStructures.ThesoilsupportvalueofthesubgradeisrelatedtoitsCBR(DBR).
StructuralNumber(SN)Ameasureofthestructuralstrengthofthepavementsectionbasedonthe
typeandthicknessofeachlayerwithinthepavementstructure
LayerCoefficientTherelativestructuralvalueofeachpavementlayerpermillimeterofthickness.Itis
multipliedbythelayerthicknesstoprovidethecontributingSNforeachpavementlayer.
9.7 PavementDesignProcess
AllpavementdesignsaredeterminedbytheProjectDesignEngineerwiththeHIBEngineer,reviewing
andapprovingallpavementdesigns.Themajortasksinthedesignprocessare:
9.7.1 CollectBasicProjectData
Thedesignermustcollectthebasicprojectdatasuchasexistingandproposedprojectplansand
profiles,trafficdata,existingpavementstructure,andfieldinspectionandreport.
A. ProjectPlansandProfiles(Existing&Proposed)
TheseshallbesubmittedtotheHIBEngineer.
B. TrafficData
Thetrafficdataincludes:
1. CurrentADT(AverageDailyTraffic),(ADTforyearofproposedopeningtotraffic)
2. ProjectedADT(20years)
3. ADTtruckpercentage
4. Numberoflanes
5. Divided/undivided,and
6. Sourceoftrafficdata
Enterthesedataonthepavementdesignchecklist.

C. ExistingPavementStructure
Thethicknessandtypeofeachpavementlayer(i.e.,surface,binder,base,andsubbase)shallbe
recorded;itisespeciallynecessaryforoverlayandrecyclingprojects.
D. FieldInspectionReport
Thereportshallincludethegeneralconditionoftheroadwaysuchascracking(type,amount)
rutting,rideability,andanyothercharacteristicthatmaybepertinenttotheselectionofpavementtype
andscopeofwork.ThisshouldincludespecificdiscussionswithHIBand/ormunicipalmaintenanceand
engineeringforces.
9.7.2 DeterminethePreliminaryScopeofWork
Thedesignengineerwilldeterminethescopeofworkforthepavementdesign.Thiscanbeanew
pavement,reconstructedpavement,pavementoverlay,oracombinationofanytwo.Allorpartofan
existingpavementmayberecycledaspartofthepavementdesign.Thedesignershouldusethe
pavementdesignchecklisttodocumentthereasonsforthedecision.
A. NewPavement
Anewpavementisapavementstructurewhichisplacedonapreviouslyundisturbedsubgrade.
Itappliestoahighwayonnewlocation,toarelocatedhighway,ortothenewpartofawidened
highway.
B. ReconstructedPavement
Areconstructedpavementisonewhichresultswhenanexistingpavementstructureis
completelyremovedtothesubgradeandreplacedwithanewpavementstructure.Thistypeofworkis
neededwhentheexistingpavementhasdeterioratedtosuchaweakenedconditionthatitcannotbe
salvagedwithcorrectiveaction.Thetypeandextentofpavementdistresswilldeterminewhen
pavementreconstructionisnecessary.
C. RecycledPavement
Arecycledpavementresultswhenanexistingpavementstructure(fromwhichallorpartofthe
pavementisremovedonoroffsite),iscombinedwithnewmaterialsandreplaced.Recyclingis
performedinconjunctionwithapavementoverlayorreconstructedpavement.Allproposedrecycling
projectsmustbeeconomicallyjustified.
D. PavementOverlay
Apavementoverlayconsistsofplacingtheneededthicknessofbituminousconcreteonan
existingpavement.Theoverlaywillreturnthepavementtoahighlevelofserviceabilityandprovidethe
necessarystructuralstrengthforthepavementdesignperiod.
9.7.3 Friction
Apavementmaynotrequireanycorrectiveworkotherthantheapplicationofafrictioncoursebecause
oflowskidresistance.Insomeinstancesafrictioncoursemaybeplacedorneworreconstructed
pavements.AMaterialsEngineermakesperiodicskidmeasurementsofallhighwaysandwillcheckthe
skidresistanceofanyfacilityuponrequest.TheMaterialsEngineersubmitsallskiddatatoHighway
Design.Thefrictioncoursedoesnotaddtothestructuralintegrityofthepavement.Itis25mmthick

andinmanycasesitisplacedonadensegradedbindercourseabout45mminthickness.Thisensures
abetteradhesionbetweenthebinderandfrictioncourses.
9.7.4 WideningandCorrectiveWorktotheExistingPavement
A. Apavementmaybereconstructedwithoutanyadditionalworkorthereconstructionmay
includewidening,shoulders,extralanes,etc.,inadditiontothenewpavementstructure.
B. Arecyclingprojectmayconsistsimplyinimprovingthepavementstructurebyoneofthemany
methodsofrecycling;otherrecyclingprojectsmayincludetheadditionofshoulders,widening,
etc.Thetypeofworkrequiredistobeconsideredwhenselectingthemethodsortypeof
recycling.
C. Anoverlaymaybeplacedontheexistingsurfacewithoutanyotherworkexceptthatrelatedto
theoverlay.Anoverallpavementrehabilitationproject(widening,additionallanes,improved
geometryetc.)usuallyincludesanoverlay.Inmanycasesacertainamountofcorrectivework
mayberequiredpriortotheplacingofanoverlay.Thisworkmayconsistofstrengthening
weakenedsubgradewhereindicated,removingandreplacingbadlydeterioratedsurfaceareas,
placingalevelingcoursefillingrutsanddepressions.Includealsoanyoperationsthatwill
minimizereflectivecracking.
9.7.5 DetermineDBR
Section9.7.8andTable9.2discusstheprocedurefordeterminingthecourseofactionforselectinga
DBRvalue.
9.7.6 SubmitAllPavementDesignInformation
ThedesignerwillsubmitallapplicableinformationforthepavementdesigntotheHIBEngineer.This
willinclude:
1. Thepavementdesignchecklistdocumentingthereasonsforselectingthescopeofwork(see
Figure9.1).
2. TheDBRvalue.
3. Asetofprojectplansandprofiles.
4. Trafficdata.
9.7.7 HIBReviewsScopeofWork
TheHIBEngineerwillreviewthedesigner'srecommendationforscopeofpavementworkandthe
pavementdesignchecklistdocumentingthereasons.
9.7.8 HIBReviewsDBRDetermination
TheHIBEngineerwillreviewthedesigner'sdeterminationofthesubgradeDBRforapproval.If
necessary,theMaterialsEngineerwillmakeaDBRdetermination,See9.7.9.

Table9.2:DESIGNBEARINGRATIO(DBR)DETERMINATION
ValueFromLine(h)of
DataSheet1(T80)
Action
T80<15 UseMinimumDesign(SeeTable1.3)
15<T80<120
AssumeDBRbasedonSoil
ClassificationsfromTable1.3
T80>120
MaterialsEngineerwilldetermine
DBR
Table9.3:DBRBASEDONAASHTOSOILCLASSIFICATION
* ConsultHIBEngineer
** ConsiderEconomicsofReplacingPoorMaterial

Figure9.1PavementDesignChecklist

Figure9.1PavementDesignChecklist(Continued)

9.7.9 RequestLabAnalysisfromMaterialsLab
IfthedesignerhasrecommendedalabanalysistodeterminetheDBRandtheHIBEngineerhave
concurred,thedesignerwillsubmitarequesttotheMaterialsEngineer.Theprocedureis:
1. TheMaterialsEngineerdeterminestherequirednumberoftestpits,theirlocations,andthe
highestbottompitelevations.
2. Thedesignerstakesthetestpitlocationsandmakesarrangementforsamplingbyaboring
contractor.
3. Anengineermustdirectthesamplingoperation,supervisetheexcavations,andreviewthetest
pitlogs.
4. Thetestpitsamplesmustweighatleast22kg.Whenthesampleisgradedinthelaboratory,
thelabmustfollowtheproceduresprescribedbytheMaterialsEngineer.Thedesignerforwards
allsamples,gradations,tabulations,andtestpitlogstotheMaterialsEngineer.
5. TheMaterialsEngineerwilldeterminetheDBR.ThereportwillbesenttotheHIBEngineer.
9.7.10 UseDBRfromPreviousWork
Ifitisavailableandstillapplicable,theDBRfortheoriginalpavementdesignoranypreviouspavement
overlayswillbeused.
9.7.11 ReviewandAnalysisoftheDataSubmitted
TheHIBEngineerwillnotifythedesignengineeroftheresultsofhisreview.Thisstepappliestoboth
new/reconstructedpavementandpavementoverlays.Hemayapprove,disapprove,request
modifications,orrequestadditionalinformationfromthedesignengineer.Ifapplicable,hewillalso
providetheDBRdeterminedbytheMaterialsEngineer.
9.7.12 DesignEngineerConductsPavementDesignAnalysis
Thedesignengineerwillconductthedetailedanalysistodeterminethetypeandthicknessofeachlayer
inthepavementstructures.ThetypesofanalysisarediscussedinSection9.7.13,9.7.14and9.7.15.
9.7.13 New/ReconstructedPavement
Onnewandreconstructedpavements,thedesignerwilldeterminethedetailedfulldepthdesignofthe
pavement.ThedetailedprocedureisdiscussedinSection9.7.8.Recyclingmaybeconsidered.
9.7.14 PavementOverlays
Onpavementoverlays,thedesignerwillspecifythedepthofthebituminousconcreteoverlay.The
detailedprocedureisdiscussedinSection9.7.9.Inaddition,thedesignerwilldeterminethecorrective
workneededontheexistingpavement.
9.7.15 Combination(PavementOverlaywithWidening)
Thistypeofworkwillrequireacombinationanalysis.Section9.7.8willdeterminethefulldepthdesign
ofthewidenedsection.Section9.7.9willdeterminetheneededdepthofoverlay.
9.7.16 SubmitPavementDesignRecommendationtoHIBEngineer
Thedesignengineerwillsubmittherecommendeddetailedpavementdesignwithcompleteddata
sheetstotheHIBEngineer.

9.7.17 ReviewsandApproves
TheHIBEngineerwillreviewthepavementdesignrecommendationfromthedesignengineer.Hemay
approve,disapprove,modify,orrequestadditionalinformationfromthedesignengineer.TheHIB
Engineerwillnotifythedesignengineerofhisaction.
9.8 NewandReconstructedPavement
HIBusestheAASHTOInterimGuideforDesignofPavementStructuresasthebasicdesignmethodology.
However,HIBhasincorporatedseveralmodificationstotheGuide'sprocedurestoreflectspecific
conditionsinLibyaandtosimplifytheprocedure.ThissectionspecifiestheHIBprocedurefor
determiningthedetaileddesignofaneworreconstructedpavement.Thisprocedureappliesto
bituminousconcretepavementsonly.
TheHIBprocedurefollows:
PAVEMENTSDESIGNCOVERSHEET
Thefollowingmustberecorded:
1. Entertheprojectidentificationdataatthetopofthecoversheet.
2. Summarizetherecommendedpavementdesignbydocumentingthesurface,base,andsubbase
data.Listthedepths,typeoflayerandrecommendedlifts.
DATASHEET1:PAVEMENTSTRUCTURALDESIGNDATA
Line(a):Entertheanticipated(current)ADTfordateofopening.
Line(b):EnterthefutureADT,usuallyfor20yearsbeyondtheprojectedopeningdate.Generallythe
designperiodforpavementsis20years;howevertheremaybeoccasionswhenthetrafficsubmitted
doesnotcoverthedesignperiod.Inthesecases,thefutureADTistobeestimatedbyapproved
methods.Undercertaincircumstances,pavementsmaybedesignedforperiodsoflessthan20years.
3Rprojectsmaybedesignedforperiodsof5to10years.
Line(c):CalculatetheaverageADTduringthedesignperiod.
Line(d):CalculatetheaverageADTinonedirection.
Line(e):EnterthetruckpercentagefortheADT.
Line(f):Calculatetheaveragedailytruckvolumeinonedirection.
Line(g):Entertheequivalent80kNaxleapplicationper1000trucksandcombinations.
SeeTable9.1.
Line(h):Calculatethenumberof80kNaxleloadsperdayinonedirection(T80).

DESIGNBEARINGRATIO(DBR)DETERMINATION
UsethevalueonLine(h)(T80)andTable9.2todeterminethesubgradeDBR.AsnotedinTable9.2,the
MaterialsEngineermayberequiredtoprovidetheDBR.Inallcases,designersmakeageneral
computationofthesubgradeDBRforreviewsbytheHIBEngineer.
DATASHEET2:DETERMININGSTRUCTURALNUMBER(SN)
Step1:Determinethedesignlaneequivalentdaily80kNapplicationsbasedonthenumberoflanes.
Step2:DeterminetheDBRforthesubgradefromTables9.2and9.3.ThesubbaseDBRis40forthe
typicalsubbaseonneworreconstructedpavements(gravel).
Step3:Determinethesoilsupportvalue(SSV).Figure9.2illustratestherelationshipbetweentheDBR
andSSV.
Step4:Determinetherequiredstructuralnumber(SN)abovethesubbaseandabovethesubgrade.
Figure9.3shouldbeused.UsethedesignlaneT80fromStep1forthedailyequivalent80kN
singleaxleload.UsetheSSVfromStep3forthesoilsupportvalue.
Step5:IncreasetheSNby15%todeterminethedesignSNtoadjustforclimaticandother
environmentalconditions.

Figure9.2DBRvs.SSV

Figure9.3StructuralNumber(SN)Monograph(ForFlexiblePavementP=2.5)

DATASHEET3:PAVEMENTSSTRUCTURALNUMBER(SN)
Bytrialanderror,thedesignerwillselectthemostcosteffectivedesignthatprovidestherequiredSN
forthehighwayconditions.Thedesignershouldalsoconsiderminimumandmaximumliftthicknesses
andthelogisticsofconstructionprocedureswhendesigningthepavementdesigncombinationsusing
thisprocedure.
Step1:Selecteachpavementlayercomponentandthethicknessofeachlayer.
Step2:FromTable9.4selectthelayercoefficientforeachpavementlayer.
Step3:DeterminethecontributingSNforeachpavementlayerbymultiplyingthelayercoefficientby
its thickness.
Step4:TheminimumthicknessesofeachlayerarenotedonTable9.5.
Step5:ChecktoensurethattherequiredSNisprovidedabovethesubbaseandthesubgrade.Ifnot,
increasethelayerthicknessasnecessary.IfthetrialdesignexceedstherequiredSN,reduce
thelayerthicknesses.
Table9.4:LAYERCOEFFICIENTSFORNEWANDRECONSTRUCTEDPAVEMENTS
PlacementComponent LayerCoefficientpermm
SurfaceCourse:
BituminousConcrete
RidingSurfaceandBinder
1.73x10
2
BaseCourse:
BituminousConcrete
1.34x10
2
Subbase:
CrushedStone(DenseGraded)
Gravel
0.55x10
2
0.43x10
2
Step6:DetermineseveralalternatepavementdesignswhichsatisfytheSNrequirements.Theselected
designwillbebasedoneconomics.
Step7:Regardlessofthecalculationsfromthepavementdesignanalysis,theminimumdesignthickness
shouldnotbelessthanthoseshowninTable9.5.

Table9.5:MINIMUMPAVEMENTTHICKNESS(NewandReconstructedFlexiblePavements)
Theabovetableisonlyvalidwhentheconventionaldesigncalculationsindicatearequiredpavement
structurelessthantheabove.Allpavementthicknessshallbedesignedasdetailedhere.Theuseof
crushedstoneaspartofthebasecoursemakesafirmerbaseforthepavingmachinesandreducesthe
amountofgravelrequired.Gravelgivesastructuralsupport(thoughitisweakerthancrushedstone),
andprovidesbetterdrainage.
Figure9.4presentsthepavementdesigncoversheetanddatasheets1to3.

PAVEMENTDESIGN
NEWANDRECONSTRUCTEDPAVEMENT
Shabiya/City______________________________ Roadway______________________________
No.ofLanes______________________________ HighwaySystem________________________
FromStation______________________________ ToStation_____________________________
DatePavementDesigned____________________ ProjectDesigner________________________
RECOMMENDEDPAVEMENTSTRUCTURE
Surface: ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Base: ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Subbase: ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
SpecialBorrow: ________________________________________________________________
Figure9.4:NEWANDRECONSTRUCTEDPAVEMENT

DATASHEET1:PAVEMENTSTRUCTURALDESIGNDATA
CurrentADT______________________________ Date___________________________
TerminalServiceabilityIndex(T.S.I)=2.5
(a)DayofOpeningA.D.T(Date_______________)* ____________
(b)FutureA.D.T(Date(a)+20years)** ____________
(c)MeanA.D.T= (a)+(b) ____________
2
(d)MeanA.D.TinOneDirection=(c) ____________
2
(e)A.D.TTruckPercentage(TA.D.T) ____________
(f)MeanTruckA.D.TinOneDirection(d)x(e) ____________
(g)Equivalent80kNAxleApplicationper1000Trucksand
Combinations(SeeTable1.1) ____________
(h)Numberof80kNAxleLoadsperDayinOneDirection
(f)+(g)
1000
(T
80
) ____________
Comments:_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
*Anticipatedtrafficwhenfacilityisopenedfortravel.
**Undercertainconditionsthismaychangetoalayerorshorterperiod.
Figure9.4:(Continued)NEWANDRECONSTRUCTEDPAVEMENT

DATASHEET2:DETERMINATIONOFSTRUCTURALNUMBER(SN)
DesignLaneEquivalentDaily80kNApplications(T
80
)
For2LaneUndividedHighway
DesignLaneT
80
=1.00xTotalT
80
*=1.00x_________=______________________________
For4Lane(TotalLanes)DividedHighway
DesignLaneT
80
=0.90xTotalT
80
*=0.90x_________=______________________________
Design6orMoreLanes(TotalLanes)DividedHighway
DesignLaneT
80
=0.80xTotalT
80
*=0.80x_________=______________________________
DesignDBRTable1.2&1.3
Subbase..DBR=________________ SSV=________________
Subgrade.DBR=________________ SSV=________________
DesignStructuralNumber(SN)
ApplyDesignSSVandDesignLaneT
80
fromabovetoDesignNomograph(Figure1.3)
FromFig.1.3 +15%
AboveSubbase.=________________________________
AboveSubgrade=________________ _________________
*FromLine(h)ofDataSheet1.
Figure9.4:(Continued)NEWANDRECONSTRUCTEDPAVEMENTS

DATASHEET3:DETERMINATIONOFSTRUCTURALNUMBER(SN)
SN=D
1
a
1
+D
2
a
2
+D
3
a
3
Surface
Material:.. D
1
a
1
=.=_________________
BaseCourse
Material:.. D
2
a
2
=.=_________________
TotalSNaboveSubbase.=_________________
Subbase(Foundation)
Material:.. D
3
a
3
=.=_________________
.. D
3
a
3
=.=_________________
TotalSNaboveSubbase.=_________________
Where:D
1
=SurfaceThickness,mm
D
2
=BaseThickness,mm
D
3
=SubbaseThickness,mm
a
1
=CoefficientofRelativeStrength,Surface
a
2
=CoefficientofRelativeStrength,Base
a
3
=CoefficientofRelativeStrength,Subbase
Comments:_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Figure9.4:(Continued)NEWANDRECONSTRUCTEDPAVEMENTS

SAMPLE




Example
Given: Approximately1800metersofBroadwayStreet(Route107)isbeingreconstructedinRevere.
Broadwayisatwolaneurbanfacility.Thefollowingdataisgiven:
1995ADT=21640
2015ADT=22480
T(ADT)=5%
Problem:Determinethepavementstructuraldesignfora20yeardesignperiod.
Solution:DataSheet1
Lines(a)to(g)onDataSheet1arecompletedasinstructed.Table9.1isusedtoselecttheequivalent80
kNaxleapplicationsper1000trucksandcombinations.Theurbanroadsvalueof800isusedand
enteredonLine(h).Therefore,Line(j)is440.
DBRDetermination
Line(j)(T80)exceeds120.Therefore,accordingtoTable9.2,MaterialsEngineermustdeterminethe
DBRforthesubgrade.ThiswillbeprocessedbytheDesignEngineerasdescribedinSection9.7.
DataSheet2
Step1:Thedesignlaneequivalentforatwolaneundividedhighwayis1.00xLine(j)which,in
thiscase,is440.
Step2:MaterialsEngineerdeterminesthatthesubgradeDBRis9.
Step3:UsingFigure9.3,thesubgradeSSV=4.2;thesubbaseSSV=7.8.
Step4:UsingFigure9.4,therequiredSNabovethesubbaseis2.6;abovethesubgradeitis
4.15.
Step5:Increasingthesevaluesby15%yieldsSNdesignvaluesof2.99and4.77.
DataSheet3
UsethetrialanderrorproceduretodeterminethemosteconomicaldesignwhichsatisfiestheSN
requirementsforthesubbaseandsubgrade.Thefollowingdesignisselected:
90mmbituminousconcretesurface
115mmbituminousconcretebase
100mmdensegradedcrushedstone
255mmgravel
Acompletedsummarysheetandcompleteddatasheetsareshown.

9.9 PavementOverlays
Apavementoverlaycanbeusedifthedesignerdeterminesthatanexistingpavementisinreasonably
goodcondition.AsdiscussedinSection9.7,apavementoverlaymaybeinconjunctionwithroadway
wideningand/orcorrectiveworktotheexistingpavement.Thedepthofbituminousconcreteoverlay
willbedeterminedbythefollowingprocedure:
PavementOverlayDesignCoverSheet
Thefollowingmustberecorded:
1. Entertheprojectidentificationdataatthetopofthecoversheet.
2. Documenttheexistingpavementstructurebeforeoverlay.
3. Recordtherecommendedpavementoverlaythickness.
DataSheet1:PavementStructuralDesignData
Line(a):EnterthecurrentADT
Line(b):EnterthefutureADT,usuallyfor20yearsbeyondthecurrent.(Note:Thetrafficdata
fortheMasterPlanningandDevelopmentmaynotcorrespondtothedatesinLines(a)and(b).
Ifnot,thedesignershouldassumeauniformstraightlineincreasebetweenthedata.This
assumptioncanthenbeusedtodeterminethetrafficvolumesinLines(a)and(b).)
Line(c):CalculatetheaverageADTduringthedesignperiod.
Line(d):CalculatetheaverageADTinonedirection.
Line(e):EnterthetruckpercentagefortheADT.
Line(f):Calculatetheaveragedailytruckvolumeinonedirection.
Line(g):Entertheequivalent80kNaxleapplicationsper1000trucksandcombinations.See
Table9.1.
Line(h):Calculatethenumberof80kNaxleloadsperdayinonedirection.
Line(j):Calculatethedesignlaneequivalentdaily80kNapplicationsbasedonnumberoflanes.
Line(k):EnterthesubgradeDBRandSSV.ThesewillbeprovidedbytheDesignEngineeras
discussedinSection9.7andTables9.2and9.3.
Line(l):DeterminetherequiredSNabovethesubgradefromFigure9.3.
Line(m):DeterminethedesignSNbyincreasingtheSNby15%.
DataSheet2:ActualSNofExistingPavement
Line(a):EntertheSSVoftheexistingpavementelements.TheSSVforthepenetratedcrushed
stonebase,thesandboundcrushedstonebase,andthegravelsubbaseareusuallyassumedas

shown.However,iflaboratorydeterminedDBRresultsareavailable,thesevaluesshouldbe
used.EntertheSSVforthesubgradefromLine(k)ofDataSheet1.
Line(b):DeterminetheSNoftheexistingpavement.Followthesesteps:
1. Table9.6providesthelayercoefficientforeachlayercomponentforanewpavement.
2. ThecoefficientsinTable9.6shouldbemultipliedbyareductionfactor(RF)fromTable
9.7.TheRFwillbebasedonavisualsurveyofthetypeandextentofdistressinthe
existingpavement.TheRFwillapplyevenifcorrectiveworkisperformedonthe
existingpavement.
3. ThecontributingSNforeachlayeriscalculatedbymultiplyingitsdepthbythelayer
coefficientandRF.
4. ThetotalSNisfoundbysummingtheSNofeachpavementlayer.
(Note:IfPortlandcementconcreteispartoftheexistingpavement,thePDEwill
determineitscontributingSN.)
Line(c):DeterminetheactualSNaboveeachlayeroftheexistingpavement.TheSNfor
eachlayerisenteredintheappropriatecolumn.The"TotalSN"reflectsthecumulative
SNaboveeachpavementlayer.
DataSheet3:DeterminationofOverlayThickness
Line(a):DeterminetherequiredSNaboveeachlayeroftheexistingpavementusing
Figure9.4.ThevaluesfromLine(j)onDataSheet1andfromLine(a)ofDataSheet2are
usedinthefigure.TheSNvaluesfromFigure9.4areincreasedby15%todeterminethe
designSN.
Line(b):DeterminetheSNdeficiencyforeachlayerfortheexistingpavement.The
requiredSNfromLine(a)ofDataSheet3isenteredinthefirstcolumn.Enterthevalue
fromLine(c)ofDataSheet2inthesecondcolumn.ThefirstcolumnSNminusthe
secondcolumnSNyieldstheSNdifference,whichisenteredinthethirdcolumn.(Note:
AnegativevalueindicatesthereisnoSNdeficiencyforthatpavementlayer.)
Line(c):ThelargestSNdeficiencyfromthetableinLine(b)isusedtodeterminethe
thicknessofthepavementoverlay.The1.73x102isintheSNvaluepermmfor
bituminousconcretesurfacecourse.Regardlessofthecalculation,theminimum
overlaythicknessis45mm.
Figure9.5presentsthepavementoverlaydesigncoversheetanddatasheets1to3.

Table9.6:LAYERCOEFFICIENTSFOREXISTINGPAVEMENTS
1.Thesearethelayercoefficientvaluesforwhenthepavementwasnew.Theymustbe
reducedaccordingtotheReductionFactorsinTable9.7
Table9.7:REDUCTIONFACTORSFOREXISTINGPAVEMENT
1.Thisisbasedonavisualsurveyofthetypeandextentofdistress.Ifthepavementdistress
anddeteriorationisworsethandescribedinthetable,considerationshouldbemadeforthe
removalandreconstructionofthepavement.

PAVEMENTOVERLAYDESIGN
DatePavementDesigned____________________ ProjectDesigner________________________
EXISTINGPAVEMENTELEMENTSBEFOREOVERLAY
_____________BituminousConcreteSurface
_____________PenetratedCrushedStoneBase
_____________SandBoundCrushedStoneBase
_____________GravelSubbase
RECOMMENDEDOVERLAYTHICKNESS
Figure9.5:PAVEMENTOVERLAYDESIGN

DATASHEET:PAVEMENTSTRUCTURALDESIGNDATA
TerminalServiceabilityIndexNomograph=2.5
(a)CurrentA.D.T.(Date_______________) ____________
(b)FutureA.D.T.(Date_______________) ____________
(c)MeanA.D.T.= (a)+(b) ____________
2
(d)MeanA.D.TinOneDirection(c) ____________
2
(e)A.D.TTruckPercentage ____________
(f)MeanTruckA.D.TinOneDirection(d)x(e) ____________
(g)Equivalent80kNAxleApplicationper1000Trucksand
Combinations(SeeTable1.1) ____________
(h)Numberof80kNAxleLoadsPerDayinOneDirection
(f)+(g)
1000
(T
80
) ____________
(i)80kNLoadonDesignLane:(h)Z1.00for2lanes;
(h)x0.90for4lanes;(h)x0.80for6ormorelanes ____________
(j)SubgradeDesignBearingRatioandSoilSupportValue ____________
(k)*StructuralNumber(SN)RequiredAbovetheSubgrade ____________
(l)*IncreaseSNby15%forDesignSN ____________
*ThesevaluesaredevelopedonDataSheet#3
Figure9.5(Continued)

DATASHEET2:ACTUALSNOFEXISTINGPAVEMENT
(a)SoilSupportValuesofExistingGranularPavementElements
PenetratedCrushedStoneBase=____90____

SandBoundCrushedStoneBase =__________
GravelSubbase =____66____
Subgrade =__________
(b)ActualStructuralNumber(SN)ofEachLayerofExistingPavement
(1)
Depth
Description
(2)
Coefficient
Table1.6
(3)
RF
Table1.7
Coefficient
(1)x(2)x(3)
BituminousConcrete
Surface

PenetratedCrushedStone
Base

SandBoundCrushedStone
Base

GravelSubbase
TotalSN=

Figure9.5:(Continued)PAVEMENTOVERLAYDESIGN

(c)ActualStructuralNumber(SN)AboveEachLayerofExistingPavement
AboveTopof:
SN*
Bituminous
Concrete
SN*
Penetrated
Stone
SN*
SandBd.
Stone
SN*
Gravel
Total
SN**
PenetratedCrushedStone
Base

SandBoundCrushedStone
Base

GravelSubbase
Subgrade

*FromTable(b)Above
**AccumulatedSNValuesfromLayersAbove
Figure9.5:(Continued)PAVEMENTOVERLAYDESIGN

DATASHEET3:DETERMINATIONOFOVERLAYTHICKNESS
(a)RequiredStructuralNumber(SN)AboveEachLayerofExistingPavement
SN +15%
AboveTopofPenetratedCrushedStoneBase = _________________ ___________________
AboveTopofSandBoundStoneBase = _________________ ___________________
AboveTopofGravelSubbase = _________________ ___________________
AboveTopofSubgrade = _________________ ___________________
(b)SNDeficiencytobeCorrectedwithanOverlay
AboveTopof: RequiredSN*
Actual
SN**
SNDifference
PenetratedCrushedStoneBase
SandBoundCrushedStoneBase
GravelSubbase
Subgrade
*From(a)DataSheet#3
**From(c)DataSheet#2
(c)ThicknessofBituminousConcreteOverlay
Depth= LargestSNDifference =________________________

0.0173
Figure9.5(Continued)PAVEMENTOVERLAYDESIGN

Example
Given:Approximately750metersofRoute3inHinghamisbeingoverlaid.Route3isafourlane
urbanfacility.Theexistingpavementexhibitssomefinecrackingwithlittledeformationinthe
wheelpaths.Thefollowingdataisgiven:

1995ADT=54100
2015ADT=89300
T(ADT)=12%
ExistingPavement:
115mmbituminousconcretesurface
115mmpenetratedcrushedstonebase
300mmgravelsubbase
Problem:Determinethedepthofabituminousconcreteoverlayfora20yeardesignperiod.
Solution:
DataSheet1
Line(a)Line(f):Lines(a)to(f)arecompletedasinstructed.
Line(g): Table9.1yieldsavalueof800.
Line(h): ThiscalculationyieldsaT80=3442.
Line(j):Forafourlanefacility,thedesignlaneloadis0.9xT80,or3098.
Line(k): ThePDEprovidesasubgradeDBRof11,whichyieldsSSV=4.5.
Line(l):Figure9.3yieldsanSN5.35abovethesubgrade.
Line(m): Increasingby15%yieldsadesignSNof6.15.
DataSheet2
Line(a):ThesubgradeSSV=4.5isentered.
Line(b):Table9.6isusedtoselectthelayercoefficientsfortheexistingpavement.The
existingpavementisingenerallygoodcondition.Therefore,areductionfactorof0.9is
selectedfromTable9.7.Thecalculationsareshownonthecompleteddatasheet.

Line(c):TheactualSNaboveeachpavementlayerisenteredasshownonthecompleteddata
sheet.
DataSheet3
Line(a):Figure9.3isusedtodeterminetherequiredSNaboveeachlayeroftheexisting
pavement.Theseareincreasedby15%asshown.
Line(b):TheSNdeficiencyforeachlayeroftheexistingpavementisshownonthe
completeddatasheet.
Line(c):ThelargestSNdeficiencyis2.33forthesubgrade.Thisisusedtodeterminethat
a135mmoverlayisneededtoprovideacceptablepavementperformanceoverthe20
yearperiod.
Acompletedsummarysheetandcompleteddatasheetsfollow.
********





9.10 Recycling
"Recycling"meansreusingexistingpavingmaterialsfortherehabilitationandmaintenanceof
pavements.Itconservesenergy,aggregates,andasphalt.Itisimportanttounderstandthatrecyclingis
nottheanswertoallpavingproblems.Inordertousetherecyclingconcepttoitsbestadvantage,
certaincriteriarelativetotheconditionandfunctionatthefacilitymustbeconsidered.TheHIBDesign
Engineerwillreviewandmustapproveallproposedrecyclingprojects.MaterialsEngineerandthePDE
willdevelopthespecificationsandstructuraldesignfortherecycledpavements.
Therearethreegeneralmethodsofrecyclingpavements;thesemethodsareinturnsubdividedinto
submethods.Thethreegeneraltypesaredescribedbelow.
1. SURFACERECYCLING:Thisisaprocessinwhichthebituminousconcretepavementisreworked
byaheaterplaner,hotmilling,heaterscarifier,etc.Thedepthofreworkedmaterialisusually
about25mm;itisdoneinacontinuousoperation.Theoperationmayinvolvetheadditionsof
virginhotmixmaterialandmodifiers.
Itiseffectiveinreducingsomereflectivecracking,eliminatessomeraveling,ruttingcorrugations
etc.Thestructuralimprovementisminimal;theheaterplanerhascertainlimitationsrelativeto
depthofpenetration.The"SurfaceRecycling"methodisusedinfrequently.
2. "INPLACESURFACEANDBASERECYCLING"Theexistingsurfaceandbasearescarifiedand
pulverized,mixedwithsomegravelsubbasematerial,reshaped,andcompactedtoformabase.
Additivesorotheragentsmaybeaddedtothisblend.Thepulverizingandblendingisusually
doneonthesite;however,thereistheoptionofdoingthepulverizingandcoldblendingata
centralplant.Atopcoursemixisplacedonthecompactedmaterial.
Thestructuralcapacityisimproved,andreflectivecrackingiseliminated.However,quality
controlisdifficulttomaintain.Trafficisdisrupted,andthepulverizingequipmentbreaksdown
frequently.Thisisalessexpensiveoperationthana"CentralPlant"(hot)reclamationproject.
3. CENTRALPLANTRECYCLINGThisisaprocesswherethereclaimedpavementiscombinedwith
newasphaltandaggregateandinsomeinstancestheadditionofamodifiermaybespecified.
Thepavementsurfaceisusuallyremovedwithacoldplanerorsimilartypemachinetoa
predetermineddepth.Thepavementfragmentsaretransportedtoa"CentralPlant"wherethey
areseizedandmixedhotasnotedabove.Thefinishedproduct,dependingonthesizing
specification,maybeusedasaridingsurfaceorbinder.
Thismethodofreclamationincreasesthestructuralcapacity,improvesqualitycontrol,reduces,
and,inmostcases,eliminatesreflectivecracking.Trafficdisruptionandpollutionaresignificant
disadvantagesofthistypeofoperation.

9.11 SkidResistance
Allpavementdesignswillincludeasurfacecoursethatprovidesthenecessaryskidresistantqualities.It
shouldalsoretainthesequalitiesduringthepavementdesignperiod.HIBstandardpavementmix
designprovidestherequiredskidresistanceinmostinstances.
Skidresistanceisafunctionofthepavementsurfacetexture.Surfacetextureisacombinationoffine
(ormicro)textureandcoarse(ormacro)texture.Microtextureisdeterminedbythesurfaceroughness
ofaggregateparticles.Theroughnesspenetratesthewaterfilmontheroadsurfacetoprovidedirect
contactwiththetire.Asurfacethathasgoodmicrotextureensuresskidresistanceatlowspeed.
Macrotextureisafunctionofaggregategradation.Itprovidespassagesforwatertoescapefromthe
tirepavementinterface,therebyreducinghydroplaning.Macrotexturebecomesmoreimportantas
speedincreases.Athigherspeedsskidresistanceisprovidedbycombinedeffectsofmicrotextureand
macrotexture.
Theskidnumberisameasureofskidresistance.Theskidnumberisthecoefficientoffrictiontimes100.
Thusapavementwithaskidnumberof35hasacoefficientoffrictionof0.35.Theskidnumberis
measuredonawetpavementataskidtesterspeedof64kph.Theskidpropertiesofallhighwaysare
monitoredbytheMaterialsEngineer.
Asnotedabove,theHIBmixdesignissuchthatadequateskidresistanceisprovided.However,after
yearsofservicetheskidresistancecharacteristicsmaybegreatlyreduced.Whentheskidnumberfalls
belowacertainnumber,correctivemeasuresmustbetakentorestoretheskidresistancetoan
adequatelevel.Thisisaccomplishedbyplacingafrictioncourseonthequestionablebituminous
concretesurface.Thefrictioncourseisanopengradedbituminousconcretemixplacedatadepthof
about25mm.Thislayerdoesnotcontributetothestructuralstrengthofthepavement.Itcanbe
subjecttoravelingatintersectionswherestartandstopactivityisfrequent;applicationmaynotbe
practicalatcertainintersections.
SkidresistancemaybebuiltintoaPortlandcementconcretepavementbygroovingwithmetaltines
whiletheconcreteisinaplasticstate.Theskidresistanceofcementconcreteinservicecanbe
increasedbymechanicalgrooving.Thegroovesmaybeplacedlongitudinallyortransversely;each
methodhasitsadvantagesanddisadvantages.Theconsensusisthatlongitudinalgroovingispreferable
forhighways,andtransversegroovingispreferableforairports.
ThedesignershouldinformtheHIBDesignEngineeriftheskidresistanceofahighwayissuspect.The
HIBDesignEngineerwillrequestfromtheMaterialsEngineeraskidtestofthesectioninquestiontobe
performed.

9.12 References
InterimGuideforDesignofPavementStructures,AASHTO,1972(Revised1981).
LayeredPavementDesignMethodforMassachusetts,MassachusettsDepartmentofPublic
WorksandMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,January,1965.
GuidelinesforSkidResistantPavementDesign,AASHTO,1976
AsphaltOverlaysandPavementRehabilitation,MS17;theAsphaltInstitute,November,1969.
AlternativesinPavementMaintenance,RehabilitationandReconstruction,IS178,theAsphalt
Institute,May,1981.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 UNIFORM Traffic Control Devices101

10 UniformTrafficControlDevices
AlltrafficcontroldevicesshallbeinaccordancewiththeTrafficandLicensingDepartmentofLibya.The
TrafficandLicensingDepartmentadoptedtherequirementsofManualonUniformTrafficControl
DevicesbyKingdomofSaudiArabia,MinistryofCommunications.Thismanualshouldbeusedfor
trafficsigns,pavementmarkings,trafficsignals,trafficcontrolforworkareas,trafficcontrolforschool
areas,andtrafficcontrolforrailroadgradecrossings.Thefollowingadditionalrequirementsshouldbe
usedintrafficcontrolforworkareas.
10.1 TrafficControlforWorkArea(Supplements)
Thesafetyofroadusers,whichincludedrivers,pedestriansandbicyclists,aswellaspersonnelinwork
zones,shouldbeanintegralandhighpriorityelementofeveryprojectintheplanning,design,
construction,andmaintenancephases.Allprojectsandworksonhighways,roads,andstreetsshall
haveatrafficmanagementplan.AllworkshallbeexecutedunderHIBapprovedproceduresandshall
requireapprovalbyCM/CS.ThisdocumentcontainssupplementalinformationtoPart5oftheManual
onUniformTrafficControlDevicesbyKingdomofSaudiArabia(MUTCD)andcontainsguidelinesand
standardsforthepreparationoftrafficmanagementplansandfortheexecutionoftrafficcontrolin
workzones,forconstructionandmaintenanceoperationsandutilityworkonhighways,roads,and
streetsinallregionsofLibya.Typicalapplicationsforvarioussituationsareprovidedattheendofthis
document.Modificationcanbemadetothesedetailsaslongasthechangescomplywithdesign
standardssetforthintheMUTCDandasrequiredbyHIBandtheCM/CS.Thesignspacingshownonthe
detailsistypical(recommended)distances.Thesedistancesmaybeincreasedordecreasedbasedon
fieldconditions,inordertoavoidconflictsortoimprovesitespecifictrafficcontrols.
10.2 ROADWAYCONSTRUCTION
10.2.1 CorridorandNetworkwideConstructions
Roadwayconstructioncanrangefromasitespecificconstructiontocorridorconstruction,andevento
anoverallnetworkconstructionprogram.Asworkactivitiesaredevelopedattheconstructionsite,they
affecttheoverallcorridorconstructionstaging,trafficmovements,numberoflanesused,utilities,and
pedestrianaccess.Todeterminethenumberoflanestobemaintainedwithintheconstructionzone,it
woulddependontheexistinglevelofserviceoftheroadwayandhowthataffectsthewholecorridor
function.Alsotomaintaintrafficmobility,alternativeroadwaysordetourscanbeusedtobypassthe
constructionsites.Basedonlocalconditions,thelocalauthoritycansacrificemobilityinorderto
expeditetheconstruction.SeeFigures10a10dattheendofthisdocumentforexamplesof
constructionlayoutplans.
Foranetworkwideconstructionprogram,variousconstructionprojectsmustbecoordinated
concurrentlyandonschedule,asthecaseherewiththeongoingconstructionprojectsinallregionsof
Libya.Akeytoolforthiscoordinationisthedevelopmentandimplementationofatrafficmonitoring
systemwhichwouldincludetrafficsensors,cameras,variablemessagesigns,andothertraffic
monitoringtoolsthatcanbeintegratedintoalocaltrafficmanagementsystem,SeeFigure101.The
purposeofthetrafficmonitoringsystemistotrackthetrafficconditionsandevaluatetheimpactsof
constructionthroughoutthenetworkwhichwillinturnbeusedintheschedulingandcoordinatingof
otherprojectstominimizeconflictsandmaintainareasonablelevelofserviceforboththetravelling

publicandthepedestrians.Atrafficmodelisessentialforsimulatingtrafficconditionsinthenetwork
constructionprogrambasedondifferentscenariosoflaneorroadclosuresandtheirimpacts.
10.2.2 Authority
Atrafficmanagementplanthatwouldaddresstrafficmobility,safety,localandpedestrianaccessmust
beenforcedbylocalauthoritieswithjurisdictionovertheregulationsoftheroadwaytomakesurethat
theplanisimplementedproperly.Thereshallbeadequatestatutoryauthorityfortheimplementation
andenforcementofneededroaduserregulations,parkingcontrols,speedzoning,andthemanagement
oftrafficincidents.SuchstatutesshallprovidesufficientflexibilityintheapplicationofTemporary
TrafficControl(TTC)tomeettheneedsofchangingconditionsintheTTCzone.


Figure 10-1: Network Traffic Management Program

10.3 TrafficControlZones
TheprimaryfunctionofTemporaryTrafficControlistoprovideforthereasonablysafeandefficient
movementofroadusersthroughoraroundtrafficcontrolzonesduringprojectconstructionwhile
reasonablyprotectingworkers,responderstotrafficincidents,andequipment.
Ofequalimportancetothepublictravelingthroughthetrafficcontrolzoneisthesafetyofworkers,
performingthemanyvariedtaskswithintheworkspace.Trafficcontrolzonespresentconstantly
changingconditionsthatareunexpectedbytheroaduser.Thiscreatesanevenhigherdegreeof
vulnerabilityfortheworkersandincidentmanagementrespondersonorneartheroadway.Atthe
sametime,thetrafficcontrolzoneprovidesfortheefficientcompletionofwhateveractivityinterrupted
thenormaluseoftheroadway.
Thefollowingprinciplesmustbeappliedtotemporarytrafficcontrolzones:
Trafficmovementshouldbedisruptedaslittleaspossible,withtheproperclosure,transition,
andspeedreductionconfigurations.
Roadusersshouldbeguidedinaclearandpositivemannerwhileapproachingandwithin
construction,maintenance,andutilityworkareas.
Routineinspectionandmaintenanceoftrafficcontrolelementsshouldbeperformedbothday
andnight.
BoththeContractorandCM/CSshouldassignatleastonepersononeachprojecttohaveday
todayresponsibilityforassuringthatthetrafficcontrolelementsareoperatingeffectivelyand
anyneededoperationalchangesarebroughttotheattentionoftheirsupervisors.
TheContractorshallcomplywithalllocalpoliceregulationsandauthoritiesinLibyafortraffic
managementandtrafficcontrolconfigurationinworkzones.
Specialplanspreparationandcoordinationwithtransit,otherhighwayagencies,law
enforcementandotheremergencyunits,utilities,andschoolsmightbeneededtoreduce
unexpectedandunusualroaduseroperationsituations.
Contractorsofadjacentconstructionsshallcoordinateconstructionstaging,laneclosures,and
trafficshifting.
DuringTTCactivities,commercialvehiclesmightneedtofollowadifferentroutefrompassenger
vehiclesbecauseofbridge,weight,clearance,orgeometricrestrictions.Also,vehiclescarrying
hazardousmaterialsmightneedtofollowadifferentroutefromothervehicles.
Trafficmanagementintemporarytrafficcontrolzonesshouldbedesignedontheassumption
thatroaduserswillonlyreducetheirspeedsiftheyclearlyperceiveaneedtodoso,andthen
onlyinsmallincrementsofspeed.
TTCzonesshouldnotpresentasurprisetotheroaduser.Frequentand/orabruptchangesin
geometricsandotherfeaturesshouldbeavoided.Transitionsshouldbewelldelineatedand

longenoughtoaccommodatedrivingconditionsatthespeedsvehiclesarerealisticallyexpected
totravel.
ATrafficManagementPlan(TMP)shouldbeusedforatemporarytrafficcontrolzonetospecify
particulartrafficcontroldevicesandfeatures,ortoreferencetypicaldrawingssuchasthose
containedinthismanual.TheTMPshouldstartintheplanningphaseandcontinuethroughthe
design,construction,andrestorationphases.
Applicationsofspeedreductioncountermeasuresandenforcementcanbeeffectiveinreducing
trafficspeedsintemporarytrafficcontrolzones.
10.3.1 Application
Plannedworkphasingandsequencingshouldbethebasisfortheuseoftrafficcontroldevicesfor
temporarytrafficcontrolzones.Thismanualshouldbeconsultedforspecifictrafficcontrol
requirementsandexampleswhereconstructionormaintenanceworkisplanned.
10.3.2 Guideline
Generalplansorguidelinesshouldbedevelopedtoprovidesafetyformotorists,bicyclists,pedestrians,
workers,enforcement/emergencyofficials,andequipment,withthefollowingfactorsbeingconsidered:
Thebasicsafetyprinciplesgoverningthedesignofpermanentroadwaysandroadsidesshould
alsogovernthedesignofTTCzones.Thegoalshouldbetorouteroadusersthroughsuchzones
usingroadwaygeometrics,roadsidefeatures,andTTCdevicesasnearlyaspossiblecomparable
tothosefornormalhighwaysituations.
ATMP,indetailappropriatetothecomplexityoftheworkprojectorincident,shouldbe
preparedandunderstoodbyallresponsiblepartiesbeforethesiteisoccupied.Anychangesin
theTMPshouldbeapprovedbyanofficialknowledgeable(forexample,trainedand/or
certified)inproperTTCpractices.
Roadusermovementshouldbeinhibitedaslittleaspractical,basedonthefollowingconsiderations:
TTCatworkandincidentsitesshouldbedesignedontheassumptionthatdriverswillonly
reducetheirspeedsiftheyclearlyperceiveaneedtodoso.
Frequentandabruptchangesingeometricssuchaslanenarrowing,droppedlanes,ormain
roadwaytransitionsthatrequirerapidmaneuvers,shouldbeavoided.
Provisionsshouldbemadeforthereasonablysafeoperationofwork,particularlyonhigh
speed,highvolumeroadways.
RoadusersshouldbeencouragedtousealternativeroutesthatdonotincludeTTCzones.
Bicyclistsandpedestrians,includingthosewithdisabilities,shouldbeprovidedwithaccessand
reasonablysafepassagethroughtheTTCzone.
Roadwayoccupancyshouldbescheduledduringoffpeakhoursand,ifnecessary,nightwork
shouldbeconsidered.

Earlycoordinationwithofficialshavingjurisdictionovertheaffectedcrossstreetsandproviding
emergencyservicesshouldoccurbeforeroadwayorrampclosings.
Motorists,bicyclists,andpedestriansshouldbeguidedinaclearandpositivemannerwhileapproaching
andtraversingTTCzonesandincidentsites.Thefollowingprinciplesshouldbeapplied:
Adequatewarning,delineation,andchannelizationshouldbeprovidedtoassistinguidingroad
usersinadvanceofandthroughtheTTCzoneorincidentsitebyusingproperpavement
marking,signing,orotherdevicesthatareeffectiveundervaryingconditions.Providing
informationthatisinusableformatsbypedestrianswithvisualdisabilitiesshouldalsobe
considered.
TTCdevicesinconsistentwithintendedtravelpathsthroughTTCzonesshouldberemovedor
covered.However,inintermediatetermstationary,shortterm,andmobileoperations,where
visiblepermanentdevicesareinconsistentwithintendedtravelpaths,devicesthathighlightor
emphasizetheappropriatepathshouldbeused.Providingtrafficcontroldevicesthatare
accessibletoandusablebypedestrianswithdisabilitiesshouldbeconsidered.
Flaggingprocedures,whenused,shouldprovidepositiveguidancetoroaduserstraversingthe
TTCzone.
Toprovideacceptablelevelsofoperations,routinedayandnightinspectionsofTTCelementsshouldbe
performedasfollows:
Individualswhoareknowledgeable(forexample,trainedand/orcertified)intheprinciplesof
proper
TTCshouldbeassignedresponsibilityforsafetyinTTCzones.Themostimportantdutyofthese
individualsshouldbetocheckthatallTTCdevicesoftheprojectarereasonablyconsistentwith
theTMPandareeffectiveinprovidingreasonablysafeconditionsformotorists,bicyclists,
pedestrians,andworkers.
Astheworkprogresses,temporarytrafficcontrolsand/orworkingconditionsshouldbe
modifiedinordertoprovidereasonablysafeandefficientroadusermovementandtoprovide
workersafety.TheindividualresponsibleforTTCshouldhavetheauthoritytohaltworkuntil
applicableorremedialsafetymeasuresaretaken.
TTCzonesshouldbecarefullymonitoredundervaryingconditionsofroaduservolumes,light,
andweathertocheckthatapplicableTTCdevicesareeffective,clearlyvisible,clean,andin
compliancewiththeTMP.
Whenwarranted,anengineeringstudyshouldbemade(incooperationwithlawenforcement
officials)ofreportedcrashesoccurringwithintheTTCzone.CrashrecordsinTTCzonesshould
bemonitoredtoidentifytheneedforchangesintheTTCzone.
AttentionshouldbegiventothemaintenanceofroadsidesafetyduringthelifeoftheTTCzoneby
applyingthefollowingprinciples:

Toaccommodaterunofftheroadincidents,disabledvehicles,oremergencysituations,
unencumberedroadsiderecoveryareasorclearzonesshouldbeprovidedwherepractical.
Channelizationofroadusersshouldbeaccomplishedbytheuseofpavementmarkings,signing,
andcrashworthy,detectablechannelizingdevices.
Workequipment,workers'privatevehicles,materials,anddebrisshouldbestoredinsucha
mannertoreducetheprobabilityofbeingimpactedbyrunofftheroadvehicles.
10.3.3 TrafficManagementPlans
ATMPdescribestrafficcontrolmeasurestobeusedforfacilitatingroadusersthroughaworkzoneoran
incidentarea.Trafficmanagementplansplayavitalroleinprovidingcontinuityofreasonablysafeand
efficientroaduserflowwhenaworkzone,incident,orothereventtemporarilydisruptsnormalroad
userflow.
TMPsrangeinscopefrombeingverydetailedtosimplyreferencingtypicaldrawings,asshowninthis
document,andstandardapprovedhighwayagencydrawingsandmanuals,orspecificdrawings
containedinthecontractdocuments.ThedegreeofdetailintheTMPdependsentirelyonthenature
andcomplexityofthesituation.TheTMPcomponentswouldtypicallyincludethefollowing:
GeneralLayoutoverallconstructionsequencingoftheproject.
LegendsandAbbreviationsToidentifythesymbolsandabbreviationsshownontheplans.
ConstructionPhasingPlansdetailedconstructionstagingshowingworkzones,traffic
movements,channelizingdevicesandstagingnotes.
StagingSectionssectionsshowingtheworkstagingandsequencingwithemphasisonbuffer
width,verticaldifference,treatmentoftemporaryconditionsandsafetymeasures.Staging
notescanbeshownwiththesectionsoronthephasingplans.
TemporaryProfilesInsomecases,atemporaryprofileisnecessarytomeetaninterim
conditionofroadwayconstruction.Theprofilemustbeshownwithallitsgeometricvalues.
DetourPlanslocationplansshowingthedetourstowheretrafficisdivertedtobypass
constructionarea.Theplansincludeallnecessarydetour,streetnames,andarrowsigns.
MiscellaneousDetailsdetailsoftemporarytreatments,specialdetails,andtrafficcontrol
devices,whichcanbereferencedtointhismanual.
FactorsthatmustbeconsideredintheTMPplanningandpreparation:
TMPsshouldbepreparedbypersonsknowledgeableaboutthefundamentalprinciplesofTTC
andworkactivitiestobeperformed.Thedesign,selection,andplacementofTTCdevicesfora
TMPshouldbebasedonengineeringjudgment.
Coordinationshouldbemadebetweenadjacentoroverlappingprojectstocheckthatduplicate
signingisnotusedandtocheckcompatibilityoftrafficcontrolbetweenadjacentoroverlapping
projectsintermsoflaneclosure,transition,andtrafficshifting.

Trafficcontrolplanningshouldbecompletedforallhighwayconstruction,utilitywork,
maintenanceoperations,andincidentmanagementincludingminormaintenanceandutility
projectspriortooccupyingtheTTCzone.Planningforallroadusersshouldbeincludedinthe
process.
Provisionsforeffectivecontinuityofaccessiblecirculationpathsforpedestriansshouldbe
incorporatedintotheTTCprocess.Whereexistingpedestrianroutesareblockedordetoured,
informationshouldbeprovidedaboutalternativeroutesthatareusablebypedestrianswith
disabilities,particularlythosewhohavevisualdisabilities.
Accesstotemporarybusstops,reasonablysafetravelacrossintersectionswithaccessible
pedestriansignals,andotherroutingissuesshouldbeconsideredwheretemporarypedestrian
routesarechannelized.Barriersandchannelizingdevicesthataredetectablebypeoplewith
visualdisabilitiesshouldbeprovided.
Provisionsmaybeincorporatedintotheprojectbiddocumentsthatenablecontractorsto
developanalternateTMP.
ModificationsofTMPsmaybenecessarybecauseofchangedconditionsoradeterminationof
bettermethodsofsafelyandefficientlyhandlingroadusers.
Thisalternateormodifiedplanshouldhavetheapprovaloftheresponsiblehighwayagencypriorto
implementation.
ProvisionsforeffectivecontinuityoftransitserviceshouldbeincorporatedintotheTTCplanning
processbecauseoftenpublictransitbusescannotefficientlybedetouredinthesamemannerasother
vehicles(particularlyforshorttermmaintenanceprojects).Whereapplicable,theTMPshouldprovide
forfeaturessuchasaccessibletemporarybusstops,pullouts,andsatisfactorywaitingareasfortransit
patrons,includingpersonswithdisabilities,ifapplicable.
ReducedspeedlimitsshouldbeusedonlyinthespecificportionoftheTTCzonewhereconditionsor
restrictivefeaturesarepresent.However,frequentchangesinthespeedlimitshouldbeavoided.A
TMPshouldbedesignedsothatvehiclescanreasonablysafelytravelthroughtheTTCzonewithaspeed
limitreductionofnomorethan16km/h.
Areductionofmorethan16km/hinthespeedlimitshouldbeusedonlywhenrequiredbyrestrictive
featuresintheTTCzone.Whererestrictivefeaturesjustifyaspeedreductionofmorethan16km/h,
additionaldrivernotificationshouldbeprovided.Thespeedlimitshouldbesteppeddowninadvanceof
thelocationrequiringthelowestspeed,andadditionalTTCwarningdevicesshouldbeused.
Reducedspeedzoning(loweringtheregulatoryspeedlimit)shouldbeavoidedasmuchaspractical
becausedriverswillreducetheirspeedsonlyiftheyclearlyperceiveaneedtodoso.
10.3.4 ComponentsofTemporaryTrafficControlZones
MostTTCzonesaredividedintofourareas:theAdvanceWarningArea,theTransitionArea,theActivity
Area,andtheTerminationArea.Figure102illustratesthesefourareas.Thesefourareasaredescribed
inthefollowingsections.
1. AdvanceWarningArea

Theadvancewarningareaisthesectionofhighwaywhereroadusersareinformed
abouttheupcomingworkzoneorincidentarea.
Theadvancewarningareamayvaryfromasinglesignorhighintensityrotating,
flashing,oscillating,orstrobelightsonavehicletoaseriesofsignsinadvanceofthe
TTCzoneactivityarea.
Typicaldistancesforplacementofadvancewarningsignsonfreewaysandexpressways
shouldbelongerbecausedriversareconditionedtouninterruptedflow.Therefore,the
advancewarningsignplacementshouldextendonthesefacilitiesasfaras800mor
more.
Onurbanstreets,theeffectiveplacementofthefirstwarningsigninmetersshould
rangefrom0.75to1.5timesthespeedlimitinkm/h,withthehighendoftherange
beingusedwhenspeedsarerelativelyhigh.Whenasingleadvancewarningsignisused
(incasessuchaslowspeedresidentialstreets),theadvancewarningareacanbeas
shortas30m.Whentwoormoreadvancewarningsignsareusedonhigherspeed
streets,suchasmajorarterials,theadvancewarningareashouldextendagreater
distance.
Sinceruralhighwaysarenormallycharacterizedbyhigherspeeds,theeffective
placementofthefirstwarningsigninmetersshouldbesubstantiallylongerfrom1.5
to2.25timesthespeedlimitinkm/h.Sincetwoormoreadvancewarningsignsare
normallyusedfortheseconditions,theadvancewarningareashouldextend450mor
moreforopenhighwayconditions.
Advancewarningmaybeeliminatedwhentheactivityareaissufficientlyremovedfrom
theroaduserspathsothatitdoesnotinterferewiththenormalflow.


Figure 10-2: Component Parts of a Temporary Traffic Control Zone

1. TransitionArea
Thetransitionareaisthatsectionofhighwaywhereroadusersareredirectedoutof
theirnormalpath.Transitionareasusuallyinvolvestrategicuseoftapers,which
becauseoftheirimportancearediscussedseparatelyindetail.
Whenredirectionoftheroadusersnormalpathisrequired,theyshallbechannelized
fromthenormalpathtoanewpath.
Inmobileoperations,thetransitionareamoveswiththeworkspace.
2. ActivityArea
Theactivityareaisthesectionofthehighwaywheretheworkactivitytakes
place.Itiscomprisedoftheworkspace,thetrafficspace,andthebufferspace.
Theworkspaceisthatportionofthehighwayclosedtoroadusersandsetaside
forworkers,equipment,andmaterial,andashadowvehicleifoneisused
upstream.Workspacesareusuallydelineatedforroadusersbychannelizing
devicesor,toexcludevehiclesandpedestrians,bytemporarybarriers.
Theworkspacemaybestationaryormaymoveasworkprogresses.
Sincetheremightbeseveralworkspaces(someevenseparatedbyseveral
kilometersormiles)withintheprojectlimits,eachworkspaceshouldbe
adequatelysignedtoinformroadusersandreduceconfusion.
Thetrafficspaceistheportionofthehighwayinwhichroadusersarerouted
throughtheactivityarea.
Thebufferspaceisalateraland/orlongitudinalareathatseparatesroaduser
flowfromtheworkspaceoranunsafearea,andmightprovidesomerecovery
spaceforanerrantvehicle.Neitherworkactivitynorstorageofequipment,
vehicles,ormaterialshouldoccurwithinabufferspace.
Bufferspacesmaybepositionedeitherlongitudinallyorlaterallywithrespectto
thedirectionofroaduserflow.Theactivityareamaycontainoneormore
lateralorlongitudinalbufferspaces.Alongitudinalbufferspacemaybeplaced
inadvanceofaworkspace.
Thelongitudinalbufferspacemayalsobeusedtoseparateopposingroaduser
flowsthatuseportionsofthesametrafficlane,asshowninFigure3.
Typically,thebufferspaceisformedasatrafficislandanddefinedby
channelizingdevices.
Whenashadowvehicle,arrowpanel,orchangeablemessagesignisplacedina
closedlaneinadvanceofaworkspace,onlytheareaupstreamofthevehicle,
arrowpanel,orchangeablemessagesignconstitutesthebufferspace.

Thelateralbufferspacemaybeusedtoseparatethetrafficspacefromthework
space,asshowninFigures2and3,orsuchareasasexcavationsorpavement
edgedropoffs.Alateralbufferspacealsomaybeusedbetweentwotravel
lanes,especiallythosecarryingopposingflows.
Thewidthofalateralbufferspaceshouldbedeterminedbyengineering
judgment.
3. TerminationArea
Theterminationareashallbeusedtoreturnroaduserstotheirnormalpath.The
terminationareashallextendfromthedownstreamendoftheworkareatothelastTTC
devicesuchasENDROADWORKsigns,ifposted.
AnENDROADWORKsign,aSpeedLimitsign,orothersignsmaybeusedtoinformroad
usersthattheycanresumenormaloperations.

Figure10a:TrafficManagementPlan(Sample)for96thStreetStationConstructionofSecondAvenue
SubwayinNYC

Figure10b:TrafficManagementPlan(Sample)for96thStreetStationConstructionofSecondAvenue
SubwayinNYC

Figure10c:TrafficManagementPlan(Sample)for96thStreetStationConstructionofSecondAvenue
SubwayinNYC

Figure10d:TrafficManagementPlan(Sample)forConstructionWork
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 LANDSCAPEDesignCriteria111
11 LandscapeDesignCriteria
This section presents standard design criteria for landscape. It has been developed as a way of
establishingabaseline,orminimum,forthestandardofimplementationsoughtinnewdevelopments.
Whereappropriateproposalsmaybepresentedthatprovideadditionaldetail,orstandards.Thesewill
beconsideredontheirmerit,butmustimproveonthecriteriahereinandmeetrecognizedinternational
standards.Wherealternativesareputforwardandexplanationmustaccompanythereasonswhythey
arebeingproposed.
The criteria presented have been developed to reflect typical conditions. Certain situations, climatic
conditions,andlocationsmayrequiremodificationorinterpretationofthecriteriaherein.Inmost,ifnot
all instances, the use of appropriate qualified designers, engineers, technicians and other specialists is
requiredasstandard.
11.1 LandscapeDesignCriteria
TheDevelopershallberesponsible forlandscapingwithinthe projectssiteboundaries, includingopen
spaces and for pedestrian (sidewalk) planting areas up to roadside curb with street according to the
landscapedesigncriteriadescribedherein.
There will be a presumption that all plants should be directly sourced and grown from incountry
nurseries. Developers should therefore consider and buildin the necessary lead times. Details to the
contraryshouldbeoutlinedandthereasonsforsourceselsewherespecified.
11.1.1 LandscapeandPlanting
GeneralGuidelines
Thelandscapedesignmustbecarefullyplannedandtakeintoaccounttheintendedpurposeofthe
projectandenhancethefunctionalityofthecommunity.Landscapingshouldreinforcedesignconcepts
andnotobstructorinterferewithstreetsigns,lights,orroad/walkwayvisibility.Thechoiceofspeciesin
alllocationsshouldbeprimarilyindigenousandmustmeetandreflectlocalgrowingconditionswiththe
sizeandscaleofthetreeappropriatetothelocation.Speciesshouldbechosenwhichrequirelow
maintenance.
Planting
a. Provide planting at low levels to reinforce routes, mark focal points, and add to the visual
environment. Planting should be varied with a variety of colors and sizes of plants utilized.
Species which flower at different times in the year should be used to ensure that spaces are
attractiveallyearround.
b. Inpublicsquares,plantbedsshouldberaisedinorder
to reinforce routes, add visual interest, and prevent
frombeingwalkedover.
c. Selection of plants should be based on climatic,

geological,andtopographicalconditionsofthesite.
d. Annualcolorplantingsshouldbeusedonlyinareasof
high visual impact close to where people can
appreciatethem.Otherwise,dripirrigated,perennial
plantingsshouldbetheprimarysourceofcolor.
e. Selectionofwaterefficientandlowmaintenanceplantmaterialisrecommended.
f. All planted areas must be a minimum of 25 mm below adjacent

hardscapestoreducerunoffandoverflow.
g. Plants having similar water use shall be grouped together in

distincthydrozones.
h. Planter islands in parking lots with canopy trees to meet local

jurisdiction's shading requirements should have planter beds
sized roughly by the expected canopy area in square meters
equalingthesquaremeterofplanterbed.
Nativedesertplantsshallbespecifiedtobe:
Plantedinashallow,wide,roughholethreetofivetimestherootballwidth.
Therootballwillbesetoneitherundisturbednativesoilorafirmednativesoil.
Therootballtopwillbesetevenwithsurfacegradeorabovegradeifthesoilispoorlydrained.
Theholewillbebackfilledwithnativesoil.
Extrasoilmaybebroughtintomounduparoundplantswherethesoilispoorlydrained.
Anyorganicmaterialwillbeappliedonlyasasurfacemulchovertheplantinghole.
Grassyareas
a. Providegrassinallunpavedareaswithinparksandpublicspaces.Theadditionofgrassinthese
areaswillhelppreventthespreadofdustandsand.Grassyareascan alsoallowforpicnicking
andrecreationalactivities.
Good use of raised beds to add interest to a public square

and to prevent people walking on plants. Wall also serves
assomewherepeoplecansit.
Useofcolorfulflowerstoenhancethe
pathwayandcreateanattraction.
Trees
a. Aclusteroftreesshouldbeestablishedwithinlandscapedareas,
providing a contrast to the built form or acting as a focal point.
Treeswillprovidesignificantshadingforalloutdooractivitiesand
should be located adjacent to pathways and hard paved areas.
Tree pits and grates should be provided around all existing and
newlyplantedtreesinpavedareas.
b. Use trees and bushes to provide wind screens and to visually

separatecarparkingfromtheoutdoorgreenspace.Inimportant
areas designers may choose to use a more exotic selection of
plants to emphasize the importance of the locations if designers can be confident that the
resourcesexisttomaintaintheseplants.
TurfAreas
a. Largeturfareasshallbefoundonlyinareasofmaximumhumancontact.Theseareasinclude
recreationalareassuchasthatfoundincityparksandschoolyards.Large,nonfunctionalturf
areasshallbeminimizedandreviewedtoseeifthesameeffectcanbeobtainedwithother
plantmaterial.
b. Avoiddesigninglong,narroworirregularlyshapedturfareasbecauseofthedifficultyin
irrigatinguniformlywithoutoversprayontohardscapeand/orstructures.Areaswithlessthan
2.5minwidthandareasbetweensidewalksandcurbsshallbeplantedtodripirrigated
groundcoversandlowgrowingshrubs.Noturfgrasswillbeallowedintheseareasunless
subsurfacedripirrigated.
c. Theuseofasoilcoveringmulchoramineralgroundcoverofaminimum50mmdepthtoreduce
soilsurfaceevaporationisencouragedaroundtrees,shrubsandonnonirrigatedareas.
d. Theuseofbouldersandcreekstonesshouldbeconsideredtoreducethetotalvegetationarea;
makesuretheseareashaveenoughshadetoavoidreflectedorretainedheat.
e. Screeningmaybeprovidedbywalls,berms,orplantings.
f. Providegrassinallunpavedareaswithinparksandpublicspaces.Theadditionofgrassinthese
areaswillhelppreventthespreadofdustandsand.Grassyareascanalsoallowforpicnicking
andrecreationalactivities.
11.1.2 PlantingonPrivateDevelopmentParcels
a. Existing trees of calipers above 100 mm shall be encouraged to remain where use and grading
requirementsallow.
b. All trees within residential and commercial parcels shall be nursery grown, container grown or
ballandburlapped.Alltreesshallhavea75mmto100mmcaliperwith3.5mto4mminimum
heightattimeofplanting.Thesetreesshallgrowtoaminimum125mmto150mmcaliperwith
a5.5mto6mheightandshallbelimbup(cleartrunk)aminimumof2.5maboveground.
Exampleoftreegrateinpavedarea.
Figure111:Landscapingaroundthehome(1)
Figure112:Landscapingaroundthehome(2)
c. There shall be at least one tree of the species listed, planted every 4.0 meters along project
boundaries.
d. In parking areas, there shall be at least one tree of the species listed, planted for every 3
consecutive parking spaces (every 6 when they are back to back). The use of berms and
additionaltreesalongtheperimetersofparkingisencouragedtoscreentheparkingareafrom
publicview.
e. Allareasnotoccupiedbybuildings,pedestrian(sidewalk)orparkingareasshallbelandscaped.
The use of native species of trees, shrubs, vines, groundcovers and perennials is required as
standard.
f. Fullmaintenanceandmanagementregimeswillbedetailedforaminimumoffiveyears.Useof
nativespecieswillreducetheselongtermcosts.
g. Shrubsoflikespeciesexceptthoseusedasspecimensshallbeplantedingroupsratherthanas
individuals.Shrubsshallbeplantedaminimumof1.0moncenterunlessotherwiseindicated.
h. Planting clusters of fruit trees in groups of four or more (regularly spaced) is encouraged to
createsmallorchards.
i. Areasforsmallherbandvegetablegardensareencouraged.
j. Hedgesshallbeaminimumheightof1.0mwithaspacingof0.5moncenter.
k. Vinesoflistedspeciesshallbeplantedalongboundarywallsandfencesataminimumof2.0m
on center intervals to insure continuous coverage and soften hard surfaces. One vine species
shallbeselectedperboundaryline.
l. Slopes greater than 3:1 shall be densely planted with masses of trees, shrubs, vines or
groundcoversincombinationsof9ormoreofeach,toachievealusheffect.
m. Thegroundsurfaceinrightsofwayanddrainageeasementsistobeplantedwithgrassspecies
capableoftoleratingtheshadecreatedbycanopytrees.Grassmaybeseededandmulched,or
plantedbyplugsorsodded.
n. As a minimum requirement, each development parcel is to be provided with one canopy or

flowering tree for every apartment. In addition, a minimum of 20% of the yard area is to be
plantedingroundcovers or grasses. Forsingledetachedvillas andunitsshallbeprovidedwith
one(1)treeforevery150squaremeterofbuildingplot(lotarea).
o. Plantingareasaretobedesignedsothatrainwaterleavingtheroofeitherlongandedgeorviaa
gutterdownspout,doesnoterodetheplanting.Tothisenddrainagedevicesaretobeinstalled
inanyareawhereconcentratedwaterrunoffstrikestheground.Splashblocksofconcrete,dry
well, or connections to storm sewers are all acceptable means of preventing erosion on lots.
Particularemphasisisplacedontheneedtocaterforthedispersalandstorageofstormwater
runoff.
p. Slopes and surroundings around retention ponds shall be landscaped with appropriate plant
materials. Basins of retention ponds shall be mown and kept free from rubbish (garbage) and
regularlymaintained.
11.1.3 PlantingonPublicStreetsandStreetswithinPrivateDevelopments
a. All trees in public streets shall be nursery grown, container grown or ball and burlapped. All
trees shall have a 75 mm to 100 mm caliper with 3.5 m to 4.0 m minimum height at time of
planting.Thesetreesshallgrowtoaminimum125mmto150mmcaliperwitha5.5mto6.0m
heightandshallbelimbup(cleartrunk)aminimumof2.5maboveground.
b. All palms in public streets shall be nursery grown, container or ball and burlapped. All palms
shallhaveaminimumheightof6m.
c. There shall be at least 1 tree of the species listed planted every 6.0 meters along both
pedestrian pathways (sidewalks) of public streets, streets within private developments and
publicspaces.
d. In parking areas, there shall be at least one tree of the species listed planted for every 3
consecutive parking spaces (every 6 when are back to back). The use of berms and additional
treesalongtheperimetersofparkingisencouragedtoscreentheparkingareafrompublicview.
e. Trees and palms planted in rows or series shall be selected to insure uniformity of height,
caliper,andappearancebetweenthem.
f. Continuoushedgesofonespeciesshallbeplantedinfrontofparkingspacesalongeachparcel
frontage.Hedgesshallbeaminimumheightof1meterplantedataspacingof0.75meterson
center.
11.1.4 PlantingonPublicParksandLandscapedOpenAreas
Outdoorspacesareextremelyimportanttoanydevelopment.Theyareusedaspedestrianroutesand
asplaceswherepeoplecanrelaxandsocialize.Alargeamountofresidentstimeisspentoutsideand
as such these spaces will have a very large impact on the quality of life of residents. Landscaping add
visual interest to an area, makes pedestrian routes more enjoyable to use, and provide shading and
windprotectiontopedestrianswherenecessary.
This subsection covers parks, public squares, courtyards, and public gardens. Designers should make
decisions based on strong concepts to ensure that the function of a space is clearly defined. Outdoor
areas are most successful when they have a clear function and a unifying theme to aesthetic design
decisions. Full information on design concepts should be submitted in accordance with specified
requirementsinSection11.2below.
Inadditiontothecriteriaspecificationsoutlinedabove,designsmustcomplywiththefollowing
guidelineswhendeliveringcriteria:
a. Oncommonlandscapedopenareas,providecommonoutdoorareasthatareusablein
allseasons,includingshadedareasforoutdooruseinwarmermonths.
b. Considerthespecialneedsofeachgroupoftheexpectedresidents.
c. When located on ground level, open areas should be screened from public view by
landscaping,courtyardwalls,orprivacyfences.
d. On sloping sites, landscaped open areas should be sensitively terraced or provided in

decksorbalconies.
e. The requirements for private usable open areas could be reduced if a project provides
somecommonusableopenareasonthesite.
f. Private open areas should be oriented to receive good sun penetration and provide
shadedareasforoutdooruseinthewarmestmonths.
g. VarietyandIdentityDesignersmustprovideoutdoorspaceswhichareinterestingand
addtotheaestheticenvironment.Outdoorspacedesignsmustbevariedandshouldbe
anindividualresponsetotheareainwhichtheyarelocated.Outdoorspacesshouldbe
designedinconjunctionwithbuildingstoreinforcearchitecturalthemesandideas.
11.2 LandscapingPlansSubmittalsRequirements
The landscape design plan shall be drawn on project base sheets at a scale that accurately and
clearlyidentifiesthefollowingspecificationsforLandscapeDesign:
1. Showtractname,tractnumberorparcelmapnumberoncoversheet.
2. Showproposedplantingareas.
3. Showplantmateriallocationandsize.
4. Showplantbotanicalandcommonnames.
5. Whereapplicable,plantspacingshallbeidentified.
6. Naturalfeaturesincludingbutnotlimitedtorockoutcroppings,existingtreesandshrubsthat
willremainincorporatedintothenewlandscape.
7. Showavicinitymapshowingsitelocationontopsheetoroncoversheet.
8. Showatitleblockoneachsheetwiththenameoftheproject,city,name,andaddressofthe
professionaldesigncompanywithitssignedprofessionalstampifapplicable.
9. Reservea75mmby150mmspaceforadistrictsignatureblockonlowerrightcornerofthe
coverpageandonallofthelandscape,irrigationdesign/detail/specificationsheets.
10.Showplanscaleandnortharrowondesignsheets.
11.Showgraphicscalingonalldesignsheets.
12.Showallpropertylinesandstreetnames.
13.Showallpavedareassuchasdriveways,walkways,andstreets.
14.Showallpools,ponds,lakes,fountains,waterfeatures,fencesandretainingwalls.
15.Showlocationsofalloverheadandundergroundutilities.
16. Show total landscaped area in square meters. Separate area by hydrozone. Show the total
percentage area of each hydrozone. Include total area of all water features as separate
hydrozonesofstillormovingwater.ShowEstimatedAnnualAppliedWaterUse,foreachmajor
plantgrouphydrozoneandwaterfeaturehydrozoneexpressedineitherseasonal(turfgrass)or
annual(trees,shrubs,groundcovers,andwaterfeatures)billingunits.
17. Show Total Estimated Annual Applied Water Use for each major plant group hydrozone and
water feature hydrozone expressed in either seasonal (turfgrass) or annual (trees, shrubs,
groundcoversandwaterfeatures)billingunits.
18.ShowTotalEstimatedAnnualAppliedWaterUsefortheentireproject.
19.ShowTotalMaximumAnnualAppliedWaterAllowancefortheproposedproject.
20.Designaterecreationalareasandrecreationalturfareas.
21. When model homes are included, show the Maximum Annual Applied Water Allowance and
EstimatedAnnualAppliedWaterUse(byhydrozonewithtotals)foreachmodelunit.
11.3 LandscapeGradingPlan
1. Thegradingplandesignshallindicatefinishedconfigurationsandelevationsofthelandscaped
areas, including the height of graded slopes, drainage patterns, pad elevations, and finish
grade.
2. Turfgrass plantings are prohibited on slopes greater than threetoone. Slopes steeper than
threetooneshallbeplantedtopermanentgroundcoveringplantsadequateforproperslope
protection.
3. All grading must retain normal stormwater runoff and, as much as possible, provide for an
area of containment. All irrigation water must be retained within property lines and not
allowed to flow into public streets or public rightsofway. Where appropriate, a simulated
dry creekbed maybeusedto convey stormdrainage intoretentionareas. Adrywellshould
beinstallediftheretentionbasinistobeusedasarecreationalarea.
4. Avoid mounded or sloped planting areas that contribute to runoff onto hardscape. Sloped
planting areas above a hardscaped area shall be avoided unless there is a drainage swale at
toe of slope to direct runoff away from hardscape. The swale areas may be planted to turf,
groundcover,orlowshrubberyandshallbewateredseparately.
Figure113:ShrubandTreePlantingDetails(1)
Figure113:ShrubandTreePlantingDetails(2)
Figure114:PlantingDetailsTreeonPavement
Figure115:HedgePlantingDetail
Figure116:PlantingDetailsPalmonPavement
11.3.1 TreeandPlantMaintenance
a. Alllandscapingshouldbeprovidedwith;(1)aplantingregimeplan;and(2)shallbeaccompaniedwitha
longtermmanagementandmaintenanceprogram.
b. Trees shall be planted utilizing guy wires as shown in details to insure proper growth. All palm
treesshallbebracedaccordingtospecifications.
c. Plantsshallbewatered,mulched,weeded,pruned,sprayed,fertilized,cultivated,andotherwise
protectedandmaintainedinahealthycondition.Irrigationoflandscapedareasisrequiredand
thesesystemsshallbemaintainedinworkingorder.
d. Prior to establishment, settled plants shall be reset to proper grade position, planting saucer
restore, and dead material removed. Guys shall be tightened and repaired to restore tree to
intendedposition.
e. Sodareasshallbemowedandedgedregularlywheretheymeetstructuresofpavementatbed
areas.
f. Debris, including fallen branches, leaves, fronds, seedpods, and any foreign materials will be
removedfromthesiteonaweeklybasis.
g. Hedgesshallbeprunedandmaintainedregularlytoinsureauniformandcontinuousheightofa
minimumof50mmandamaximumof1.2maboveground.
h. Pesticides shall be applied only in accordance to label instructions. Where possible

environmentallyfriendly solutions to pest control should be applied. No pesticides shall be
allowedtocontactwatersurfaces.
i. All planting along public streets, streets within private developments and public spaces shall
haveirrigationsystems.
JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 STREETSCAPE 12-1

12 Streetscape
Thissectionpresentsstandarddesigncriteriaforstreetscape.Ithasbeendevelopedforsourcesofbest
practiceasawayofestablishingabaseline,orminimum,forthestandardofimplementationsoughtin
newdevelopments.
Whereappropriateproposalsmaybepresentedthatprovideadditionaldetail,orstandards.Thesewill
beconsideredontheirmerit,butmustimproveonthecriteriahereinandmeetrecognizedinternational
standards.Wherealternativesareputforwardandexplanationmustaccompanythereasonswhythey
arebeingproposed.Inmost,ifnotallinstances,theuseofappropriatequalifieddesigners,engineers,
techniciansandotherspecialistsisrequiredasstandard.
12.1 Introduction
Streetsformthecoreofthetransportnetwork;Whetherpaved,withformaldemarcation,asinmany
towns, or unpaved forming an informal thoroughfare through a rural settlement , streets are also the
buildingblocksoftheurbanarea,fulfillingawiderangeofroles.
Theyneedtobemanagedtosupportalltheobjectivesforanysettlementhoweverlargeorsmall.The
functionsofstreetsinclude:
Streetsasmovementcorridors
Streetsasthefocusofactivities
Streetsascityidentity
All of these functions work together towards place making and are influenced by the design of the
streetandthelandscapingthatcontributetothestreetscape.
A key component of place making is the creation of public spaces, with footways that aresufficiently
safe, attractive and comfortable to use so that people are encouraged to walk in the settlement they
liveforpleasureandfunctioninasafeway.
Footwaysshouldbesufficientlyspaciousfortheirpurposeandbeuncluttered.Peopleseeasceneinits
totality. The space between buildings, usually the roadways and footways, is seen as part of a wider
townscape made up of buildings and streets. Cherished views of important monuments and groups of
buildingsareappreciatedfarmorewhennotdetractedbyunnecessaryforegroundclutter.
Within this context there are opportunities for more exciting designs which have a place in the wider
publicrealmandkeyspacesofthesettlementsinLibya.However,throughoutLibya,itisessentialthat
thedesignofstreetsshouldbeclearandsimple.
12.2 GoodDesign
Anessentialelementofasettlementsvisualcharacteristherelationshipbetweenthebuildingsandthe
roadwaysandfootways.Thereshouldbeapresumptiontomaintainthisrelationship.Footwaysshould
beplainandsimple,andgenerallyuniformasasuitablesettingforasettlementsbuildings.
Traffic equipment and signs, together with their posts, supports, boxes and guard railings should be
kept to the practical minimum. Roadway markings, applied colors, traffic lines and signs, etc. should

also be minimized while ensuring the aims of national transport standards of road safety. A street
environmentmustalsowelcomepedestrians.
Theobjectivesofcreatingapublicrealmofrealquality,withroadsafetyissuescentral,canbeachieved
byattentiontodesigndetail.Whileitisnotalwayspossibletoundertakecomprehensivepublicrealm
improvements,inthesamewaythataseriesofpoorchangescanresultinadegradationofthepublic
realmsopositivechangescan,overaperiodoftime,helptoregainthestandardsofpublicrealmquality
thatLibyancitiesdeserve.Thisembracesthefollowingpractices:
Roadwayshowcurbs/edging,footpathsanddrainagechannelsarelaidout,mountingstonesand
lightingplinthssetandtowhatstandardsandspecifications.
Footpaths securing the key elements of a footway curb, drainage, channel and roadway.
Considering how slabs are aligned, odd sizes cut (on the inside of the footway and shaped to the
profileofthebuildingorboundary),sizingandqualityspecifications.
Featuresmonitoringandregulatingthenumerousadditionalfeaturesthathaveappearedaspart
ofthestreetscene.Theseincludespurstones,bollards,railingsandgateposts.
StreetrelationshipThecriticalrelationshipbetweentheroadway,pavementwidthandalignment
and the building property boundaries. The growth in car ownership has led, often forced, the
adaptation of our streets for a variety of reasons, including accommodating increased levels of
traffic.Retainingandreinforcingtheserelationshipsisakeyobjective.Thisdoesnotmeanthatcurb
lines cannot change. However, the manner in which the changes are made must maintain the
relationship.
Street pattern New streets are being created all across Libya. It is important that these new
streetsandnewpublicspacesuseadesignlanguagethatisderivedfromexistingstreetsandspaces,
providingpositiveconnectionsbacktoexistingpartsofasettlementorarea.Itisalsoimportantthat
thesenewdevelopmentareasutilizearecognizablerangeandpaletteofmaterials.
12.3 OverarchingObjective
Theguidelineshavebeendevelopedtohelpredefinethoseelementsofstreetdesignthatmakeupits
characterandtoensurenewproposalsthatimpactthestreetscapearedesigned,asfaras practicable,
to improve and at the very least reinforce the existing character. An over reaching objective is
therefore:
tofacilitatethedeliveryofastreetscapethatprovidesanenhancedenvironmentfor
pedestriansthatisdesignedtorespondtoitsbuiltcontextand,atthesametime,
meetstherequirementsoftrafficmovement.
12.4 Principles
Thefollowingeightprincipleapproachisadvocatedforadoption:
Principle 1 Preservation and enhancement of settlements historic form and grain, particularly in

locationswithahighheritageandarchaeologicalvalue(e.g.worldheritagestatusmedina),bothduring
andafterconstructionphases.
Principle 2 For renovation and rehabilitation areas, respecting and enhancing local character. Ensure
thatwhennewstreetworksareproposedtheytakethelocalcharacteroftheareaasareferencepoint
for the design of layout and overall design
arrangementanddetailing.
Principle 3 New streets to contribute to

formation of recognizable street pattern. They
should be designed as part of a recognizable
townscape that picks up on street
characteristics specific to the settlement. They
should form a part of a coherent relationship
between building, footway, roads and other
features.
Principle 4 Contributing to Place Making,

creating streets that people would wish to use. Streets are the arena where the public interface takes
place and, as such, should be designed so that they are not dominated by traffic or with over
complicated instruction and segregation. Instead they should reflect human scale and be simply
designedinamannerthatiseasilyunderstoodandattractivetopedestrians.
Principle 5 Best Practice. If there is a real

desiretocreatestreetsthatpeoplewishtouse,
it will be necessary to draw upon and
experimentwithinternationalbestpractice.For
example, consider a reduction in traffic related
signageandmarkingswithoutputtingpeopleat
risk.
Principle 6 Achieving Quality of the public

realm can be achieved through the careful
consideration of a number of measures. Taken
together these will have a significant impact on
the appearance of the streets. These include a
reductioninclutter,usingnaturalmaterials,drawingonaminimumnumberpaletteofmaterials,simple,
cleandesignsandacoordinationofdesignandcolor.
Principle 7 Maintenance. A wellcared for public realm is the result of good design and effective on
goingmaintenance. Thetypeofsimple cleandesignto which asettlementshould aspirewould make
maintenance easier. Maintaining and managing an uncluttered, simple street design requires all those
involvedinthepublicrealmtoshareinaphilosophyofcare.
Principle 8 A Coordinated Approach across a settlement will only be achieved if the appropriate
processes and protocols are in place. Adherence to these is the key to consistency and ensuring that
highstandardsofdesignaremaintainedthroughthelifeofanyscheme.

12.5 DesignGuidelinesandCriteria
12.5.1 PlantingRegimes
Planting regimes, onstreet trees and landscaping provide an attractive and healthier urban
environment contributing to a sense of place and improving air quality and linkages in habitat
networks. Correctly positioned, street trees can provide an important contribution to the urban
structure of any settlement or city, providing accents and space in contact with the urban built form,
withmanypublicsquaresormeetingplacesenjoyingthesettingofsignificanttrees.
In the suburban development areas trees are focused on gardens, where they complement the
streetscape,predominantlyfrombehindaboundarywalls.Newdevelopmentofferstheopportunityto
increasetreecoverandgenerallandscaping.Inanydevelopmenttreesshouldbeusedtoreflectvarying
approaches, introduce color and texture into the development. The following guidelines should be
considered:
Treesshouldbeplantedintodesignatedsoftlandscapedareaswherepossible,inpreferencetohard
surfaces.
Ingeneralpublicstreetarrangements/throughstreets,etc,
preference will be for trees to be located within gardens
andfrontages,whereappropriateandnotinthefootway.
Groups of trees should be established within landscaped
areas, providing a contrast to the built form in a street
layout, acting as a focal point to a view and providing
shade.
Where existing trees are to be retained, the general
arrangement of the street and public realm should be
designedtotakeaccountofthetreesrequirements.
Consideration should be given to the impact of
undergroundservicesonproposals.
Treegridsshouldbeporousresinbondedgraveloramore
solid concrete/metal cover flush with the surrounding
paving(unlessanupstandismoresuitable).
Treeguardsshouldnotbeused.
Generally trees in paving should be planted to a minimum of an extra heavy standard size (to
ensuretheyhaveaproperchanceofsurvivingandprospering)
Streettreesplantedintolandscapedareasshouldbestandardorsmallersize.
Thechoiceofspeciesinalllocationsmustmeetandreflectlocalgrowingconditionsandthesizeand
scaleofthetreeappropriate.Whereverpossibletheyshouldbelocallysourcedandgrown.
Clearly planting regimes will differ greatly across Libya, based on their geography (coastal, desert or
mountain) and location (city or rural area). It is proposed that individual fact sheets on preferred
plantingschemes,makingrecommendationsonthetype,sizeandageofspecies,shouldbepreparedby
therelevantspecialistsinduecourse.

Planting regimes should also have a wider reference to supporting wildlife. Where appropriate plants
shouldbeselectedthatincreasetheinstancesofattractingandsupportingthelocalfauna.
12.5.2 Footwaylayout
Footway layouts should be designed for the use and enjoyment of pedestrians. They should provide
sufficientspacefortheuser,provideasettingtotheadjoiningbuildingsandbeasclearandclutterfree
as possible. The layout of footways should be simple. Public footways should not be used to take up
differencesinlevelwhennewentrancestobuildingsarebeingcreated.
Respect the proportional relationship between the footway, buildings and the roadway (with a
presumptionagainstreducingfootwaywidths).
Ensure footways avoid awkward or abrupt changes in level and access or frontages with
developmentsareclearanduninterrupted.
Vehicleruninsandcrossovers(foraccesstobuildingsandparkingforexample)shouldnotnormally
interruptthefootwaylayout.Droppedcurbsandreinforcedsurfacesarerecommended.
Retainexistingaccesswhereitwouldprovidereferencetothecharacterofthearea.
Protect, strengthen or increase heights of curbs where appropriate in new schemes or high use
areaswhereextensivemaintenanceproposalsmayberequired.
Materialsshouldbeconsistenttomakemaintenanceandreplacementeasier.
12.5.3 Paving
Pavedpathwaysshouldbeprovidedfromthecarparkingtotheentranceofthebuilding.Providepaved
areas for pedestrian pathways, seating areas, child play areas, and other features. Provide adequate
dedicatedbicyclelanesthroughoutthedevelopment.
Paving should be modular, a minimum of 500mm x 500mm and be constructed from stone, precast
concrete or grasscrete. A variety of paving types should be used throughout the development to add
identitytodifferentareas.
Paving is an integral part of the footway streetscape. Some simple
applicationsshouldbepromoted.Forexample:
Smallmodulepaving(belowsay450mmby600mm)shouldbeavoided
for footways, preferring larger unit paving or simple flexible surface
treatments.(500mmby500mmshouldbethesmallestunitused).
Useprecastconcrete,grasscreteorasphalt.
Includetheuseofcoloredtactile(blisterandhazard)pavingatcrossings
and hazards as a warning at
steps. The resulting contrast
provides the necessary signal for
those who are visually impaired.
Consider the need of specific users who may live in or near
thearea,suchastheelderlyorvisuallyimpaired.
In areas outside or adjoining the public street, such as
squares and public spaces, there are opportunities to

introduce a wider variety of materials and paving styles that respond to modern design proposals.
However these should relate clearly to adjoining street footway paved areas in their general
arrangement and there will be a presumption for the use of natural paving materials in key public
spaces.
Roadwaycurblinesandinmoststreetscurbupstandsareanessentialpartofthedesignandlayoutof
thestreet.
Curblinesshouldbeusedatalltimestodefineafootwayandshouldrunparallelwiththebuilding
line.
Newly laid curb upstands shall normally be set to a minimum of 125mm. In many urban
settlements across Libya, consider higher upstands to prevent parking and provide a suitable
alternativetobollardstoprotectthefootway.
Pedestrian crossings and associated refuge islands should be designed as complete entities and to
consistent details. Designs should seek to introduce the minimum requirements to avoid unnecessary
clutter (e.g. guard rails should be avoided) and should ensure that the surrounding footway and
roadwaydesignsareconsistentindetail,materialandproportiontotheirsurroundings.
Thescaleandproportionoftheroadwaymeansthatitcanhaveamarkedimpactontheappearanceof
thestreet.Thechoiceofmaterialsandinfrastructureusedaffectthisappearance.
The maintenance of the roadwayis important andan excessiveuse ofdifferentmaterialsand features
canbe a burden toupkeep. Simplifying thedesign andlayoutofthese featuresand thinking aboutthe
requirementsinaparticularlocationratherthanjustapplyingthestandardcanhelpeasesuchaburden.
Materialsshouldthereforebeconsistenttomakereplacementandmaintenanceeasier.
Awarenessofemergingbestpracticeforstandardizedsolutionsshouldalsobeconsideredatthestartof
the project where there is scope for improving the overall design of proposals. This recognizes design
philosophiesarechangingandnewapproachesarebeingtried.Itisessentialthatsafetyismaintainedin
thedesignandapplicationofanyapproachatalltimes.
Roadway, parking and loading restriction lines and markings

should be applied (in the narrow 50mm wide format), replacing
original lines and with careful consideration to how they are
appliedtolocalfeatures.
Raise entry treatments and speed tables enhance conditions for
pedestriansonbusyfootways.Entrytreatmentsareacommonwaytopersuadedriverstogivewayto
pedestrians. Movement and Development requires that raised crossings, as far as possible, send a
visualmessagetomotoristsandpedestriansthatthefootwaycontinuesacrossthesidestreet.Thearea
ofraisedroadwayshouldhaveatactilesurfaceatitsfootwayedgeatthecrossingpoint.Theyshouldbe
tallenoughtodiscourageunauthorizedaccesswithoutrestrictionvisibilitylines.

At junctions and at crossing points in the street, the curb
shouldbedroppedtoimprovecrossingfacilities.Thedropped
curb should be on the direct pedestrian desire line, so that
pedestrians are able to cross the road conveniently and
preferablyatrightanglestothedirectionofpedestriantravel.
Aminimumwidthof3metersshouldbespecified,dependant
on site conditions. Exceptional numbers of pedestrians, in
locationsnormallywithinLibyaslargercities,mayrequirethe
widthtobeincreasedto10meters.
12.5.4 StreetFurnitureandFeatures
Street Furniture and Features are often provided in the context of the street in addition to signage.
These features also have an effect on the setting of the surrounding urban form as well as the overall
function of the street. All street furniture and features should be located with this in mind. The
presumption will be to coordinate and in some cases minimize furniture and features, taking into
accounttherequirementsforsignageoutlinedabove.
Sitting is an important aspect of ensuring unobstructed footways. A desired minimum of 1200mm
unobstructed footway is required which will generally extend from the building line towards the
frontofthefootway.
Theuseofguardrailsandbollardstoprotectvehicleoverrunshouldbelimited.
Simple contemporary standard furniture and features will be used consistently in general street
arrangements.
Key or unique public spaces (such as new squares, local shopping centers, lookouts or waterfront
locations)couldbeconsideredforalternativesolutions(featuresites).
Whilst the styles and designs of many items of street
furniture will be standardized, there are, however,
opportunities to introduce elements of public art to add
interest or texture to streets and spaces. This can range
from the use of carved stone and metalwork features to
the location of major pieces of public art. Opportunities
for public art will best be highlighted through
development briefs and master plans. Any art proposed
willconsiderthemaintenanceimplications,resourcesforupkeepandlocalcharacteristics.
12.5.5 Lighting
Provide and install lighting to illuminate pathways, seating areas, playgrounds, landscaping, important
features and buildings. Lighting is important for security and safety and allows people to use outdoor
spacesaftersunset.
Lighting detailing, style and the type of light source should be considered with consistency, long term
maintenanceaskeyconsiderations.Positioningshouldbeconsideredinthecontextofthestreetscene.

The choice of light source is important as it will determine the night time appearance of the area in
whichnew lighting is installed as willthe position of the lightingunits in order to achieve the required
lightingstandard.
Consideration and adaptation to best practice is vital. The current lamp sources
beingspecifiedaremainlyhighpressuresodium(SON),metalhalideandcompact
fluorescent(CDM,PL).Thereisaneverincreasingrangeoflampsourcesandonly
the most efficient available should be used wherever possible to help reduce
futuremaintenanceandenergycosts.
Specificdetailingcanbeprovidedforadditionalstreetfeatures,includingbollards,
railings and gateposts, traffic lights, CCTV cameras, seating, tables and chairs,
trade,domesticandrecyclingbins,control,powerandtelecompanels.
12.5.6 Benches
Designers should provide benches for
outdoor seating in the green space and
near the buildings. Locate benches in
shaded places. Benches can be placed
individually to create private spaces for
individuals or in groupings to create a
public place. Benches should be very
durable and attached to paving or
otherwise anchored. At any point within
anopenspacepeopleshouldnothaveto
walkfartogettosomewherewherethey
cansitdown.
Benchesshouldbeincorporatedintotheoverridingthemesofpatterns.Avarietyofmaterials,textures
andlightingscanbeusedtoprovidevarietyinthetypesofbenchesprovided.
Benches should be made from very durable weather resistant materials and should be designed to
requireaslittlemaintenanceaspossible.
12.5.7 Planters
Inpublicsquaresraisedbedsshouldbeusedinareastobringplantingsclosertoeyelevelsandtostop
peoplefromwalkingontheplantsandflowers.
Provideplantingbedsfilledwithplantssensitivetothelocalenvironment.Theformofplantingshould
create a layering of textures, colors and plant forms, creating geometric pattern and texture derived
fromIslamicculture.
12.5.8 PlaygroundEquipment
Provideplaygroundequipmentin theoutdoorspacesforeach clusterof buildings inline withnational
andinternationalguidance.
Playgrounds should be located in an open, visible area which can be seen from building windows for

supervision.Theymustprovideanappropriategroundsurfacetopreventinjuries.Useonlyhighquality
equipment which can be easily maintained and has appropriate international safety specifications.
Fence off play areas providing a single access point to increase security and to enable parents to
monitorchildrenmoreeasily.Providebenchesforparentstorestonwhilechildrenareplaying.
12.5.9 WaterFeaturesinPublicOpenSpaces
Waterfeaturesshouldbeusedinsignificantpublicspacestoprovidefocalpointsandlandmarks.Inhot
climatesprovidingcoolingfountainswhichchildrencanplayinmaybepopular.
Only water features which use water sparingly and reuse water should be used due to the scarcity of
waterinLibya.Considerationshouldbegiventowhatmaintenanceawaterfeaturewillrequireandonly
fountainswithcommonlyavailablepartsshouldbechosen.
12.5.10 ShadingStrategies
Shade structures may incorporate lighting, ventilation fans, misting, plants, retail signage and seating.
Canopies and trellises can also be used in a variety of ways to provide shade and reduce heat affects.
Theywillbeusedforpublicgatheringlocationsaswellasplaygrounds.
Canopiesandtrellisesshouldbemadeofheatreflectivematerials(e.g.lightwood,tensilefabric,metal,
etc.)Shadingstructuresshouldvariedbeusedtoreinforcethemeswithinareas.
Provide at least one pavilion or shading structure for each cluster of buildings constructed using
durable,permanentmaterials.Usetreestoprovideshadetoimportantpathways.
12.5.11 Signage
The street with its footways and roadways form the setting to the surrounding buildings and urban
form. All signage should be located with this in mind, adopting national standard specifications at all
times. The presumption will be to minimize signage. This can be achieved in some cases through
considerationofalternativelocationsaswellascombineduseandoperation.
In general signage should be considered on a street/site specific basis, but proposing a consistent
approachfortheentirestreetorareawherepossibleandshouldconsiderthefollowingapproach.This
shouldembrace:
Locatesignageontobuildings,wallsandstreetfurniture,wherepossibleandreducethe
useofpolestominimizeclutter.
Polesforsignswill bepositionedtothe rear ofthe footway or 450mmfrom the curbedgeinboth
casesensuringthatthemiddleofafootwayisnotobstructed.
12.6 DeliveringthePrinciples
Astructuredprogramofstepstoaidinthedeliveryoftheseprinciplesisadvocated.Thiswillensurethe
broad principles are applied sustainably and reflect local characteristics and conditions whilst
maintaining good design practice. The objectives of sustainability, low maintenance and long term
enjoyment will drive this implementation process and in so doing encourage wider training and
developmentfortheadoptionofbestpracticemethodsandsimplesolutions.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 BRIDGE Inspection131

13 BridgeInspection
13.1 Introduction
Thisprovidesguidanceforbridgeinspectionpersonnel,providesareferenceforconsultants,andhelps
toensureconsistencyinbridgeinspection,rating,andevaluation.Thissectioncontains:Introduction;
Qualifications,Responsibilities,andDutiesofBridgeInspectionPersonnel;FieldInspection
Requirements;RatingsandLoadPosting;RoutingandPermits;BridgeProgramming;BridgeRecordsand
anAppendix.
13.1.1 References
Thepublicationsrelatedtobridgeinspectionwiththeirissuedatesare:
1. AASHTOMovableBridgeInspection,Evaluation,andMaintenanceManual,1stEdition,1998
2. AASHTOManualforBridgeEvaluation,1stEdition,2008
3. FHWABridgeInspector'sReferenceManual,1
st
Edition(December2006)
4. NCHRPMaintenanceandInspectionofFractureCriticalBridges,2005
5. AASHTOManualforMaintenanceInspectionofBridges(1993)
6. AASHTOManualforConditionEvaluationofBridges(1994)
7. AASHTOGuideSpecificationsforFractureCriticalNonredundantSteelBridgeMembers,1986
8. AASHTOInterimSpecificationsforBridges,1990
9. AASHTOStandardSpecificationsforHighwayBridges,17
th
Edition2002
10. AASHTOGuideforSelecting,Locating,andDesigningTrafficBarriers,1977
11. AASHTOLoadandResistanceFactorDesignSpecifications,2004
12. ASTMStandardTerminologyRelatingtoFatigueandFractureTesting,ASTM182396e1
13. ASTMSpecificationforCarbonStructuralSteelA36/A36M97Volume01.04,1997.
14. FHWANationalBridgeInspectionStandards(1988)
15. FHWARecordingandCodingGuidefortheStructureInventoryandAppraisaloftheNations
Bridges(1972,1979,1988,1991,and1995)
16. FHWATheBridgeInspectorsManualforMovableBridges(1977)
17. FHWACulvertInspectionManual(about1979)
18. FHWAInspectionofFractureCriticalBridgeMembers(1986)
19. FHWAScouratBridges,atechnicaladvisory(1988)
20. FHWAHydraulicEngineeringCircularNo.18(about1988)
21. FHWABridgeInspectorsTrainingManual90(1991)
22. FHWAScouratBridges,TechnicalAdvisory,1988
23. TxDOTAdministrativeCircularNo.6075,1975TxDOTConstructionSpecifications,1962
24. TxDOTMemofromC.W.Heald,P.E.ClosingofWeakBridges,February1999
25. TxDOTMemofromRobertL.Wilson,P.ETexasTransportationCode,Title7,Chapter621Closing
andPostingRecommendationsforOffSystemStructures,October1997
26. NHI(NationalHighwayInstitute)SafetyInspectionofInServiceBridges
27. TexasBridgeLoadRatingProgramof1988
28. NationalSocietyofProfessionalEngineersprogramforNationalCertificationinEngineering

Technologies,NationalInstituteforCertificationinEngineeringTechnologies(NICET)
29. TrafficManagementSection,HIBDesignCriteria.
13.1.2 AASHTOInspectionManuals
1974AASHTOManual
(Thesmallgreenbook)describedtheminimuminformationconsiderednecessaryforinspection,
records,rating,andcheckofbridgeloadcapacities.Primarysubjectswiththeirmajoritemswere:
Inspections
Frequencyoftwoyears
Waterway,debris,andchannelprofiletobeobserved
Investigateevidenceofscourandundercutting
Deteriorationofmainstructuralmembers,deck,superstructure,andbents
Fatiguedetailsofsteelgirderstobeconsidered(littleguidancegiven)
Abnormalcrackinginconcretemembers
Bridgerailingstohaveonlyvisualinspection,nostrengthrequirements
Trussesinspectedfordamage,bracing,conditionofpaint
Records
WrittenStructuralInventoryandAppraisal(SI&A)sheet
ConditionRatingsgivenas9to0asnow,butlittleguidanceonselectionofratings
Atleasttwophotostobetaken
Allnormalidentifications,widths,clearances,etc.toberecorded
Paintingrecordtobekept
Stresscalculationstobekept
Allspansshouldbelistedbylength.
Ratings
CalculationsinaccordancewithcurrentAASHTObridgespecifications

OperatingandInventoryRatingstobeHorHSequivalents
Highersafetyfactorallowedforheavilytraveledroutes
Dimensionsfromasbuiltorfieldmeasurementsifnecessary
Pictorialpostingsignsrecommended.
LoadCapacityofBridges
Considertwolanesloadedwithratingtrucksifbridgeis5.50Mclearorwider
AllowfewerlanesifwarrantedbyjudgmentofEngineer
Trainoflighterweighttruckstobeconsidered,spacedat9.10MheadwaywhenatH12orless
LoaddistributionandallowablestressesasgivenbyAASHTOBridgeSpecifications
SamplecalculationsgiveninAppendixBofAASHTOManual
LoadFactorRatingintroducedasanacceptablemethod
1978AASHTOManual
ThethirdAASHTOManualwasissuedin1978(thesmallyellowbook)andincludedallthesame
informationandrequirementsasthefirsttwoAASHTOManuals,withsomereorderingofcontents.In
addition,thefollowingmajoradditionsandmodificationsweremadeascomparedtothe1974AASHTO
Manual:
Records
Recommendationsmodifiedforrepair,maintenance,andposting
Ratings
DefinitionofInventoryRatingchangedtoomittheequivalencytotheoriginaldesignload
TypicalloadandspeedpostingsignsomittedandreferencemadetoTrafficManagement
Section,HIBDesignCriteria.
TheSecantFormulawasaddedforsteelcolumnstrengthcalculations(thisformulaisbelieved
tobeoutofdateandshouldnotbeusedbyarater)

AllowableInventoryRatingstresseslistedforA36,A572,A441,andothersteeltypes
Increasedallowablebearingstressesonrivetsandbolts
1983AASHTOManual
The4
th
AASHTOManualwasissuedin1983inlooseleafform(thelargeyellowbook)andcontained
essentiallythesamerequirementsasthefirstthreeAASHTOManuals.TheRecordsandRatings
requirementswereessentiallyunchangedfromthe1978AASHTOManual.Thefollowinglist
summarizesthemajoradditionsandmodificationssincethe1978AASHTOManual:
AllowableInventoryofRatingstressesbecamemoredetailed
AllowablebearingstressesonrivetsandboltsforOperatingRatingswasagainincreasedtobe
consistentwiththeincreasesmadein1974forInventoryRating
AllowableInventorystressesforA7boltsandrivetsclarified
AllowableOperatingRatingstressesforhighstrengthboltsdetailedforallconditions
Comparativechartforfastenerbearingstressesadded
MaximumOperatingRatingconcretestressesinbendingclarified
AASHTOInterimSpecifications
TheAASHTOInterimSpecificationsof1984through1990includedsomereorderingandeditingof
varioussectionsofthe1983AASHTOManual.Inaddition,thereweresignificantchangesandadditions
madeincertainsections.Thesechangesaresummarizedasfollows:

In1984theinspectionfrequencycouldbeincreasedtomorethantwoyearsforcertaintypesof
bridgesifproperlydocumented.Anexampleisreinforcedconcreteboxculverts.
In1984thetwolanesofliveloadingforroadwaysbetween5.5Mto6.0Mwasclarified.For
roadwaysover6.0Minwidth,thespacingbetweentrucksbecame1.20M,whichisthesameas
theAASHTObridgespecifications.Thiscorrectedalongtimedisparitybetweenthebridge
specificationsandtheAASHTOManual.
In1986therewasamajorchangeinthequalificationofinspectionpersonnelwhichrequired
thattheindividualinchargemustbeaRegisteredProfessionalEngineer.Priortothistime,the
individualinchargecouldbequalifiedbyexperience.
In1986scourwasspecificallyidentifiedasanitemrequiringmoreintenseinspection.
In1986nonredundantstructureswereidentifiedasrequiringtheinitiationofspecialinspection

procedures.
In1986concretebridgeswithnoplanswereallowedtoberatedbysimplephysicalinspection
andevaluationbyaqualifiedengineer.
In1987underwaterinspectionwasidentifiedasanimportantinspectionrequirement.
In1987hangersandpinswereidentifiedasfeaturestobeproperlyinspected.
In1987newsectionsentitledEvaluationandLimitingVehicleWeightswereadded.Higher
safetyfactorscouldbeconsideredforstructureswithlargevolumesoftraffic.Inaddition,the
agencyresponsibleformaintenanceofastructurecouldusestresslevelshigherthanInventory
Ratingstopostabridgeifinspectionlevelsexceededtheminimum.
In1987speedpostingswereallowedincertaincasestoreduceimpactloadsandthusreduce
theneedforloweringweightlimits.
In1988therequirementthatallinspectionsbedonebyaRegisteredProfessionalEngineerwas
reinterpretedtoallowaninspectionteamleadertobequalifiedbyexperience.However,the
personinresponsiblechargemustbeanEngineer.
In1988emphasiswasplacedonunderwaterinspectionofpilings,particularlythoseexposedto
saltwaterorsaltspray,andanyfoundationmemberincontactwithbrackishorchemically
contaminatedwaters.
In1989theminimumweightlimitforpostingwasclarifiedtobethreetonsattheOperating
Ratingstresslevel.
In1989anewAppendixBwasaddedthatdescribedthefivebasicInspectionTypes:
Inventory
Routine
Damage
InDepth
Interim
ThecategoriesanddescriptionofeachInspectionTypewererelativelybroad.However,
clarificationsweremadethatthefirstInventoryInspectionwastodeterminealltheStructure
InventoryandAppraisaldatarequiredbyFHWAandthatRoutineInspectionsweredefinedas
thosedoneatregularlyscheduledintervals.
In1990onlyminoreditorialchangesweremade.

AASHTOManual,2000
AASHTOadoptedthe2
nd
Edition(148pages,looseleaf)ManualforConditionEvaluationofBridgesand
isconsideredcurrentatthistimeJune2009.
Majoradditionsandchangessincethe1983AASHTOManualare:
Records
Totalbridgewidthistoberecorded.Priortothistime,thetotalwasimpliedbythesummation
ofthedeckwidth,sidewalkorcurbwidth,andrailingtype.
Criticalfeaturessuchasspecialdetails,scoursusceptibility,fatiguepronedetails,etc.arenow
toberecorded.
Floodrecordsaretobekeptifknown.ThisinformationisnotenteredintheCodingguide,but
shouldbekeptintheBridgeFolderdescribedinSubsection13.7.
Inspections
QualificationsoftheInspectionProgramManagerarechangedagaintoallowthepersontobe
qualifiedbyexperience.QualificationsforInspectionTeamLeaderaremodifiedtoallow
trainingtobebasedonaNationalInstituteforCertificationinEngineeringTechnologies(NICET)
LevelIIIorIVcertificationinBridgeSafetyInspection.
ThefivebasicInspectionTypesarenowcalled:
Initial
Routine
Damage
InDepth
Special
ThecategoriesanddescriptionofeachInspectionTypeareessentiallythesameasdescribedforthe
1983AASHTOManualasmodifiedbythe1989Interim.
Detailedsectionsareaddedonmethodsofinspectionincludingequipment,safety,advance
planning,andpreparationforinspections.
Sectionsareaddedtodescribeinspectionprocedures,includingorganizedandsystematicfield
notesandprocedures.
Emphasisisplacedonobtaininguniformityinconditionratingsbydifferentfieldinspection

teamsbydevelopinganobjectivesystemofevaluationandtraining.
Newemphasisisplacedoninspectionofsubstructuresincludingsusceptibilitytoearthquake
damage.
Moreemphasisisplacedonvarioustypesofsubstructureinspection.
Detailedinspectionrecommendationsaregivenforeachofthevarioustypesofbridge
superstructureincludingnewsuperstructuretypessuchascablestayedandprestressed
concretesegmentalbridgesandnewcomponenttypessuchasprestresseddeckpanels.
Fracturecriticalmembersaretobeproperlyidentified.
Moredetailisrequiredondescriptionoftimbercomponents.
Greaterdetailisaddedoninspectionoftrusses.
MaterialTesting
Extensivenewmaterialisaddedonfieldtestingofmaterialsforconcrete,steel,andtimber
includingreferencetothevariousnewermethodssuchasacousticemissionforsteelandpull
offandthermographictestsforconcrete.
Samplingtechniquesaredescribedindetail.
Interpretationandevaluationoffieldandlaboratorymaterialtestsisdiscussed.
NonDestructiveLoadTesting
ThisisanewsectionintheAASHTOManual.However,verylittleusefulinformationonactual
loadtestingproceduresisgiven.
Methodsofdeterminingequivalentstandardratingsfromloadtestsarecomplexandcostly,and
areseldomused.
Ratings
TheratingsectionoftheAASHTOManualismuchmoreextensivethancorrespondingsections
inpreviouseditions.
ThedescriptionofthesafetyfactorsfortheLoadFactorRatingmethodissimilartothefactors
inthenewAASHTOLoadandResistanceFactorDesign(LRFD)Specification.
TheAASHTOManualnowstateswhenaredundantbridgehasdetailsnotavailablefromplans,
thenaphysicalinspectionandevaluationmaybesufficienttoapproximatetheratings.An
interpretationonapplyingthiscriteriontoredundantbridgeswillbepresentedinChapter5,
RatingsandLoadPosting.

StructuralgradeofreinforcingsteelislistedseparatelyintheLoadFactorMethodofratingbut
iscombinedwithalltheolderunknowngradesfortheAllowableStressRatingMethods.
TheAASHTOManualnowcontainsdetailedexamplesofallowablestress,loadfactor,andload
andresistancefactor(LRFR)ratingsforasimplespan,Ibeamstructureandforasimplespan,
concretestructure.
13.1.3 InspectionProcedures
TheFHWABridgeInspectorsTrainingManual90waspublishedinJuly1991andisthebasiccurrent
referenceforallfieldinspectors.HereinafteritwillbereferredtoasManual90.
Manual90presentsthebasicinformationneededbyallbridgeinspectorsandratingpersonnel.It
includesanexcellenthistoryoftheNationalBridgeInspectionProgram.Italsoincludesadescriptionof
allthecommontypesofbridges,materials,anddetailsusedinbridgeconstruction.Recommended
proceduresarepresentedindetailalongwithmanydiagramsandphotos.Manual90alsopresentsafair
descriptionofbasicstructuralmechanicsforbridgemembers.
Thepurposesofbridgeinspectionare:
Primarilyforpreventivemaintenance
Toensurepublicsafetyandconfidenceinbridgestructuralcapacity
Toprotectpublicinvestmentandallowefficientallocationofresources
Toeffectivelyschedulemaintenanceandrehabilitationoperations
Toprovideabasisforrepair,replacement,orotherimprovementssuchasretrofitrailings
Bridgesareinspectedeverytwoyears,butthefrequencymaybeincreaseddependingonthecondition
ofthebridge.MoredetailwillbegiveninChapter4,FieldInspectionRequirements.
Therearefivebasictypesofinspection,eachofwhichwillbedescribedingreaterdetailinChapter4,
FieldInspectionRequirements:
InitialInspection.Performedonnewbridgesorwhenbridgeisfirstrecorded.
RoutineInspections.Thoseregularlyscheduled,usuallyeverytwoyearsformostnormalbridges
DamageInspections.Thoseperformedasaresultofcollision,fire,flood,significant
environmentalchanges,lossofsupport,etc.TheseinspectionsarealsocalledEmergency
Inspectionsandareperformedonanasneededbasis.
InDepthInspections.Performedusuallyasafollowupinspectiontobetteridentifydeficiencies
foundinanyoftheabovethreetypesofinspection.DetailedUnderwaterInspectionsare
consideredatypeofInDepthInspection.FracturecriticalInspectionsareanothertypeofIn

DepthInspection.
SpecialInspections.Performedtomonitoraparticulardeficiencyorchangingcondition.
Unusualbridgedesignsorfeaturessuchasexternal,grouted,posttensionedtendonsmay
requireaSpecialInspection.
13.2 Qualifications,Responsibilities,andDutiesofBridgeInspection
Personnel
13.2.1 Requirements
GeneralRequirements
Personnelinvolvedinthevariousbridgeinspectionactivitiesmustbequalifiedfortheirspecializedjobs.
Ingeneral,dependingonthelevelofresponsibility,theymustbeknowledgeableinthevariousaspects
ofbridgeengineeringincludingdesign,loadrating,construction,rehabilitation,andmaintenance.
HIBRequirements
Thesearesummarizedas:
TheindividualinchargeoftheBridgeInspectionoftheRBD,orthecontractconsultantfirm)
must:
beaLicensedProfessionalEngineer,or
bequalifiedforlicensing,or
haveaminimumoftenyearsexperienceinbridgeinspectionassignmentsandhavecompleteda
comprehensivetrainingcoursebasedontheBridgeInspectorsTrainingManual90.
Theindividualinchargeofabridgeinspectionteammust:
havethesamequalificationsasabove,or
haveaminimumoffiveyearsexperienceinbridgeinspectionassignmentsandhave
completedacomprehensivetrainingcoursebasedontheBridgeInspectorsTraining
Manual90.
AASHTORequirements
ThesearedescribedinthecurrentAASHTOManualforConditionEvaluationofBridges.

HIBRequirements
Ataminimum,allbridgeinspectionactivitiesperformedbyContractorsmustcomplywithHIB
requirements.HIBrequirementsforbridgeinspectionpersonnelarealsothesameasthoseinAASHTO
requirements,andinaddition,somejobsmayrequiremorespecificjobrelatedknowledgeandskills
suchas:
Theuseofbreathingapparatusforunderwaterinspection
ThevariousapplicablerequirementsforinspectionsafetyincludingapplicableOccupational,
Safety,andHealthAdministration(OSHA)requirements
Advancedcomputerskillsrelatedtobridgeanalysis
Geotechnicalandhydrologicalknowledge
FamiliaritywithHIBbridgeconstructionspecificationsandwithcurrentandoldHIBbridge
designs
HIBalsohasspecialrequirementsforContractorsretainedtoperformbridgeinspectiontasks.Allfirms
mustbeprequalified.FurtherinformationonContractorrequirementsispresentedlaterinthis
chapterinthesectiontitledBridgeInspectionbyContractor.
13.2.2 BridgeInspectionPersonnel
GeneralPositionRequirements
Certainknowledge,skills,orabilitiesaregeneralinnaturetomostbridgeinspectionengineeringrelated
positions.Thelevelofknowledge,skill,orabilityinthesegeneralareasincreasesinrelationshiptothe
levelofthepositionandwillnotbespecificallydescribedforeachofthepositions.Someofthe
particularareasofnecessaryskillandknowledgeforbridgeinspectionpersonnelare:
Abilitytoperformengineeringcalculations
Knowledgeofbridgeengineeringfundamentalsandapplicationofengineeringtheory
Abilitytoanalyze,interpret,andreviewtechnicaldata
Abilitytouseapersonalcomputeralongwithapplicablesoftware
KnowledgeofalltypesofbridgeconstructionmethodsinNorthAfricaandtheGulfRegion
KnowledgeofAASHTOspecifications,HIBdesignprocedures,bridgestandards,anddetails
Abilitytoexerciseinitiativeandindependentengineeringjudgment
Abilitytoscheduleandleadtheworkofotherswhenappropriatetotheposition

Abilitytocommunicateeffectivelyandmaintainproperworkingrelationships
Variousspecialskillsandknowledgearealsonecessaryforsomeofthepositions,someofwhichare
uniquetothebridgeinspectionoperationssuchas:
Knowledgeofapplicablelocallawsandregulations
Knowledgeofbridgeinspectionmethodsandprocedures
Familiaritywithassociatedinspectionsafetyrequirements
Skillinuseofscubaorotherunderwaterinspectionequipment
Abilitytomakebridgeinspectionrelatedtechnicalandtrainingpresentationsandtorepresent
thedepartmentinpublicmeetingsandconferences
13.2.3 BridgeInspectionsbyContractors
GeneralRequirements
AllfirmscontractedbyHIBtoperformroutinebridgeinspectionsmustbeprecertifiedinaccordance
withtherequirementsofallapplicablecodes.Allbridgeinspectionsshallalsobeperformedin
accordancewiththisManual.
RoutineBridgeInspections
Forroutinebridgeinspections,thefirmmustemployanindividualtoserveasProjectManagerwho
meetsthefollowingqualifications.
IsaLicensedProfessionalEngineer,or
Hasaminimumoftenyearsexperienceinbridgeinspectionassignmentsina
responsiblecapacity.
ThebridgeinspectionTeamLeadersemployedbythefirmmustalsobequalifiedandhave:
ThesamequalificationsasabovefortheProjectManager,or
Hasaminimumoffiveyearsexperienceinbridgeinspectionassignments
ComplexBridgeInspections
Forcomplexbridgeinspections,suchasthoserequiringfracturecriticalinspections,thefirmmust
employaminimumofoneLicensedProfessionalEngineer,toserveasProjectManager,whohasseven
(7)yearsofbridgeinspectionordesignexperience,includingoneyearofinspectionordesignofbridges
consideredascomplex

ThefirmmustalsoemployasacomplexbridgeinspectionTeamLeader,anindividualwhohasa
minimumofsixyearsofbridgeinspectionordesignexperience,includingoneyearofinspectionor
designofbridgesconsideredascomplex.
PrecertificationProceduresforContractors
BridgeinspectioncontractsaredevelopedandmonitoredbyRBDpersonnel.Contractorsmustbeable
todemonstratetherequiredminimumamountofexperienceinbridgeinspection,rating,and
evaluation.
Consultantpersonnelmusthavecompletedtherequiredtraininginbridgeinspection.
FamiliaritywithHIBMasterSpecificationsisnecessary.StrongknowledgeofHIBBridgeConstruction
SpecificationsandBridgeDesignisalsonecessary.
13.2.4 UseoftheContractorPool
ContractorfirmswhoareprecertifiedtoperformbridgeinspectionsaretobemadeavailabletoHIB.
ThelistofcertifiedfirmsisupdatedbytheRBDeverytwoyears.Thenecessaryproceduresthatmustbe
followedtoutilizetheseContractorsisdescribedbelow.
RequestforContractorInspection
TheRBDwithaleadtimeofatleasttwotothreemonthsshallinitiatethefollowing;
Arequestinwriting
Anestimateofthetotalnumbersofbridgestobeinspected
Anidentificationofthebridgesasbeingonand/oroffsystemandshallforwardtoRBDHeadfor
approvalcitingreasonswhyContractorsaretobeengaged;
WorkAuthorizationIssuance
TheRBDwillsendtheContractoraWorkAuthorizationalongwithafeeschedule.
Theworkauthorizationshallincludethefollowing;
Descriptionofwherethebridgeinspectionswilltakeplace
Numberofbridgestobeinspectedbytype
TotalLibyanDinaramountontheWorkAuthorization
Terminationdateforthecompletionoftheinspections

OncetheworkauthorizationhasbeenacceptedbytheContractor,theymaybeginbridgeinspections.
ManagingtheContractorBridgeInspection
Toensurethatbridgeinspectionsarebeingperformedinacompetentandtimelyfashion,theRBDwill
performcontinuingoversightoftheworkbyfollowingthesesteps:
VerifytheContractorsbridgeinspectionProjectEngineerandtheindividualTeamLeaders
againstthelistprovidedbytheRBD.
PeriodicallyvisittheContractorsinspectionteamsinthefieldtoverifyteamcompositionandto
observeactualinspections
WhencompletedinspectionsaresubmittedbytheContractor,theRBDshouldreviewatleast
10percentoftheofficeworkand7percentofthefieldwork
RBDshouldmonitortheamountofcompletedContractorbridgeinspectionstoensurethat
additionalstructuresthatmightbeaddedastheworkprogresseswillbenotedandadjustedin
theWorkAuthorization
IfadditionalfundsortimeisneededtocompletetheWorkAuthorization,arequestfora
SupplementalAgreementmustbemadetotheRBD.
ASupplementalAgreementrequestshouldbemadetotheRBDatleast2weeksbeforethe
terminationoftheinitialWorkAuthorization
CompletionofWorkAuthorization
WhenthebridgeinspectionscoveredbytheWorkAuthorizationarefinished,TheRBDshouldcomplete
anHIBevaluationform..ThisaidsinensuringtheoverallqualityoftheworkprovidedbytheContractor,
andalsoaidsintheContractorpoolselectionforthenexttwoyearcycle.
13.3 FieldInspectionRequirements
13.3.1 TypesofBridgeInspection
Therearefivebasictypesofbridgeinspection:
InitialInspections
RoutineInspections
DamageInspections
InDepthInspections

UnderwaterInspectionsandFractureCriticalInspectionsaretwotypesofInDepth
Inspection
SpecialInspections
Inspectionofposttensioned,grouted,externaltendonsisanexampleofaSpecial
Inspection.
13.3.2 InitialInspections
Initial Inspections are performed on new bridges or when existing bridges are first entered into the
database.Thisinspectionprovidesabasisforallfutureinspectionsormodificationstothebridge.
Initialdeficienciesarenotedwhichmightnothavebeenpresentatthetimeofconstruction.Changesin
theconditionofthesiteshouldalsobenotedsuchas:
Erosion
Scour
Regradingofslopes
ThefinalnewbridgecompletionchecklistshouldincludethenotificationofHIBR&BDepartment
Engineerwhenthebridgeisopenedtotrafficandavailableforusebypermitvehicles.
Theopeningofanewbridge,particularlyanoffsystembridge,isagoodtimetoensurethatasetof
copiesofthebridgeplansareincludedwiththeBridgeRecords.RBDrequireallContractorstosubmit
acopyofthefinalstructuralplanstoRBDwithin31daysafterconstructionorrehabilitationis
completed.
TheinitialBridgeFolderispreparedasaresultoftheInitialInspection.Adetaileddescriptionofthe
BridgeFoldercontentsisgiveninChapter7,BridgeRecords.Thearrangementofthefoldershallbe
maintainedandmustincludetherecommendedseriesofphotos.
13.3.3 RoutineInspections
Routineinspectionsarethoseregularlyscheduled,performed,andrecordedinaccordancewithallthe
proceduresdescribedinsubsection13.7,BridgeRecords,andtheinstructionsforthecodingguide.
Theseareusuallydoneeverytwoyearsformostbridgesandeveryfouryearsforculverts.
InspectionEquipment
Theequipmentneededforroutinebridgeinspectionsusuallyincludesthefollowing:
Cleaningtoolsincludingwirebrushes,screwdrivers,brushes,scrapers,etc.

Inspectiontoolsincludingpocketknife,icepick,handbrace,bit,chippinghammer,etc.
Visualaidtoolsincludingbinoculars,flashlight,magnifyingglass,dyepenetrant,mirror,etc.
Basicmeasuringequipmentincludingthermometer,centerpunch,simplesurveyingequipment,
etc.
Recordingmaterialssuchasappropriateforms,fieldbooks,cameras,etc.
Safetyequipmentincludingrigging,harnesses,scaffolds,ladders,bosunchairs,firstaidkit,etc.
MiscellaneousequipmentshouldincludeCclamps,penetratingoil,insectrepellant,waspand
hornetkiller,stakes,flagging,markers,etc.
Specializedmeasuringtoolssuchaspaintfilmgage,calipers,opticalcrackgage,tiltmeter,
SHIFLO,etc.TheSHIFLOisadeviceusedtomeasurethedepthofscourduringfloodflowswith
adepthfinder.ItisnotusedduringRoutineInspections.
UnderwaterInspectionsmayrequiretheuseofScubagear.
Inspectionswhichmaysignificantlyinterferewithnormaltrafficmovementandwhichmightaffectthe
safetyoftheinspectorsmustbecoordinatedwithTrafficAuthoritiesinorderthatappropriatetraffic
controlmeasuresmaybeundertaken.Inspectionsoftheundersideofbridgesthatcannotbereached
byconventionalladdersmaybeperformedbytheuseofvehicleswithunderbridgeplatforms.
InterimInspections
BriefinspectionsarealsoperformedbyBridgeInspectionEngineersapproximatelyeverysixmonthson
moststructurestoidentifyunusualconditionsorchanges.Theseinspectionsdonotreviewallthe
pointsofinterestdoneinanormalRoutineInspection.Noformalrecordsarekeptofthesebrief
inspections.However,unusualconditionsorchangeswilloftenresultinafollowupInDepth,Damage,
orSpecialInspection
13.3.4 DamageInspections
DamageInspectionsarethoseperformedasaresultofcollision,fire,flood,significantenvironmental
changes,lossofsupport,etc.TheseinspectionsarealsosometimescalledEmergencyInspectionsand
areperformedonanasneededbasis.
13.3.5 InDepthInspections
ReasonsforInDepthInspections
InDepthInspectionsareusuallyperformedasafollowupinspectiontoanInitial,Routine,orDamage
Inspectiontobetteridentifyanydeficienciesfound.
UnderwaterInspectionsandFractureCriticalInspectionsarebothtypesofInDepthInspection.These

aredescribedinmoredetailbelow.
LoadtestingmayalsosometimesbeperformedaspartofanInDepthInspection.However,loadtesting
fordeterminingbridgeloadcapacityiscostlyandinterpretationoftheresultsaresometimesopento
question.
UnderwaterInspections
UnderwaterInspectionsareatypeofInDepthInspection.Theseareregularlyperformedeveryfive
years.Thefrequencycanbelessthanfiveyearsifconditionswarrant.
Amasterlistofbridgesneedingunderwaterinspectionsiscompiledandupdatedduringroutine
inspections.Onceabridgeisaddedtothemasterlist,itwillremainthereuntilitisnolongerinuse.
Somebridgesmustbeinspectedatintervalsmorefrequentthantherequiredfiveyearsduetothe
susceptibilitytoscourorotherfactorssuchastheageofthebridge,configurationofthesubstructure,
environment,adjacentfeatures,orexistingdamage.Thefrequency,type,andlevelofinspectionare
leftuptotheowner.
UnderwaterInspectionMethods
TherearecurrentlythreemethodsusedtoconductUnderwaterInspections.Theseare:
o WadingThemostbasicofthethreemethods,wadingrequiresonlyaprobingrodand
wadingbootstobeeffective.
o ScubadivingAmethodthatallowsamoredetailedexaminationofsubstructure
conditionsattheMudline.Thediverhasfreedomofmovementandmaycarryavariety
ofsmalltoolswithwhichtoprobeormeasure.
o HardhatdivingInvolvestheuseofsophisticateddivingequipmentandasurface
suppliedairsystem.Thisinspectionmethodiswellsuitedwhenadverseconditionswill
beencountered,suchashighwatervelocity,pollution,andunusualdepthorduration
requirements.
Thechoiceofwhichmethodtoemploydependslargelyonaccessibilityandtherequiredinspection
detail.
LevelsofUnderwaterInspection
Standardlevelsofinspectionare:
o LevelIConsistsofasimplevisualortactile(byfeel)inspection,withouttheaidof
toolsormeasuringdevices.Itisusuallyemployedtogainanoverviewofthestructure
andwillprecedeorverifytheneedforamoredetailedLevelIIorIIIinspection.
o LevelIIAdetailedinspectionwhichinvolvesphysicallycleaningorremovinggrowth
fromportionsofthestructure.Inthisway,hiddendamagemaybedetectedand

assessedforseverity.Thislevelisusuallyperformedonatleastaportionofastructure,
supplementingaLevelI.
o LevelIIIAhighlydetailedinspectionofanimportantstructurewhichiswarrantedif
extensiverepairorreplacementisbeingconsidered.Thislevelrequiresextensive
cleaning,detailedmeasurements,andtestingtechniquesthatmaybedestructiveor
nondestructiveinnature.
UnderwaterStructuralElements
Theelementsofabridgestructurethatmaybelocatedbelowthewaterlineareabutments,bents,
piers,andprotectionsystems.Bentsaredistinguishedfrompiersinthattheycarrytheloadsdirectlyto
thefoundation,ratherthanusingafooting.
AbutmentsnormallydonotrequireanUnderwaterInspection,butinrareinstancesmaybe
continuouslysubmerged.Althoughusuallyfoundedonpilesordrilledshafts,abutmentsoccasionally
restonspreadfootingsinrock.Scourisalmostalwaystheprimaryconsiderationwhenanunderwater
abutmentinspectionisbeingconducted.Localscourisoftendetectableduringdivinginspections,
althoughsedimentwilleventuallyrefillascourholebetweentheeventsthatcausethescour.More
generalscour,orchanneldegradation,willusuallybeundetectabletothediverandmustbedetermined
fromknownchannelcrosssectionsorhistoricaldata.
UnderwaterInspectionDevices
Thereareseveraltypesofsoundingorsensingdevicesavailableforusebydiversinunderwater
investigations.Mostcommonistheblackandwhitefathometer,whichusessoundwavesreflected
fromthechannelbottomandrecordsthedepthscontinuouslyonastripchart.Itprovidesan
inexpensive,effectivemeansofrecordingchanneldepthsbutwillnotdetectarefilledscourhole.Other
methodsarecolorfathometers,whichusedifferentcolorstorecorddifferentdensitiesandinthisway
canoftendetectscourrefill;groundpenetratingradar,whichworkswellforshallowwaterbuthas
limitedusefulnessinmurkywater;andfixedinstrumentation,whichisreliablebutrequiresperiodic
monitoringandresettingtobeeffective.
UnderwaterStructuralMaterials
Piersandbents,iflocatedinanavigablewaterwayarea,areoftensubjecttomaterialdefectsorcollision
damageaswellasscour.Concreteisthemostcommontypeofmaterialencounteredinunderwater
inspections.Commondefectsinconcretesubstructuresincludecracking,spalling,laitance,and
honeycombing.Minororevenmoderatedamagetoconcretecanbetoleratedifitdoesnotendanger
thereinforcement.Corrosionofthereinforcementcanleadtoseriousdifficulties.
Steelsubstructuresareverysusceptibletocorrosionnearthewaterlineorbetweenthehighandlow
waterlevels.Inthisarea,thepresenceofoxygenandfrequentwet/drycyclespromotedeteriorationat
anacceleratedrateandsteelshouldbemeasuredtodeterminethepossibilityofsectionloss.

FractureCriticalInspections
FractureCriticalInspectionsareatypeofSpecialInspection.Theseinspectionsareusuallylimitedto
nonredundanttensilestressareas.Theyareregularlyperformedeveryfiveyears.Thefrequencycanbe
lessthanfiveyearsifconditionswarrant.Methodsofinspectionmayincludedyepenetrant,magnetic
particle,orultrasonictechniques.
HistoryofFractureCriticalConsiderations
Earlydevelopmentofmodernsteeldesignfocusedonstressandstrain;littlewasknownorrecognized
aboutthepotentialadverseeffectsofmultiplestresscycles.Earlymaterialssuchaswroughtironwere
notcapableofgreatunitstrength.Earlydesignslackedthesophisticationthatwouldrequireadesigner
tocloselyaddressdetails.Evenaftertheintroductionofelectricarcweldinginthe1880s,moststeel
bridgesweresimplespan,composedofbuiltupandrivetedmembers.
Designofcontinuousbeamhighwaybridgesbeganafterweldingtechnologywasimproved.Theresult
oftheuseofcontinuitywasmoreflexiblestructuresthatweremoresubjecttodeflectionsand
rotations.Theresultoftheuseofwelding,wassimplerbridgesandmoreconsistentconstruction
quality.
Assteelproductionandavailabilityimproved,alongwithhigherstrengthsteels,designengineerswere
quicktoaccepttheobviousbenefits.However,nomaterialisperfectlyhomogenous,andthefactthat
steelcouldhavehiddenflawswasessentiallyignoredbydesigners.AfterWorldWarII,therewasa
massiveexpansionofhighwaybridgeconstruction.Thepopularityofpersonalmotorvehiclesincreased
asaresultofmorehighwaysandthusmorehighwaysandbridgeswereneeded.Theconstruction
materialofchoicewasinitiallysteelthroughoutmuchofthecountry.Manydesignedsmallerstructures
withconcrete,whichisstillservingwellinmanycases.Steelbridges,particularlytrusses,wereusedfor
longercrossings,usuallyforstreamsandrivers.
FatigueFailures
TheTrussSilverBridgeatPointPleasant,WestVirginia,USAcollapsedsuddenlyin1967duetothe
brittlefractureofaneyebarlink,resultinginthelossof46livesandclosureofamajorroute.Afterthe
failure,significantadditionalresearcheffortswereinitiatedinfracturemechanics.Asaresult,the
effectsofmultiplestressesatlessthanyieldofthematerialswereunderstoodmorethoroughly.
Thefirstrecognitionofredundantandnonredundantmemberswaspresentedinthe12
th
editionofthe
AASHTOBridgeSpecificationsin1977.Thefirstguidespecificationsforfracturecriticalbridgemembers
wereissuedbyAASHTOin1978.
FractureCriticalMembers
Afterdesignengineersbegantorecognizetheproblemsassociatedwithmultiplestressesatlessthan
allowablevalues,furtherinformationwasdevelopedtoassistinthedesignprocessandinevaluationof
existingstructures.Afternotablefailures,itwasrecognizedthatmanyexistingbridgesmaybenearing
failureduetofatigue.FractureCritical(FC)memberswererecognizedanddefinedasamemberor
componentwhosefailureintensionwouldresultinthecollapseofabridge.Thesearecommonly

referredtoasnonredundantmembers.Methodsweredevelopedtohelpdeterminewhichstructures
mustbefurtherevaluatedbydesignersforsusceptibilitytofatigueproblems.Designersbeganto
includeFractureControlPlans(FCP)inbridgedesigndetails.
MostcommontypesofFCmembersaretensionflangesandsometimespartsofwebsofflexural
memberssuchasbeamsandgirders.Tensionmembersoftrusses,particularlyeyebars,which
commonlymakeupthelowerchordsofoldtrusses,canalsobeFC.Othertensionmembersoftrusses,
suchasdiagonals,arealsoFC.Concretemembersarenotoftenusedintension.Thedesignofflexural
concretememberswithmultiplereinforcingbarsprecludespossibilityofabruptfailureduetotheir
internalredundancy.
ThefollowingrulesofthumbusuallydetermineFCmembers:
TwogirderbridgesaredefinedasFC.Fractureoflowerflangesinpositivemomentareas(mid
spans)andupperflangesinnegativemomentareas(oversupports)canbeexpectedtoleadto
collapseofthestructure.However,cracksoverinteriorsupportssometimesleadtosubsequent
higherpositivestressesinthespanswithnocatastrophiccollapse.Therefore,theseFC
componentsreceivemorefrequentperiodicInDepthInspections.
AllsteelcapsaredefinedasFC.Whilethisstatementisbold,anexceptionisdifficulttoimagine.
LowerchordsoftrussesareFC.Thisdeterminationisbasedonthefactthatmosttrussbridges
employonlytwotrussesandmostaresimplespan.
SecondarymemberssuchasdiaphragmsandstiffenersarenotFC.Theyarerarelyusedina
mannerwherefailurewouldleadtostructurecollapse.However,cautionmustbeobservedin
evaluatingcertaintrussmembersthatmayappeartobesecondarywheninfacttheir
attachmenttomainFCmemberscanprovideastartingplaceforthemainmemberfailure.
Redundancy
Theconceptofstructuralredundancyiswellknown.Anystaticallyindeterminatestructuremaybesaid
toberedundant,tovaryingdegrees,dependinguponitssupports.Atwospanstraightgirderis
redundant.However,atwospancurvedgirderisalsoredundant,butthesupportreactionsare
determinate.Thesedefinitionsofredundancyareoflittlevaluetothefieldinspectorwhomustmakea
determinationofFCpotentialforvariousmembersinabridge.Therearetwotypesofredundancythat
concerntheFCinspector:
LoadPathRedundancy.Superimposedtrafficloadsaresupporteddirectlybythedeck,
whichinturnissupportedbylongitudinalstringersorbeams.Abridgewithasinglebox
girderwouldthereforebenonredundantsinceafailureintheboxwouldcollapsethe
bridge.Likewise,atwogirderbridgeisnonredundantsinceonegirdercannotassume
alloftheloadforwhichtwoaredesigned.However,itcanbearguedthatacontinuous
twogirderbridgeisstructurallyredundantsinceagirderfailurewouldnotcause
collapse,butthestructurewouldsagexcessively.Threeormoregirderswillusually
haveenoughloadcapacityduetoinherentdesignfactorsofsafetytoavoidcollapse.
Thefailureofonegirderwillimmediatelycausetheloadstobesharedbytheother

girders.However,theFHWAconsidersthreegirderbridgeswithmorethan4.60M
girderspacingtobeFC.Thestrengthofthedecksystemshouldbeconsideredforthis
case.Somedecksystemsforwidebeamspacingsaretwowayslabsandothershave
stringerandfloorbeamsystemswithonewayslabs.Thosewithtwowayslabswillstill
havealoadpathredundancy,whilethosewithstringersandfloorbeamswillbemore
unstableafterfailureofonegirderinathreegirdersystem.
InternalRedundancy.Thistermrefersprimarilytobuiltupmembers,suchasriveted
plategirders.Asingleplateorshapeinthebuiltupmembermightfailwithoutcausing
collapse.However,evenmemberssuchasthismustsometimesbeconsiderednon
redundant,sinceliketwogirderstructures,failureofoneportionofthemembercan
overloadtheremainingportionssuchthatthereisnotsufficientremainingcapacityto
preventtotalfailure.Usually,ifthecrosssectionalareaofthelargestshapeorplatein
abuiltupmemberislessthanabout30to40percentofthetotalmemberarea,then
themembermaybeconsideredtohaveinternalredundancy.
InspectionProceduresforFCMembers
Inspectionproceduresbeginwithproperadvanceplanning.Themoreimportantplanningaspects,
usuallybasedonanofficereviewofthestructuralplans,are:
IdentifypossibleFCmembers.
Notetheparticularmembersinthestructurethatmayrequirespecialfieldattention,suchas
builtuptensionmemberscomposedoffewindividualpieces.
Preplannecessaryaccesstothemembers,includingspecialequipmentneedssuchasladders,
buckettruck,orclimbinggear.
ManyFCmembersarearesultofstructuresdesignedforurbansituationswithnecessary
complexalignmentgeometries.Properinspectionofthesebridgesmayrequireclosingatraffic
lane.SafetrafficcontrolmustbecoordinatedinadvancewithRBDandtheTrafficAuthorities.
Ifthestructureinvolvesarailroad,arailroadflaggermustbecoordinatedwiththeproper
railroadcompany.
Identifyandmakeavailableanynecessaryspecialtoolsandequipmentthatmayberequiredin
additiontothenormalinspectiongear.Ahighpressurewasherisoftenusefulincleaningareas
wherealargeaccumulationofdebrismightobscureviewofFCareas.Nondestructivetest
equipmentsuchasultrasonicdevicesmaybeadvantageousinsomeareas,particularly
inspectionofboxtypebentcapsandpinandhangerconnections.
TheactualfieldinspectionofallFCmembersconsistsofseveralsteps.Themostimportantstepisa
visualinspection.Theinspectornotesany:
Visualcracksandtheirdirectionandlocation

Evidenceofrust,whichmayformataworkingcrack
Weldterminationsinatensionarea
Interruptedbackupbarsusedforbuiltupmemberfabrication
Arcstrikes,scarsfromassemblycablesorchains,orotherphysicaldamage
Crosssectionchangeswhichmaycauseasuddenincreaseinthestresspattern
FatigueandFatigueFracture
Memberssubjectedtocontinuedreversalofstress,orrepeatedloadingsuchthatarangeofchangein
stressoccurs,aresubjecttoabehaviorcalledfatigue.Membersthathavearelativelyconstant,steady
stressarenotsubjecttofatigue.Thetermhasbeeninuseforalmostacenturyandiscurrentlydefined
bytheAmericanSocietyofTestingMaterials
(ASTM182396e1)astheprocessofprogressivelocalized
permanentstructuralchangeoccurringinamaterialsubjectedtoconditionsthatproducefluctuating
stressesandstrainsatsomepointorpointsandthatmayculminateincracksorcompletefractureafter
asufficientnumberoffluctuations.Fatiguecanresultin:
Lossofstrength
Lossofductility
Reducedservicelife
Fatiguefracturesarethemostdifficulttopredictsinceconditionsproducingthemareoftennotclearly
recognizable.Fatigueoccursatstresslevelswellwithintheelasticrange,thatis,lessthantheyield
pointofthesteel,andisgreatlyinfluencedbyminorimperfectionsinthestructuralmaterialandby
fabricationtechniques.
Fatiguefractureoccursinthreedistinctstages:
Localchangesinatomicstructure,accompaniedbysubmicroscopiccracking
Crackgrowth
Suddenfracture
FatigueProneDetails
Fatiguefracturealmostalwaysbeginsatavisiblediscontinuity,whichactsasastressraiser.Typical
examplesare:
Designdetailssuchasholes,notches,orsectionchanges

Flawsinthematerialsuchasinclusionsorfabricationcracks
Poorweldingproceduressuchasarcstrikes
Weldterminations
Certainstructuraldetailshavebeenlongrecognizedasstressraisersandareclassifiedastotheir
potentialfordamage.ThesedetailsappearinthecurrentAASHTOBridgeSpecifications,HIBBridge
Manualandothertechnicalpublications.Mostofthesecommondetailsshouldbefamiliartothe
fracturecriticalbridgeinspector.
Properconsiderationofmemberdetailandsizingduringdesignwillhelpcontrolstresslevelandthus
controlcrackgrowth.Thestressrange,oralgebraicdifferenceinthemaximumandminimumstress,
alsobecomesimportant.Themosteffectivewaytocontrolcrackingandeventualfractureissensible
detailing.Detailssuchasoutofplanebendingingirderwebsandcertainweldconfigurationscancause
crackpropagationandfracture.
Designforfatiguealsoincludesobservingafracturecontrolplan(FCP).TheFCPidentifiestheperson
responsibleforassigningfracturecriticaldesignations.Itestablishesminimumqualificationstandards
forweldingpersonnelandfabricationplants.Italsosetsforthmaterialtoughnessandtesting
procedures.ThespecificmembersandaffectedsectionsarealsoidentifiedintheFCP.During
fabrication,thesemembersaresubjecttospecialrequirements.
Fatiguefailureisalwaysanabruptfracture,calledabrittlefracture.Abrittlefractureisdistinguished
fromaductilefracturebyabsenceofplasticdeformationandbythedirectionoffailureplane,which
occursnormaltothedirectionofappliedstress.Otherfailuresurfacesduetohighstressareusuallyat
anangletothedirectionofthestressandareoftenaccompaniedbyanarrowingorneckingofthe
material.Brittlefracturefailureshavenonarrowingorneckingpresent.
Thethreemaincontributingfactorstobrittlefractureare:
Stresslevel
Cracksize
Materialtoughness,sometimescalledfracturetoughness
Small,evenmicroscopiccrackscanformasaresultofvariousmanufacturingandfabricationprocesses.
Rateofpropagation,orgrowth,ofcracksalsodependsonthestresslevelandthematerialtoughness.
Materialtoughnessistheabilityofamaterialtoresistbrittlefracture.Thisresistanceisprimarily
determinedbychemicalcompositionandtosomeextentbythemanufacturingprocesses.
Usually,higherstrengthsteelsaremoresusceptibletobrittlefractureandhavelowertoughness.
Toughnesscanbeimprovedbytechniquessuchasheattreatmentorbyquenchingandtempering.

WeldDetails
InspectorsconcernedwithFCinspectionsmustacquaintthemselveswiththecharacteristicsofgoodand
poorstructuraldetailsandbeabletoidentifythosedetailsinthefield.Weldingcreatesthedetailsmost
susceptibletofatigueandfracture.Therefore,itisimperativetorecognizefeaturespronetoFCfailure.
MajorFCproblemareasareatwelddiscontinuitiesorchangesingeometrysuchas:
Toesoffilletwelds
Weldterminationpoints
Weldstogirdertensionflangesfromotherconnectionssuchasstiffenersordiaphragms
Endsofweldedcoverplates
Weldedcoverplatesonrolledbeamswereaverycommondetailuntilfatiguefailuresbegantobe
recognizedbybridgeengineers.Whethertheweldisterminatedorcontinuedaroundtheendofthe
coverplate,theconditionisatbestCategoryE.
Weldattachmentstoagirderweborflangecanreducefatiguestrengthasthelengthoftheattachment
increases.WeldstwoinchesorlessfallinCategoryCandthosegreaterthanfourinchesinlength
reducetoCategoryE.Suchdetailsarecommonlyusedtoattachdiaphragmsandwindbracingto
maintainstructuralmembers,eitherattheflangeorweb.Detailssuchasrunofftabsandbackupbars
mayalsoprovidepossiblestressriserdiscontinuitiesifnotsmoothedbygrindingafterremoval.
Inspectorsshouldfamiliarizethemselveswithacceptableandunacceptablefilletweldprofilesinorder
torecognizepotentialproblemareasinthefield.
FatigueinSecondaryMembers
Secondarymembersmayalsohavefatigueproblems.Forinstance,maingirderstressreversalmay
inducevibrationsinlateralbracingordiaphragms.Inmanycasesthenumberofstressreversalsinthe
secondarymemberisamagnificationofthosestressesinthemainmember.Theattachmentofplatesto
agirderwebmaycauseoutofplanebendingintheweb,asituationnotusuallyconsideredbythe
designer.
Ingeneral,secondarymembersthemselvesarenotsubjecttoaFCinspection.However,some
secondarymembers,eventhoughdesignedonlyassecondarymembers,suchaslateralwindbracingin
thelowerplaneofagirdersystem,willactasprimarymembers.Thesecasesgenerallyoccurincurved
orheavilyskewedstructures.Acurvedbridgewillhavetwistingortorsionaleffectsduetotheliveloads
thatarepartiallyresistedbythediagonallateralwindbracing.Thesebraces,particularlythosenear
supports,shouldbeinspectedforpossiblefatiguecracks.
ProperWeldingandRepairTechniques
Properweldingofstructuralsteelmembersisatediousprocessundertheverybestofconditions,which

areusuallyfoundinthefabricationshop.Anyfieldwelding,whetheritisaweldedgirdersplice,retrofit
detail,orrepair,shouldbecloselyexaminedforvisibleproblems.Manyshopsplicesareaccomplished
byautomaticweldingmachinesundercontrolledconditionsandcanbesmoothlygroundtoeliminate
surfacediscontinuities.Fieldsplicingoperationsaresubjecttoexposuretotheelementsanddifficulties
instabilizingthepiecestobejoined.Inaddition,theweldingisusuallydonebyhandandtherefore
subjecttohumanerror.Weldedfieldsplicesforbridgesshouldbesubjecttocarefulinspectionandmust
bedonebycertifiedwelders.Theweldedfieldsplicesforthesebridgeareusuallyofthesamequalityas
shopsplicesandareoftenfurtherinspectedbyradiographic(Xray)techniques.
Theinspectorshouldalsobeawareofproblemsthatmayarisefromtheuseofimproperfieldrepair
processes.Oftenawellintentionedrepaircanactuallymakeamemberevenmoresusceptibletobrittle
fracture.
FCInspectionTechniques
FCinspectiontechniquesmayincludenondestructivetestingtodeterminetheconditionofastructural
member.Thereareseveraltypesavailable,includingradiographic,ultrasonic,dyepenetrant,and
magneticparticleinspection.Allareacceptablemethods,buteachhaslimitationsandmaynotbe
suitableforaparticularsituation.Onesingletechniquemaynotbesufficienttoassessdamageanda
combinationofmorethanonemaybeadvisable.Usuallythesetypesofinspectionarebestleftto
personnelwhohaveundergonethepropertraining.
Theselectionofthetypeofnondestructivetestingmethodforaparticularlocationisusuallyafunction
ofthedetail.Forinstance,potentialcracksattheendsofweldedcoverplatesareofteninspectedby
theuseofradiographicmethods.Cracksinpinsarebestinspectedbyultrasonictechniques.Subsurface
defectssuchasinclusionsmaybefoundbymagneticfieldirregularities,andcracksadjacenttofillet
weldsatteejointsareusuallyinspectedbydyepenetrant.
13.3.6 SpecialInspections
SpecialInspectionsareperformedtomonitornewtypesofstructures,structuredetails,ormaterials.A
SpecialInspectionmayalsobeusedtohelpdevelopaninformationdatabase.
AnexampleofaSpecialInspectionistheinspectionofthegroutedductsinexternallyposttensioned
membersofprecastsegmentaltypebridges.
13.4 RatingsandLoadPosting
13.4.1 Overview
ThisSectionincludesdiscussionofthefollowingtopics:
ConditionRatings
AppraisalRatings

LoadRatings
LegalLoads
13.4.2 ConditionRatings
DefinitionofConditionRatings
ConditionRatingsbasedonthefieldinspectionscanbeconsideredassnapshotsintimeandcannotbe
usedtopredictfutureconditionsorbehaviorofthestructure.However,theConditionRatingsbasedon
theinspectionsalongwiththewrittencommentsbythefieldinspectoractasthemajorsourceof
informationonthestatusofthebridge.TheConditionRatingsalsohelpinplanningforanynecessary
repairsormodifications.Inaddition,theConditionRatingsareusedasflagswhenperforming
overweightpermitevaluations.
ConditionRatingsareonedigitnumbersgivenbythefieldinspectortothevariouscomponentsofa
bridge.Theyareintendedtobeobjectiveandnotdistortedbypersonalbeliefsoropinions.Thereis
significantemphasistohavetheConditionRatingsbemoreconsistentbetweeninspectorsgiventhe
samedeficiencyofstructuralcomponent.
ConditionRatingsareameasureofthedeteriorationordamageandarenotameasureofdesign
deficiency.Forinstance,anoldbridgedesignedtolowerloadcapacitybutwithlittleornodeterioration
mayhaveexcellentConditionRatingswhileanewerbridgedesignedtomodernloadsbutwith
deteriorationwillhavelowerConditionRatings.
Thechannel,waterway,riprap,andotherchannelprotectioncomponentsunderanddirectlyupstream
anddownstreamofthebridgeareofteninterrelatedtooneanotherinassigningtheConditionRating
forthechannel.
RecordingConditionRatings
ConditionRatingsareenteredontheBridgeInspectionRecord,BIR.Therearesixcomponentitems
coveredontheform,eachofwhichlistsfourto11elements.TheItemNumbersrelatetotheentryof
thedataintheelectronicBridgeInventoryFiles,thedetailedinstructionsforwhicharecontainedinthe
instructionsforcodingguide.Thesixcomponentitemsplusamiscellaneousitemare:
Deck(Item58)
Superstructure(Item59)
Substructure(Item60)
Channel(Item61)
Culverts(Item62)
Approaches(Item65)

Miscellaneous(usedforinformation,butnotenteredintheBridgeInventoryfile.Stillimportant
aspartoftheBridgeFolder).
Theelementsforeachcomponenthaveminimumvalues(showntotheleftoftheelementdescription
ontheBIRFormthattheratingmustequalorexceed.Eachelementisratedbasedonindependent
consideration.Forinstance,poorordeficientsecondarymembers(bracing,diaphragms,etc.)ina
superstructuremaycausetheSuperstructure(Item59)componenttohaveapoorratingeventhough
thereisnosignificantdeteriorationofthemainmembers.ThesummaryComponentRatingmustbethe
leastoftheelementratingscomprisingthatcomponent.
However,itshouldbenotedthatDeck(Item58)componentisindependentofitsassociatedelement
ratingssuchasjoints,railings,wearingsurface,etc.
Theknownpresenceofchloridesinthedeck,superstructure,orsubstructureconcreteorlow
compressivestrengthsfromcoresshouldnotinfluenceConditionRatings.TheConditionRatingshould
bedeterminedsolelyontheobserved,materialsrelated,physicalconditionofthecomponentatthe
timeoftheinspection.
TheBIRFormhaspage/sforfullysupportivewrittencommentsforeachoftheabovefeatures.These
commentsarerequiredforanyConditionRatingof7orless.Theformincludesabriefsummaryofthe
descriptionofeachlevelofrating.MoredetailontheConditionRatingforeachItemNumberisgivenin
theinstructionsforcodingguide.
AssigningConditionRatings
ThegeneralconsiderationsforassignmentofthetenlevelsofConditionRatingsrequirethateach
elementbeevaluatedseparately.However,otherdeficienciesmayaffecttheconditioniftheyare
directlyrelated.Forinstance,instabilityofanapproachembankmentmayreducetheabutment
ConditionRatingbutnotreducetheSuperstructureConditionRating.
OnlypermanentlyinstalledrepairsaretobeconsideredwhenassigningConditionRatings.Permanent
impliesthattherepairhasreturnedthedamagedordeterioratedelementtoaconditionasgoodasor
betterthantheremainderofthebridge.Forinstance,asteelbeamdamagedbyanoverheightload
thatreducedtheloadcapacityofthebeamisconsideredpermanentlyrepairedwhenasectionis
replacedorabentsectionisstraightenedbypropertechniquesandnoresidualcrackscanbefound.
Thestrengthoftherepairedmemberistheprimaryconcern.Modificationsandrepairsthatsimply
improvetheappearanceofadamagedmembershouldnotbeconsideredtoimprovetheCondition
Rating.
Componentswithtemporaryrepairs,eventhoughfunctioning,shouldnotbeconsideredforCondition
Rating.Forinstance,asupportorbracetoapartiallyunderminedcolumncouldbesusceptibleto
damagefromanotherflood;therefore,theConditionRatingmustbemadeonthebasisthatthesupport
isnotpresent.TemporaryrepairsmustnotbeconsideredindeterminingConditionRatingsbecause
theydirectlyaffectthecalculationsoftheSufficiencyRatingsthataredescribedinChapter7.

ConditionRatingsarestillamatterofjudgment,whichshouldbemadebasedonexperience,
knowledge,andconsistencywithotherstructureswiththesamedeterioration.
13.4.3 AppraisalRatings
DefinitionofAppraisalRatings
AppraisalRatingsconsiderthefieldcondition,waterwayadequacy,geometricandsafetyconfigurations,
structuralevaluation,andsafeloadcapacityofthebridge.AsforConditionRatings,theyshouldbeas
objectiveaspossible.Giventhesamefieldinformation,projectplans,materials,geometric,and
waterwaydata,thesameAppraisalRatingsshouldresultindependentoftheappraiser.
Sevenfeaturesareevaluatedfortheireffectonthesafetyandserviceabilityofthebridgeandits
approaches.Theintentistocomparethebridgetoanewstructurebuilttocurrentstandards.
AppraisalRatingsareusuallydoneintheofficewhereaccesstoallnecessaryinformationand
specificationsisavailable.However,anexperiencedBridgeAppraisermaymakesomeappraisalsinthe
fieldwhileperformingthedutiesofaBridgeInspector.
RecordingAppraisalRatings
Asanaidinrecordingthefeatures,instructionsaregivenontheBridgeAppraisalWorksheet,(BAW).
TheItemNumbersarerelatedtotheentryofthedatainthebridgeinspectiondatabase.Thedetailed
instructionsforenteringdataarecontainedintheinstructionsforcodingguide.Thesevenfeaturesare:
TrafficSafetyFeatures(Item36)
StructuralEvaluation(Item67)
DeckGeometry(Item68)
Underclearances(Item69)
BridgePosting(Item70)
WaterwayAdequacy(Item71)
ApproachRoadwayAlignment(Item72).
TheBridgeAppraisalWorksheethasspaceforfullysupportivewrittencommentsforeachoftheabove
features.Thesecommentsarerequiredevenforfeatureswithnodeficiency.Thefollowingparagraphs
summarizeinstructionsforcodingtheabovesevenfeatures.
TrafficSafetyFeatures(Item36).
Thisfeatureappliesonlytobridgescarryingvehicletraffic.Itisameasureoftheadequacyoftraffic
safetyfeaturesinmeetingcurrentacceptablestandards,whichreflectmoderndesigncriteria.Four

digitsareassignedthatapproximatelymeasuretheadequacythetrafficsafetyfeature.Thefirstdigitis
fortheBridgeRailings,theseconddigitisfortheGuardrailtoBridgeRailingTransitions,thethirddigitis
forApproachGuardrails,andthefourthdigitisforGuardrailTerminals.EachofthesefourpartstoItem
36isassignedavalueof1ifitmeetscurrentlyacceptablestandards,avalueof0ifitdoesnot,oravalue
ofNifnotapplicable.Notethatthesevaluesdonotgiveatruemeasureofthecomparativestrengthor
crashtestlevelforthetrafficsafetyfeature.
Collisiondamageordeteriorationisnotconsideredwhenassessingtrafficsafetyacceptability.Itmust
beassumedthatdamagetotrafficsafetyfeatureswillberepairedinthenearfuture.
Bridgeclassculvertsdonotrequirecodingoftrafficsafetyfeaturesiftheheadwalloftheculvertis9.0
Mormorefromatraveledlane.Ifthereiszeroto1.0Moffilloveraculvert,andacceptableguard
fenceisinstalledovertheculvertandalongtheapproaches,thenbridgerailingsandtransitionsarenot
required.Culvertswithlessthan1meteroffillmayalsohaveguardfenceinsteadofbridgerailingifthe
steelpostsareproperlyattachedtotheculvert.
AcceptabletrafficsafetystandardshavebeendevelopedusingthecurrentAASHTOStandard
SpecificationsforHighwayBridgesandtheAASHTOGuideforSelecting,Locating,andDesigningTraffic
Barriers.
CurrentacceptablebridgerailingdetailsareshownintheHIBBridgeManual.
StructuralEvaluation(Item67).
ThisfeatureconsidersmajorstructuraldeficienciesandisbasedontheConditionRatingsofthe
Superstructure(Item59),theSubstructure(Item60),andtheInventoryRating(Item66)asrelatedto
theAverageDailyTraffic(Item29).Items66and29arecorrelatedinatableincludedwiththedetailed
instructionsforItem67intheinstructionsforcodingguide.
TheStructuralEvaluationAppraisalRatingshouldgenerallybenohigherthanthelowestofthe
SuperstructureorSubstructureConditionRatingsortheInventoryRatingADTcorrelation.
DeckGeometry(Item68).
Thisfeatureappliesonlytobridgesthatcarryvehicletraffic.Roadwaywidthsaremeasured
perpendiculartotrafficdirectionandbetweenfacesofrailings,curbs,andmedianbarriers.Mountable
curbsareignoredif100mmorlessinheight.
TheDeckGeometryAppraisalRatingisdeterminedfromafourparttableincludedwiththedetailed
instructionsforItem68intheInstructionsforCodingGuide.ThistablerelatestheADT(Item29),
BridgeRoadwayWidth(Item51),andNumberofLanes(Item28).
ThisAppraisalRatingisfurthercontrolledbyanothertableintheinstructionsforItem68inthe
InstructionsforCodingGuidethatrelatestheMinimumVerticalClearance(Item53)andthe
FunctionalClassification(Item26)ofthebridge.
TheDeckGeometryAppraisalRatingistakenasthelowestnumberbasedonwidth,lanes,orvertical
clearanceandFunctionalClassificationofthehighwayonwhichthebridgeislocated.

Underclearances(Item69).
Thisfeatureisameasureofbothverticalandlateralclearancesforanyroadwayorrailroadpassing
underthebridgebeingrated.Theverticalclearanceismeasureddownfromthelowestpartofthe
bridgetothelowertraveledroadwaysurface(excludingpavedshoulders)ortopofrailroadrails.
TheUnderclearancesAppraisalRatingisdeterminedfromtwotablesincludedwiththedetailed
instructionsforItem69intheInstructionsforCodingGuide.ThesetablesrelatetheVerticalUnder
clearance(Item54)andtheFunctionalClassification(Item26)ofthelowerroadwayorrailroad,andthe
Lateral
UnderclearancesRightandLeft(Items55and56)ofthelowerroadwayorrailroad.
TheUnderclearancesAppraisalRatingistakenasthelowestnumberbasedontheverticalandlateral
clearancesandtheFunctionalClassificationofthelowerroadwayorrailroad.
BridgePosting(Item70).
ThisfeaturecomparestheloadcapacityofthebridgetotheStateLegalLoad.Atthistime,theterm
LegalLoadisassumedtobealoadequivalenttotheconventionalHS20loadpatternasshownin
Figure51.Therefore,anyInventoryRatinglessthanHS20requiresfurtherevaluationofthebridge.
BridgesarenormallynotloadrestrictedunlessthecapacityislessthananHS20OperatingRating.The
needforloadrestrictionwillbeexplainedinmoredetailinthesectionofthischaptertitledLegalLoads
andLoadPosting.
SpecificcriteriaforcodingthisAppraisalRatingareincludedwiththedetailedinstructionsforItem70in
theInstructionsforCodingGuide,whichhasfivepostinglevels.TheBridgePostingAppraisalRatingis
5iftheOperatingRating(Item64)ismorethanHS20.TheBridgePostingAppraisalRatinghasavalue
of0to4dependingonthepercentagetheOperatingRatingisbelowtheStateLegalLoad,whichforthis
itemistakenasHS20loading.

WaterwayAdequacy(Item71).
Thisappraisalfeatureappliestoallbridgescarryingvehicletrafficoveranytypeofwaterway.It
representsthecapacityofthewaterwayopeningtocarrypeakwaterflowsandisbasedonthecriteria
includedwiththedetailedinstructionsforItem71intheInstructionsforCodingguidewhichhaseight
valuesrangefrom2,meaningthebridgeisfrequentlyovertoppedbyfloodwaters,to9,meaningthat
chanceofovertoppingisremote.
Theestimatedpotentialfortrafficdelaysfromfloodovertoppingisalsoconsideredwhenassigninga
valuetowaterwayadequacy.Thedesignfloodisthemaximumwaterflowthatcanpassunderbridge
foragivenrecurrencefrequency,usuallyexpressedinyears.

Whenhydraulicinformationisunavailable,thedesignfloodisassumedtobeequaltothefrequencyof
overtoppingthebridge.Localofficialsandresidentscanoftenprovideinformationonthefrequencyof
overtopping.
ApproachRoadwayAlignment(Item72).
Thisfeatureappliestoadequacyoftheapproachroadwaytosafelycarryvehicletrafficconsideringboth
horizontalandverticalalignments.
SpecificcriteriaareincludedwiththedetailedinstructionsforItem72intheinstructionsforcoding
guide.Approachcurvature,laneandshoulderwidths,surfaceroughness,andsightdistancesallenter
intotheevaluationofthisAppraisalRating.Forbridgesoncrestorsagverticalcurves,consideration
mustalsobegiventoheadlightandstoppingsightdistances.
Whenapproachalignmentisquestionable,theinspectorshoulddrivethealignmentontheapproaches
tothebridgeinordertoestimateanadvisorysafespeedwithdueconsiderationgiventominimumsight
distances.Advisoryspeedonapproachcurvesisthespeedabovewhichmorethanusualconcentration
andeffortonthepartofanormaldriverwouldberequiredtoremainsafelyintheproperlane.
Advisoryspeedlimitshouldbetakenasthepostedadvisoryspeedifoneexists.
13.4.4 LoadRatings
DefinitionofLoadRatings
TheLoadRatingisameasureofbridgeliveloadcapacityandhastwocommonlyusedcategories:
InventoryRating,asdefinedbythecurrentAASHTOManualforConditionEvaluationofBridges,
isthatload,includingloadsinmultiplelanes,thatcansafelyutilizethebridgeforanindefinite
periodoftime.
OperatingRating,definedbythesamemanual,isthemaximumpermissibleliveloadthatcanbe
placedonthebridge.Thisloadratingalsoincludesthesameloadinmultiplelanes.Allowing
unlimitedusageattheOperatingRatinglevelwillreducethelifeofthebridge.
DeterminationofLoadRatings
Currently,allInventoryandOperatingRatingsareexpressedintermsofanequivalentHStruckas
shownintheAASHTOManualforConditionEvaluationofBridges.Priortoabout1995,manyratings
wereforanequivalentHtruck,showninAASHTOManualforConditionEvaluationofBridges
.
TheH
truckdirectlycorrespondstosingleunittrucks,whichusedtobecommononruralhighways.Today,
evenruralFarmorRanchtoMarkethighwaysandmanyoffsystemhighwaysareexposedtomuch
largersemitrucks;therefore,theHStruckismorerealistic.
InventoryorOperatingRatingsareusuallydeterminedusingeitherLoadFactor(LF)orAllowableStress
(AS)methods.Since2000,LFistobeusedforallonsystembridges.EitherASorLFmaybeusedforall
offsystembridges.

InventoryRatingandDesignLoadConsiderations
TheInventoryRating(Item66)canusuallybeinitiallyestimatedtobeatleastequaltothedesign
loadingifnodamageordeteriorationexistsandtheoriginaldesignwasmadeusinganHSloadpattern.
ManyoldplanshaveadesignloadingshownasH20S16whichsomeratershavemisinterpretedas
meaningH20.AASHTOreplacedtheH20S16designationin1965withtheHS20designation.Re
ratingthesebridgesusingLFprocedureswillusuallyincreasetheInventoryRatingaboveHS20.Some
newerbridgeshavebeendesignedonacasebycasebasisforhigherdesignloads,butHIBbridge
designpracticeisstilltodesigntotheHS20loading.
DesignSupplement
Theprimarysubjectsofthesupplementthataffectedbridgedesigncanbesummarizedasfollows:
o CrownWidthBridges.The1944AASHTOBridgeSpecificationsrequiredcurbsonall
bridges.Bridgecurbsmaybeomittedprovidedtheguardfenceoranequivalent
memberiscarriedcontinuouslythroughthestructure.The1949AASHTOBridge
Specifications
allowedtheconditionofnocurbswithcertainadditionalwidth
limitations.
o DesignOverload.The1944AASHTOBridgeSpecificationsrequiredanoverloadtobe
consideredforallbridgesdesignedforlessthananH20(18.20T)orH20S16(32.70T)
loading,nowcalledHS20loading.Theoverloadwastobethedesigntruck(usuallyH
15)increasedby100percent,butwithoutconcurrentloadingofadjacentlanes,thus
allowingsinglelaneloaddistribution.Theallowablestresswastoalsobeincreasedto
150percentofthebasicallowable.Thisprovisioncanbemodifiedspecificallytoapply
thesameoverloadtotrusscountermembersforalldesignloadings.Trusscountersare
thosemembersthat,forsomepositionsofliveload,willchangefromtensionto
compression.IfatrusswasdesignedH15,H20,orH20S16,theoverloadwasapplied
indeterminingthesizeofcountermember.
o LaneLoadNegativeMoments.The1944AASHTOBridgeSpecificationsrequiredforH
10,H15,orH20laneloadsanadditionalconcentratedloadinoneotherspanina
continuousunitpositionedtoproducemaximumpositiveandnegativemoments.The
distancebetweentheconcentratedloadsforthelaneloadislimitedtoamaximumof
9.20M.ThisisprobablybasedonthefactthattheAASHTO1944BridgeSpecifications
didnotrequireanadditionalconcentratedloadforH20S16laneloadings.TheH20S
16truckloadingshaveasecondaxlespacedfrom4.30Mto9.20Mfromthefirst
heavyaxle.The1949AASHTOBridgeSpecificationsmadethelaneloadingnegative
momentrequirementthesameforHStrucks.Theprovisionforcontinuousspans
subjectedtolaneloadcanbemodifiedbylimitingthespacingbetweentheadditional
concentratedloadto9.20M.Thislimithadtheeffectofreducingthelaneloadnegative
momentmaximumsforsomecontinuousspans.The9.20Mlimitmayalsohavebeenin
recognitionthatthesecondlargeaxleforanHSloadpatternisspacedatamaximumof
9.20Mfromthefirstlargeaxle,oritmighthavebeenbecausethelaneload

approximatelyrepresentsatrainoftruckswithaheadwaydistanceof9.20Mbetween
trucks.Itwouldhavebeenmorelogicalforthesecondconcentratedloadtobeplaceda
minimumof9.20Mfromthefirstinsteadofamaximumof9.20M.Current
specificationsdonotlimitthedistancebetweenthetwoloadsfornegativemoment
laneloadings.
o ImpactLoadProvision.The1944AASHTOBridgeSpecificationsrequiredthatthe
shortestlengthofadjacentspansinacontinuousunitbeusedforthenegativemoment
impactvalue.In1949,AASHTOchangedthistothecurrentprovisionofusingthe
averagelengthoftheadjacentspans.BothversionsofTheimpactprovisionfor
continuousunitsorotherstructureswherediscontinuouslaneloadingsareappliedto
betheloadedlengthasindicatedbytheinfluencelineforthesectionofmember
consideredhadtheeffectofslightlyincreasingtheimpactvalue.
o SpecialAxleLoads.TheAASHTOBridgeSpecificationsfurtherlimitedthe11.00Taxle
toslabspansunder5.50Mandthetwo7.30Taxlesforslabspansover5.50M.This
provisionhadtheeffectofreducingthedesignloadformanyslabspansdesignedduring
thattime.Somebeamshavebeendesignedusingthesingle11.00Taxle.Itisbelieved
tobeanerrorforbeamstohavebeendesignedthisway.Forthisreason,anyplans
preparedwithadesignloadofH20orH20S16shouldbecarefullyevaluated.
CustomaryRatingProcedures
Theinitialloadratingshouldalwaysberecalculated;thedesignloadingshouldnotbeusedasthefinal
InventoryRating.Whenabridgewasoriginallydesigned,thedesigneroftenhadtoselectthenextsize
ofreinforcingbar,sizeofsteelbeam,orthicknessofcoverplatetomeetthedesignstresscriteria.Sizes
thatwerelargerthanthetheoreticallyperfectsizeofmemberresultinInventoryRatingssignificantly
higherthanthedesignloading.However,thedesignloadinganddateoforiginalconstructionisan
importantpartofthebridgedatasincetheyoftenprovideabasisfordetermininginitialroutingof
overloadpermits.
IftheoriginaldesignwasmadeusinganHload,suchasH15,orH20,thentheequivalentHSInventory
Ratingwillusuallybesignificantlylessnumerically.Forexample,anH15designmightrateatHS12.
However,thisdifferencemeansthatthetotalinventoryHSloadcapacityis19.60Tons(two8.70Taxles
andone2.20Taxletotaling21.80Tons)ascomparedtotheH15designof13.60T.
BridgedesignsmadeusingASprocedureswithanallowableof5percentoverstressforsome
componentsaretobereanalyzedusingLFprocedures.
ASratingproceduresareusuallysetat55percentofthematerialyieldstressforsteelstructuresand50
percentofthematerialyieldstressforGrade40reinforcingsteelinconcretestructures.WhenAASHTO
firstintroducedtheuseofGrade60reinforcingsteelinthe1970InterimBridgeDesignSpecifications,
theallowableof165.40MPaforGrade60wasassignedbasedapproximatelyontheratiooftheGrade
60ultimatestrengthtothatofGrade40.ThustheASprocedureswerestillcompatibleinfactorofsafety
forconcretemembers.

LFratingproceduresusuallyassignadeadloadfactorof1.3andliveloadfactorsof2.17(when
computingInventoryRatings)and1.3(whencomputingOperatingRatings).Theresultingstressesor
bendingmomentsarecomparedtotheyieldofsteelmembersortheultimatecapacityofconcrete
membersalsoconsideringappropriatephistrengthreductionfactors.
Notethatthevalueof2.17isthedeadloadvalueof1.3times1.67.Theloadfactorof1.3accountsfora
30percentincreaseinallloadings,eitherdeadorlive,soastoprovideauniformsafetyfactor.The
factorof1.67accountsforthevariabilityofliveloadconfigurationsotherthanastandardHSload
patternandfurtherprovidesforpotentialoverloads.SeeSubsection13.4,LegalLoads.
Specificanalysisofstructuresforoverweightloads,particularlysuperheavypermitsoverabout127.30
Tons,isusuallydonewithaloadmultiplierconsistentwiththerestrictedspeedofthevehicle.
Commonlythisfactorisabout1.1,withtotalstressescomparedtoanallowableof75percentofthe
yieldforsteelbridgesor75percentoftheultimatecapacityforconcretebridgesincludingprestressed
beambridges.Thisprocedureisexplainedmorefullyinsubsection13.6,RoutingandPermits.
TemporaryrepairsmustnotbeconsideredforInventoryorOperatingRatings.However,temporary
repairsaretakenintoaccountwhenassigningtheoperationalstatuscodeofItem41tothestructure.
Temporaryrepairsaretobeconsideredfortheoperationalstatuscodeonlyuntilamorepermanent
repairismadeandshouldnotbeusedformorethanfouryears.TheInventoryRatingdirectlyaffects
theSufficiencyRating,andthereforetemporaryrepairsmustnotbeassignedanyweightintheLoad
Ratingcalculations.
Whenthedesignloadingisunknownordeteriorationexists,loadratingcalculationsmustuseallfield
informationandconventionalanalysistechniques.Evenwhenthedesignloadingisknown,theonly
acceptablemethodforaccurateloadratingistodocalculationsbasedontheplansandknownfield
measurements.
RatingConcreteBridgeswithNoPlans
Aconcretebridgewithunknownreinforcingdetails(noplans)canberatedforAASHTOLoad(HS20)at
theOperatingLevel,whichiscurrentlydefinedforloadratingpurposesasanHS20designload,
providedthatthefollowingtwoconsiderationsaremet:
Ithasbeencarryingunrestrictedtrafficformanyyears.
Therearenosignsofsignificantdistress.
NotationthattheratingsareassumedmustbeinsertedinthepermanentBridgeRecorddescribedin
Chapter8,andthebridgeshouldbeinspectedatmorefrequentintervals,usuallyeachyear,untilan
inspectionhistoryofatleastfouryearsisdeveloped.ThisprocedureissummarizedindetailbyFigure
52.
Threeadditionalconsiderationsforratingconcretebridgeswithunknownreinforcingare:
Bridgemustexhibitproperspantodepthratiosofthemainmembers,whichindicatesthatthe
originaldesignwasbycompetentengineers.Ingeneral,thisconsiderationmeansthatforsimple

spanstructuresthespantodepthratioofmainmembersshouldnotexceedapproximately20.
Spantodepthratiosexceedingthisratiomayindicatethatthedesignerdidnotproperly
considerreasonabledesigntruckloadings.
Constructiondetails,suchasslabthicknessandreinforcementcoveroveranyexposed
reinforcing,shouldconformtospecificationscurrentatthetimeoftheestimatedconstruction
date.
Appearanceshouldshowthatconstructionwasdonebyacompetentbuilder.
Acomparativeoriginaldesignratingcanbeusedtoestimatetheamountofreinforcinginthemain
members.Normally,ifthedesignwasdonepriortoabout1950andtheabovefiveconsiderationsexist,
thentheamountofreinforcingcanbeestimatedbasedonapercentageofthegrossconcreteareaof
themainbeams(ifteebeamconstruction),ordepthofslab(ifslabconstruction).Twooftheexamples
belowdescribethismethod,andathirdexampledescribesamethodthatcanbeusedforprestressed
beambridgeswithnoplansorotherdocumentation.
Figure52:LoadRatingsforConcreteBridgeswithoutPlans
*PermitTruckswithgrossoraxleweightsthatexceedthestatelegalloadlimitswillnotbeallowedto
usethesebridges.
I.F.InspectionFrequency.
RefertoAASHTOManualforConditionEvaluationofBridges,Chapter7,Section7.4.

ExamplesofRatingConcreteBridgeswithNoPlans
Example1.Aflatslabbridgedesignedbetweenabout1930and1960canbeassumedtohave
approximately0.7percenttensionsteelbasedonthetotalslabdepth.Calculationswiththisamountof
steelusingASprocedureswithstresses,materials,covers,andliveloaddistributionappropriatetothe
AASHTOBridgeSpecificationsfortheestimateddateofconstructionshouldgiveatorverynearanH10,
H15,orperhapsanH20theoreticalrating.Anyothervaluewouldmaketheassumptionssuspect.
Afterthisanalysisismade,ananalysisusingLFprocedures,HSloading,andcurrentloaddistributions
shouldgiveanacceptablerating.Flatslabbridgesconstructedoffsystemcanalsooftenberatedby
thisprocedureprovidingtheabovefiveconsiderationsarealsomet.Thismethodisnotsuitablefor
evaluationofFSslabs,whichmayberecognizedasthosewithnarrowroadwaysandtallintegralcurbs.
Example2.Amultibeamconcretebridgebuiltbetweenabout1940and1965canbeestimatedtohave
approximately0.3percenttensionsteelbasedonbeamspacingandanestimateddepthtothecenterof
thesteelgroupof0.9DwhereDisthetotaldepthoftheteebeam.AsinExample1,anoldASrating
canfirstbecalculatedforcomparison.Ifreasonable,thenamodernLFratingcanbemadewithHS
loadingandtheestimatedamountofreinforcingsteel.Theamountofsteelcanbeadjustedslightlyso
theASdesignexactlymatchesanHratingofH10,H15,orH20.
Example3.Somebridgesarecomposedofprestressedbeamsbutnoplansexist.Thisconditionis
oftenfoundforoffsystembridges.Theratingsshouldbedoneusingconservativeassumptionsand
goodengineeringjudgment.OneprocedurewouldbetoassumethatthebeamsweredesignedtoanH
15loadinginconformancewiththeestimateddateofspecifications.Usingthisassumption,anAS
calculationcanbemadetoestimatetheevennumberof12mm114Tstrands.AnLFratingusingthe
HSloadingcanthenbeperformedbasedonthisnumberandsizeofstrand.Insomecountries,pre
stressedbeamswereprobablyneverdesignedtolessthanH15.MostbeamshavebeendesignedtoH
20orHS20.Prestressedbeamfabricatorskeepgoodrecordsoftheirproducts,andidentificationofthe
designloadingmaysometimesbetrackeddown.
AllthreeoftheseexamplesshouldgiveHratingsusingASproceduresthatareclosetoarealisticdesign
load.Forinstance,acalculatedvalueofH14.4couldreasonablybeassumedtoverifythattheoriginal
designwasH15.AcalculatedASvalueofH13wouldbesuspect,andfurtherinvestigationwillbe
required.
RatingsforUnusualBridges
Unusualbridges,suchasthosecomposedofoldrailroadflatcars,canberated,butcaremustbetaken
toensurethatthecriticalratingcomponentisconsidered.Forinstance,flatcarswereoriginally
designedforamaximumpointloadcombinedwithauniformloadoverthewholecar.Whenusedfor
trafficloadings,eventhoughthemaintwogirdermembersmaygiveagoodequivalentHSloadrating,
thetransversestiffeningmembersandfloorbeamsoftencontroltheliveloadcapacity.
Anothertypeofunusualbridgeisthecontinuouscastinplace(CIP)flatslab.Mostofthesebridges
weredesignedinthe1940sand1950stoanH15orH20loadpattern.Unfortunately,thedesign
negativemomentswerefromthesingletruckloadinonespan.Currentdesignproceduresusealane
loadwithtwoconcentratedloadsinadjacentspansforthecontrollingnegativemomentcaseforlonger
continuousbridgesorwithtwoheavyaxlesoftheHS20loadpatternatvariablespacinginadjacent

spansforshortercontinuousbridges.ThesebridgesarethusunderdesignedforHSloadingsandasa
consequencemanyshouldactuallybeloadposted.However,thecurrentAASHTOBridgeSpecifications
(Ref52)donotdifferentiatebetweensingleandmultiplelanedistributionfactorsforslabbridges.Asa
result,thistypeofbridgehasgreaterstrengthformultipletruckspositionedinthemiddleofthebridge
span.Somestructuralevaluatorswillmakeliveloaddistributionadjustmentsbasedonthenumberof
lanesloadedforflatslabbridges.However,thismustbedonewithcareandproperlycorrelatedtotwo
orthreedimensionalmethodsofanalysis.
HSandHSLoadRatings
Previously,allratingsweredonewiththeequivalentHtruck,showninFigure51,ortheHStruckshown
inFigure51.CurrentlyallratingsareonlywiththeHStruck.Amomentequivalencyconversionfrom
HtoHSratingsisnotrecommendedsincethisprocesswouldassumethatthestructurewasexactly
designedforthegivenHloading.Inaddition,continuousspanscannotbeconvertedbythisprocess.
MoststructureshaveadegreeofcapacitypastthedesignHload,particularlysinceloaddistribution
assumptionsoftheAASHTOBridgeSpecifications
havebeenmademoreliberalsincethetimemany
structureswerecommonlydesignedusingHloads.However,aspreviouslyexplained,somebridges
wereintentionallydesignedwithASmethodstoa5percentoverstressforsomecomponents.
ItisnotacceptabletoratiothedesignliveloadmomentsforanHtrucktothesamemomentforan
equivalentHStruck.Forinstance,ifa14.634MsimplespanbridgehasadesignloadofH15,thedesign
loadformomentequivalencywouldbeHS10.8.However,duetotheabovereasons,theactualrating
basedonLFmethodsmighteasilybeHS9orHS13.ALFratingmustbemade.
13.4.5 LegalLoadsandLoadPosting
DefinitionofLegalLoads
LegalLoadsarethosethatmaysafelyuseanyofourhighwaysandbridges.Someroutesandmany
bridgesmustbeloadpostedtoprotectthemfrompossibledamage.Atthistime,aloadcapacityofHS
20isconsideredtobestrepresenttheLegalLoadforevaluationoftheneedforloadposting.
Truckloadsareconsideredlegalifthegrossload,axleload,axleconfiguration,length,andwidthare
withinthecurrentsizeandweightlawsorrules.
Ingeneral,themaximumgrossloadonanytruckcannotexceed36.40T,themaximumloadonanypair
oftandemaxlescannotexceed15.50T,andthemaximumloadonanysingleaxlecannotexceed9.10T.
Totallengthmustnotexceed19.80Mandtotalwidthmustnotexceed2.44M.
LegalLoadsdonothaveagreatereffectonbridgesthanthecurrentHS20designtotalgrossloadof
32.70Teventhoughtheymayhaveatotallegalweightof38.20T.Thisapparentcontradictionisdue
tothedifferentaxleloadconfigurationsandnumbersofaxles.
LoadPosting
Loadpostingisoftenrequiredforstructuresthat,duetotheiroriginaldesignorcondition,donothave
thestructuralcapacitytosafelycarrytheLegalLoads.PostingmaybeatOperatingRatinglevels

providedthattheConditionRatingsexceedthosedefinedinFigure53andFigure54andother
requirementsaremet.Otherwise,iftheConditionRatingsarelessthanthosedefined,thePostingmust
beatInventoryRatinglevels.
Allloadpostingsofagiventrucksizeactuallymeanthattwotrucksofthepostedcapacitycansafely
passonthebridge.Thisconceptisoftenmisinterpretedbythosedoingloadratingsandmakingload
postingrecommendations.ItisrecognizedthatabridgepostedforanHS5(8.20Tgrossload)cansafely
carryasingletruckofsignificantlymorethan8.20T.Nomethodensuresthatonlyasingletruckison
thebridge.Therefore,assumethattwotrucksofthesamesizecouldbepassingonthebridge
simultaneously.
However,somebridges,particularlyoffsystem,areloadpostedassumingonlyoneratingtruckeven
thoughtheymaybewiderthan5.50M.Thisconditionusuallyoccursduetothevolumeoftrucktraffic,
structurewidthorapproachroadwaywidth,striping,runners,etc.makingthemfunctionallyonelane
bridgesfortrucks.
ItisimportanttorecognizethateventhoughabridgemayhavebeendesignedtoanH15loading,it
maynotneedtobeloadpostedduetoconsiderationsdiscussedpreviously,suchasreinforcementor
membersizeinexcessofthetheoreticalamount,moreliberalloaddistributionnowusedinanalysis,
andLFanalysismethodswhichusuallyincreaseInventoryRatingssignificantlymorethantheoriginal
designloading.
Therecommendedloadpostingofalloffsystembridgesmustbesuppliedtotheaffectedlocalities.HIB
willprovidethenecessarypostingsignsandplacementhardware.
TypicalloadpostingsignsareshowninFigure55.

Figure53:OnSystemLoadPostingGuidelines
PermitLoadswillnotbeallowedonbridgesthatareloadposted.
Ifthebridgehasnotbeenrehabilitatedorreplacedin24monthsthenthestructureshallbe
closed.
I.F.InspectionFrequency.
OROperatingRating(Item64)
IRInventoryRating(Item66)

Figure54:OffSystemLoadPostingGuidelines
PermitLoadswillnotbeallowedonbridgesthatareloadposted
Ifthebridgehasnotbeenrehabilitatedorreplacedin24monthsthenthestructureshallbeclosed.
I.F.InspectionFrequency
OROperatingRating(Item64)
IRInventoryRating(Item66)

Figure55:TypicalLoadPostingSigns

ProceduresforChangingOnSystemBridgeLoadPosting
Thefollowingtableoutlinestheprocedureforchangingtheloadpostingofanonsystembridge.
ChangingLoadPostingofanOnSystemBridge
Step Responsible Action
Party
1 I nspecti on Compl ete"Recommendchangei nBri dgeLoadZoni ng"Form,Makesarequest
Contractor thati nvol vesanewl i mi torareducti onofacurrentl oadl i mi t,attachthemost
recenti nspecti onreport,pl ans(l ayoutsandstructural detai l s),andanyl oad
rati ngsthatsupporttherecommendedchange
2 RBD Revi ewtherequestandsupporti ngdocuments,andi frevi ewsupportsthe
recommendedchangei ssuesani nstructi onorder.
3 I nspecti on Noti fythetheTraffi cAuthori ti esofanyval i dl oadrestri cti onorder
Contractor
4 Traffi c Wi l l erectsi gnsi ndi cati ngproperl oadl i mi t
Authori ti es
5 I nspecti on Wi l l veri fyi ftheproperl oadl i mi thasbeenerectedandrecordthedateof
Contractor erecti on
Underthefollowingconditions,InspectionBranchshouldsubmitacompletedFormshowingreasons
forrestrictionremoval.
Repairorrehabilitationofabridgethatincreasesloadcapacityandeliminatesaloadrestriction.
Constructionofanewbridgethatreplacesonewithaloadrestriction.
ProceduresforEmergencyOnSystemBridgeLoadPosting
Thefollowingtableoutlinestheprocedureforchangingtheloadpostingofanonsystembridgeinan
emergency.
ChangingLoadPostingofanOnSystemBridge
Party
1 I nspecti on Noti fytheRBDthatanemergencyl oadrestri cti oni srequi red.
Contractor I denti fydefi ci enci esthatjusti fythepl acementofanemergencyl oadl i mi t
2 I nspecti on Determi nethel oadl i mi t,i frequi redandverbal l yauthori zeanemergencyl oad
Contractor restri cti onforaperi odnottoexceed60daysi fnecessary
3 RBD I ssuesanorderauthori zi ngtemporaryl oadl i mi tsandspeci fyi ngthedurati on
ofthetemporaryl i mi t
4 I nspecti on Noti fythetheTraffi cAuthori ti esofanybri dgel oadrestri cti on
Contractor
5 Traffi cAuthori ti es Wi l l erectsi gnsi mmedi atel yi ndi cati ngemergencyl oadl i mi t
Iftheemergencyloadlimitisrequiredforaperiodlongerthan60days,Inspectioncontractorshould
submitarequesttotheRBDfortheemergencyloadrestrictiontoremaininplaceforanother60days.
Ifthebridgeisnotreplacedorrepairedbeforetheemergencyloadrestrictionextensionexpires,the
InspectionContractorshouldsubmitarequesttotheRBDforapermanentloadrestrictionfollowingthe
procedureforchangingonsystembridgeloadpostings.

ClosureofWeakBridges
BridgeswithlessthananHS3OperatingRatingcapacitymustbeclosed.Thesepoliciesmustbe
followedforonsystembridgesandarestronglyrecommendedforthemunicipalitieswithjurisdiction
overoffsystembridges.BridgeswithInventoryRatingslessthanHS3butwithOperatingRatings
greaterthanHS3mayremainopenforalimitedamountoftime.Ifitisdesiredtoleaveabridgeinthis
categoryopen,thentheinspectionfrequencymustnotexceedsixmonthsandthebridgemustbe
categorizedforPriority1rehabilitationorreplacement.Ifafter24monthsthebridgehasnotbeen
rehabilitatedorreplaced,thenitshouldbeclosed.
OffSystemBridgeClosureProcedures
If inspection reveals deterioration that affects an offsystem bridges ability to safely carry vehicular
traffic, the department may use the following procedure to recommend that it be closed for safety
reasons:
RecommendingOffSystemBridgeClosures
Party
1 I nspecti on Wi l l i mmedi atel ynoti fytheRBDi fi tdetermi nesthatabri dgeshoul dbe
Contractor cl osedbasedontheresul tsofi nspecti ontheyconducted.
2 RBD Theywi l l veri fyassoonaspossi bl ethecondi ti onofabri dgerecommended
forcl osurebyI nspecti onContractor.
3 RBD Wi l l i mmedi atel ynoti fythetheTraffi cAuthori ti esofaval i dcl osure
recommendati on.
4 Traffi c Wi l l cl osethebri dgeandnoti fytheRBDwhenthebri dgei scl osedto
Authori ti es traffi c.
5 I nspecti on Wi l l veri fycl osureofthebri dgewheni trecei vesnoti fi cati onandwi l l i ncl ude
Contractor aphotoorcerti fi eddocumentati onveri fyi ngcl osurei nthebri dgei nspecti on
fi l eandwi l l promptupdatetheBri dgeI nspecti ondatabasetorefl ectthe
cl osurestatusofthebri dge.(SeeI tem41i nthecodi ng_gui de)
6 I nspecti on I fthebri dgewi l l remancl osedforanextendedperi odofti me,theywi l l veri fy
Contractor anddocumentwi thaphotothatthebri dgei ssti l l cl osedtotraffi caspartof
theregul ari nspecti oncycl e.
13.5 RoutingandPermits
13.5.1 Overview
ThisChapterincludesdiscussionofthefollowingtopics:
RoleoftheBridgeInspectionEngineers,andtheTrafficAuthorities
Permits
ExampleComparisonofInventory,Operating,andPermitLoads

13.5.2 RoleofInspectionEngineersandtheTrafficAuthorities
OneoftheresponsibilitiesoftheBridgeInspectionEngineeristoassisttheTrafficAuthoritiesinthe
evaluationofoverheightandoverwidthpermitroutesbasedonexperience.Thecurrentelectronic
BridgeInventoryFilesareexpectedtobeaccurate;however,shouldthevaluesforclearancesinthe
BridgeInventoryFilesappearsuspect,theactualplansshouldbereviewedand/orafieldvisitmade
priortoissuingapermit.TheTrafficAuthoritiesissuesthepermitonlyafterreviewbytheRBD.
AsupplementaryroleoftheBridgeInspectionEngineeristonotifytheTrafficAuthoritiesofanychanges
tobridgeloadpostings,particularlyforbridgeswhichhaveneverbeenpreviouslyposted.TheTraffic
Authoritiesshallmaintainamastersetofmapsshowingthevariouswidth,height,andloadrestrictions
onallhighways.
AllpermitsareissuedbytheTrafficAuthoritieswiththecooperationoftheRBD.Foroverweight
permits,theTrafficAuthoritiesalsoworkscloselywiththeRBD.Anysuperheavypermitsmustalsobe
coordinatedtheRBDforstructuralevaluationofthebridgesonaproposedroute.Thisprocessisfully
explainedbelow.
TheTrafficAuthorities,inconjunctionwiththeownermover,selectsapreliminaryroutebasedon
knowninformationintheBridgeInventoryFiles,daytodayconstructionstatus,roadclosures,and
otherknownrouterestrictions.
13.5.3 Permits
OverheightandOverwidthPermits
Manypermitsforoverheightoroverwidthloads.Theroutingoftheseloadsusuallydependsondata
containedintheelectronicBridgeInventoryFile.Thesetypesofloadsdonotnormallyrequirea
structuralevaluationoftheaffectedbridgeunlesstheweightandaxleloaddistributionissuchthe
overweightpermitmayalsoberequired.
TheelectronicBridgeInventoryfilegivesthevaluesfroavailableclearancesasItems51(Roadway
Width),52(DeckWidth),53(VerticalClearanceOverRoadway),54.2(VerticalClearanceUnderBridge),
55(LateralUnderclearanceonRight),and56(LateralUnderclearanceonLeft).Theseitemstaken
togetherusuallygivesufficientinformationtodefinethelimitsforthepassageofoverheightandover
widthvehicles.
TheBridgeInspectorcanquicklyaccesstheelectronicBridgeInventoryfiletodetermineiftheproposed
routeiscapableofhandlingtheproposedoverwidthoroverheightload.Trussbridgesareparticularly
ofconcernforboththesetypesofloadssincemanyareinthe5.5M6.5Mwidthrange,andvertical
clearancetotheportalsisoftenlessthannormalcurrentdesignclearances.
TheelectronicBridgeInventoryfilegivesverticalclearancestotheleastmillimetersofclearanceover
theroadway,includingshouldersroundeddowntothenearestmillimeter.Thepostedclearancesigns
arenormally76.3mmlessthanthisvalue.TheclearancesymbolsmaintainedontheTrafficAuthorities
permitmapsareroundeddowntothenext150mmbelowthepostedclearance.Forinstance,ifthe
actualrecordedclearanceis4320mm,theclearancesignis4240mm,andthepermitmapsshowthe

maximumavailableclearanceas4110mm.Occasionaloverheightloadscanthereforebepermittedfor
heightsslightlyoverthelimitsgivenintheTrafficAuthoritypermitmapsprovidedthereisclose
coordinationbetweentheRBDandtheownermoverwithpremovespecificmeasurementstaken.
Normally,overwidthpermitsaregrantedsimplyonthebasisofavailableRoadwayWidth(theclear
distancebetweencurbsorrailings).Iftheoverwidthloadisconfiguredsuchthattheloadwill
adequatelyclearbridgerailings,thenmovesmaybegrantedforloadssignificantlywiderthantheDeck
Widthwiththecarefulcooperationofallconcernedpartiesincludingescortvehiclesandtrafficcontrol.
Damageandorremovalofsignsanddelineatorsmayoccurforsomeoverwidthpermits.RBDpersonnel
shouldensurethatallsuchtemporarychangesbecorrectedimmediatelyafterthepermitloadhas
passed.
OverweightPermitLoads
MisconceptionsoftenariseabouttherelationshipbetweenOperatingRatingsandOverweightPermit
Loads.TheprimarydifferenceisthatOverweightPermitLoadanalysisusuallyassumesonlyoneloadon
thebridge,whichthereforeallowstheuseofsinglelaneloaddistribution.TheOperatingRatingis
basedonthestandardAASHTOloaddistributiongiveninthecurrentStandardSpecificationsfor
HighwayBridgesformultilanedistributionforbridgesover5.50Minwidth.Thisdistributionimplies
twoormoreoftheOperatingRatingtrucksbeingonthebridgesidebysideatthesametime.
TheothermajordifferenceisthatOperatingRatingsandOverweightPermitLoadsusedifferentload
multipliers,resultinginpermitloadanalysisbeingsignificantlymoreliberalthanOperatingRating
analysis.ThecurrentOperatingandInventoryRatings,theageandtypeofstructure,thespanlengths,
andtheConditionRatingsarereviewedforanystructureproposedonapermitroute.AnyCondition
Ratingof4orlessactsasaflagtothepermitroutereviewerwhowillthenrequestmoredetailed
informationonthestructure,includingthewritteninspectioncomments.Reducedstrengthinaportion
ofabridgecanoftenbeavoidedbycontrollingtheloadpathoftheOverweightPermitLoadacrossthe
bridge.
SuperheavyLoads
OverweightPermitLoadsareclassifiedasroutineorsuperheavy.RoutineOverweightPermitLoads
maybeallowedintheregulartrafficstream,sometimeswithescortsiftheloadisalsooverlengthor
overwidth.Therefore,thestandardAASHTOloaddistributionsareappropriatesincetheremaybea
legaltruckalongsidetheroutinepermittruckcrossingabridgeatthesametime.
ThetermSuperheavyPermitLoadusuallydesignatestotalloadsover115.6Tgrosstorepresentthe
lowerrangeofatypicalsuperheavyloadandconsistsofa6.5Tsteeringaxlefollowedbyfourgroupsof
threeaxles,eachtotaling27.3T.Anyconfigurationwithmultipleaxleswithagrossloadofover115.6T
isconsideredasuperheavyloadandrequiresstructuralevaluationofindividualbridges.Loadswith
individualaxlesoraxlegroupweightsthatexceedthemaximumpermitweightsarealsoconsideredto
besuperheavy.Anyloadexceeding91.0Twithatotaloveralllengthoflessthan29.0Misalso
consideredsuperheavy.
TheSuperheavyPermitoftenrequiresthattheloadcrossallbridgesstraddlingalanelineinthecaseof
fourormorelanesonatwowaybridge,orstraddlingthecenterlineforatwolanebridge.This

procedureensuresthatotherlegaltruckswillnotbealongsidethesuperheavyloadandalsogives
betterloaddistribution.TheAASHTOloaddistributionsusedforsuperheavyloadsarethereforeusually
singlelane,thusallowinghigherSuperheavyPermitgrossloadstosafelycrossthebridge.
AprintoutoftheproposedlistofbridgestobecrossedisreviewedbytheTrafficAuthoritiesandthe
RBD.Often,basedonexperienceoftheevaluatorandotherguidelines,itisnecessarytostructurally
evaluateonlyafractionofthebridgesonanextensiveproposedsuperheavyroute.Anybridgesonthe
routewhichhaveDeckConditionRatingorSuperstructureorSubstructureComponentRatingsof4or
lesstriggertheneedforreviewoftheactualwrittenBridgeInspectionRecord.Thisbridgebybridge
evaluationisoneoftheprimaryreasonsthatthedataintheelectronicBridgeInventoryFilesmustbe
accurateanduptodate.
SuperheavyPermitLoadsareusuallyspeedcontrolledonbridges,sometimesasslowasawalkspeed
tominimizeimpactforces.
ManySuperheavyPermitLoadsalsohavegreaterthantheusual1.83Maxlegage.Thegagesfor
SuperheavyPermitscancommonlybeasmuchas6.10Mwith16tiresoneachaxleline.Methodsof
loaddistributionforthesespecialcarrierscannotdirectlyusethecustomaryAASHTOdistributions,
whicharebasedon1.83Maxlegageswithfourtiresonanaxleline.
OtherDifferencesBetweenOverweightPermitsandOperatingRating
ThereareothermajordifferencebetweenOperatingRatingsandOverweightPermitLoads.
TheOperatingRatingisusuallybasedonLoadFactor(LF)criteria,whichusemultipliersof1.3appliedto
boththedeadandliveloads.Theliveloadhasanadditionalallowanceofupto30percentforimpact.
NotethatInventoryRatingusesasignificantlyhigherliveloadmultiplierof2.17.Theresultforeither
OperatingRatingorInventoryRatingiscomparedtotheyieldorultimatestrengthcapacityofthe
members.Aphistrengthreductionfactor(usuallyfrom1.0to0.85)isalsoappliedforconcrete
members.
OverweightPermitLoadanalysisusuallyassumesafactorof1.0appliedtoboththedeadandliveloads.
Tento30percentisaddedtotheliveloadforimpact,dependingonthespeedcontrolandtypeofload
suspensionsystem.Stressesarecomparedtoanallowablemaximumof75percentoftheyieldcapacity
ofsteelmembersor75percentoftheultimatecapacityforconcretemembers.Thereciprocalof75
percentis1.33;thusitcanbeseenthatOverweightPermitLoadanalysiswithASmethodshas
essentiallythesamefactorofsafetyasananalysisusingLFcriteria.Thisresultwillbedemonstrated
belowbyaspecificexamplecomparison.
OverloadsonPostedorSubstandardBridges
OccasionallyarequestismadeforaRoutineOverweightPermitoraSuperheavyOverweightPermitto
crossaloadpostedbridge.TrafficAuthoritiesdoesnotallowoverweightpermitsforpostedbridges.
HoweverRBDcanallowoverweightvehiclestocrossloadpostedbridgesonlywhenthereisnoother
route.Forthesecases,RBDqualifiedContractorsperformstructuralevaluationofthebridge(s)inclose
coordinationwiththemoveroftheload.Theevaluationsmayconsidertheuseofshimmedmats,

temporaryshoring,orspecializedmovingequipmentthatallowsredistributionoftheloadbetweenaxle
groupsastheloadcrosses.
CertainotherbridgesthatarenotloadpostedmaynotbecapableofcarryingRoutineOverweight
PermitLoadsorSuperheavyPermitLoads.Bridgesthatareinthiscategoryinclude,butarenotlimited
to,continuousflatslabswithoriginalH15designs.Thesebridgeshaveshortspansandweredesigned
withthesingleHloadpatterntruckplacedalongthespanformaximumdesignconditions.Manyof
thesebridgeswhenratedwiththenowrequiredHSloadpattern,andevenusingLFanalysis,willrateat
significantlylesscapacitythanothertypesofbridgesdesignedwithHloadpatterns.Thesebridges,
thoughnotcurrentlyloadposted,mustbecarefullyevaluatedwhenoverloadpermitsareconsidered.
ThisistheprimaryreasonthattheoriginaldesignloadsgivenintheelectronicBridgeInventoryFiles
shouldbeenteredcorrectly.Oftenthesebridgeshavebeenwidened,andthewideningdesignloadhas
beenincorrectlyenteredastheoriginaldesignload.
PreandPostMoveInspection
AnotheroccasionalresponsibilityoftheBridgeInspectionSupervisor/Engineeristoinspectbridges
beforeandafterthepassageofaparticularoverweightpermitload.Arepresentativeoftheowner
movershouldbepresentatthesetypesofinspections.Castinplaceshortspanslabbridges,
particularlythosewhichhavebeenwidenedfromanoriginalH10designtoanH15orH20design,are
susceptibletocrackingbyoverloads.
Unusualbridges,suchasarchspans,segmentallyconstructedposttensionedspans,orlongspanplate
girderbridges,mayalsoneedspecialattentionbefore,during,andafterthemoveofanoverweight
permitload.Ithasbeenfoundthatsimpleattentiontothesoundsmadebyabridgewhentheload
passeswillcallattentiontopossiblebrokendiaphragmconnectionsorlateralwindbracingconnections
thatactuallyactastorsionalbracingforcurvedand/orheavilyskewedstructures.
13.5.4 ExampleofInventory,Operating,andPermitLoads
TypicalContinuousIBeamBridge
Tofurtherdemonstratethedifferencesbetweenthevarioustypesofanalyses,atypicalstandardbridge
ischosenforcomparativeanalysis.ThisbridgeisathreespancontinuousIBeambridgeoriginally
designedinthe1950sand1960s.TheseBridgeswerecommonlydesignedtoH15loads(13.6Tons).
Thisbridgehasa7.90M.roadwaybetweenfacesofrailingsandiscomposedoffour762mmdeep
wideflangerolledbeamswithrelativelyshortcoverplatesattheinteriorsupports.Thebeamsare
spacedat2240mm,andtheslabis1650mm.Anelevationandcrosssectionofthebridgeareshownin
Figure61.Thedesignisnoncomposite,meaningthattheslabisassumedtosliplongitudinallyalong
thetopflangeswhenloaded.Thebeamsare36W135continuouswith254mm.x15.875mmx4268
mmcoverplatestopandbottomatsupports

Figure61:TypicalIBeamBridgeElevationandCrossSection
RatingAnalysisSteps
Thestepsusedinthetypicalratinganalysisforthestructurearedescribesbelow.
CalculateDeadLoad.Usingthetotalsteelweightgivenintheplans,subtractcalculatedweightof
beamsincludingcoverplatesandcheckthatremainderisabout5percentofbeamweight.Thisresult
representsthediaphragms,connections,andothermiscellaneoussteel.Ifthisnumberisnotabout5
percent,determinethediscrepancy.Sometimesthetotalweightintheplansisinerror,butthischeck
usuallygivestherateraverificationfortheestimateddeadload.Usethetotalsteelweight,which
includesthediaphragms,asauniformloadperLF,distributedequallytooneoftheinteriorbeams.Use

thetotalslabquantitygivenintheplanscalculatedasauniformloadperLFalsodistributedequallyto
aninteriorbeam.Verifybycomparisontothedeadloadofslabforatypicalinteriorbeamusingtheslab
thickness.Addindeadloadforanyoverlayandrailings.
ComputeDeadLoadMoments.Deadloadmomentsneedonlybecalculatedatcriticallocationssuchas
themaximumpositivemomentsforeachspanandthenegativemomentsattheinteriorsupports.The
analysisshouldusetheactualspanlengthscentertocenterofbearing,andnotthenominalspan
lengths.Itispreferabletouseacomputerprogram,buthandanalysisfromcontinuousbeam
coefficientsisalsoacceptable.Thenormalsizesofcoverplatesoversupportswilldrawuptoabout6
to12percentmorenegativemoment,andwillreducepositivemomentswhencomparedtoaconstant
crosssectionanalysis,whichisassumedwhenusingcontinuousbeamcoefficientsorothersimilartables
orcharts.Almostallcontinuousbeamdesignsusedinfluencecoefficientsforaconstantcrosssection.
DetermineControllingLiveLoadingConditions.Somecomputerprogramsdothisdetermination
automatically,butthereisriskinusingtheseprogramsunlesstheuserisfamiliarwiththeirlimitations
andassumptions.OnepopularprogramisBMCOL51,whichisacontinuousbeamanalysisprogram.It
allowsanypatternofliveloadtobemovedinincrementsalongthebeam,whichcanhavecoverplates
andanyareasofcompositesectionifnecessary.Thusitisparticularlysuitedtotheanalysisofsuper
heavyloads.Itcanalsoidentifythelocationswheretheconcentratedload(s)forlaneloadsmustalso
beplaced.Mostcontinuousbeamswillhavethefollowingliveloadmaximummoments:
MaxpositivemomentinendandcenterspanswillusuallybefromanHS20liveloadwith4.20
Mcentertocenteroftraileraxles.However,forverylongplategirders,thelaneloadingcriteria
maysometimescontrolpositivemoment.
MaxnegativemomentwillalsousuallybefromtheHSpattern,perhapswithmorethan4.20M
betweenthetraileraxlesiftotallengthoffirstplussecondspansislessthanabout21.30M.If
thesumofthefirsttwospansismorethanabout22.90Mor24.40M,thenthenegative
momentwillbefromlaneloadingofthetwoadjacentspanswiththeconcentratedloads
appliedatthecriticalpositionsinthetwospans.
CalculatetheMomentsandLoadRatings.Applytheappropriateloadfactorsforthevariousratingsto
boththedeadandliveloadmomentsateachmemberlocationbeinginvestigated.Subtractthedead
loadeffectfromthemembercapacityatyield(ifloadfactoranalysis)orfromthemembercapacityat
allowablestress(ifallowablestressanalysis).Theremainderistheliveloadcapacity.Ratiothe
remaindertothecalculatedliveloadvalueatthelocationandmultiplybytheliveloadtondesignation.
Theresultisthememberratingatthatlocation.Itisbesttounderstandthisbasicprocessratherthan
useasetformulaforcalculatingtheloadrating.
TabulatetheMaximums.Identifythelocationsforwhichstressesandratingsaretobecalculated.
Oftenthemaximumpositivemomentsumofdeadplusliveeffectswillnotbeatthepointofmaximum
deadloadorliveloadmoment.Thisconditionisanotherreasontouseacomputeranalysissuchas
BMCOL51.
Thisprogramallowsthecombinationofdeadandliveloadstobeinvestigatedatallpointsalongthe
continuousmemberwithproperconsiderationoftheeffectsofcoverplatesandcompositeregions,if

any.Themaximummomentsintheendspansmaynotbethesame,eventhoughtheyhavethesame
spanlength,duetotheunsymmetricalliveloadpattern.Fortheresultsdiscussedintheremainderof
thissection,ProgramBMCOL51wasusedwith21.0025.1421.00Mspans.
ResultsforIBeamBridge
AnHpatternwasusedforcomparison(normallynotnecessary)withnorailingandnooverlayasan
additionalcheckontheoriginaldesignusingallowablestresses.Thisdesignpredatedthe1965design
shownonthestandardplansandobviouslywasdoneusinganallowablestressof124MPa.In1965
manystandarddetailswerechangedtospecifyH.Y.C.structuralsteelwhichisequivalenttoASTMA
36.However,thedesignloadwaskeptthesame,andnochangewasmadeinthesizeofthecover
plates.AnHSloading,usingtheallowablestressorloadfactormethods,andInventoryRatingor
OperatingRatingmethodswasalsomadeforcomparison.Thevariousanalysesaresummarizedinthe
followingtable:
Table6.1ComparisonofAnalysesforExampleBridge
Loadi ng Anal ysi sMethod 1stor3rdSpan Support Mi ddl eSpan
H(1)N ASI R H20.08 H14.24* H18.94
H(2)N ASI R H23.46 H17.59* H22.28
HS(3)N ASI R HS15.78 HS17.60 HS14.84*
HS(4)Y ASI R HS12.65 HS10.40* HS11.48
HS(5)Y LFI R HS15.84 HS17.80 HS14.97*
HS(6)Y LFOR HS26.40 HS29.67 HS24.96
N=Li ghtRai l i ngandnooverl ayY=T501Rrai l i ngand2i noverl ay
AS=Al l owabl eStressLF=LoadFactor,
OR=Operati ngRati ngI R=I nventoryRati ng
*=Control l i ngRati ng

DiscussionoftheAnalysisComparisons
ThevariousanalysessummarizedinTable6.1arediscussedinthesequenceoftheloadingnumber.
CurrentbridgeratinganalysisusuallyrequiresonlyloadingsHS(5)andHS(6).However,iftheresulting
ratingissignificantlydifferentthanthedesignload,thensolutionssimilartoloadingsH(1)orH(2)may
benecessarytodeterminethereasonsforthedifference.
H(1)Usedtoverifyanalysiswithanassumedallowablestressof124.02MPawhichisappropriatefor
A7steel.Alsoassumedtohavenooverlayandlightrailings.Notethatthecontrollingratingof
H14.24isclosetoH15.Therewouldbeanoverstressof2.5percentifexactlyH15loadingwas
used.Designinguptoa5percentoverstresswasverycommonforthesestructures.
H(2) Thiscomparisonanalysiswasmadewithanallowablestressof137.80MPa,whichis
appropriateforA36steel.TheremainderofthefollowingcomparisonsarealsowithA36steel.
HS(3)ThiscomparisoniswithanHStruck.NotethatthecontrollingHS14.84ratingimpliesatotal
Individualratingtruckloadof26.7T,whichcompareswiththeH17.6ratingtruckof17.6T.

HS(4)Thisanalysisdemonstratestheeffectofusingtheactualcurrentinplacemodernrailing,a
T501Rretrofitrailinginthiscase,anda50mmoverlay.Thisamountofoverlayisverycommon
forstructuresofthisage.Notethatthecontrollingratingshiftsfromtheendspantothe
supportduetotheaddedinfluenceofthegreateruniformdeadload.Thereductioninthe
ratingis30percentsimplyduetotheaddeddeadload.
HS(5)ThisanalysisdemonstratesthecurrentIRforthebridgeusingLFanalysismethods.TheHS14.97
ratingimpliesasingleinventoryratingtruckloadtotaling27Tortwotruckssidebyside
totaling54T.
HS(6)ThisanalysisdemonstratesthecurrentORforthebridgeusingLFanalysismethods.TheHS24.96
ratingimpliesasingleoperatingratingtruckloadtotaling45Tortwotruckssidebysidetotaling
90T.
NotethattheORofsolutionHS(6)isequalto5/3xtheIRofsolutionHS(5)whichdirectlyreflectsthe
differenceintheliveloadratingfactors.
13.6 BridgeProgramming
13.6.1 BasisforBridgeRehabilitationorReplacement
AbridgeisconsideredtobeStructurallyDeficientifitisnotabletocarrythetruckloadsexpectedofthe
bridge.Thehighwayorroadsystemonwhichthebridgeislocatedaffectstheexpectedtruckloading.
Forinstance,abridgeontheInterstatehighwaysystemmustbeconsideredabletohaveanInventory
RatingofatleastHS20,whileabridgeonanoffsystemcountyroadwouldbeconsideredadequateto
carryitsnecessarytruckloadsiftheInventoryRatingwasHS15.
AbridgeisconsideredtobeFunctionallyObsoleteifthedeckwidth,verticalclearance,waterway
adequacy,orapproachroadwayalignmentarenotadequateforthetraffictype,trafficvolume,or
expectedfloodwaters.
13.6.2 BridgeProgram
QualificationforRehabilitationorReplacement
HIBprojectsareselectedusingaprioritizationprocessthatcalculatesascoreforeachcandidatebridge
project.ThescoreconsidersAverageDailyTraffic(ADT),costpervehicle,bridgecondition,roadway
width,andthebridgeSufficiencyRating.ThescoringprocessisreferredtoastheEligibleBridge
SelectionSystem(EBSS).TheselectionofbridgesismadeyearlyintheorderofdescendingTEBSSscores
fortheonandoffsystemeligiblebridges.However,bridgeswithoneormorecriticaldeficienciesmay
alsobeselected,regardlessofEBSSscore.Suchcriticaldeficienciesaredefinedasextremelylow
ConditionRatings,SufficiencyRatings,orloadcapacities.Forinstance,bridgeswhichareclosed,orthat
haveaDeckConditionplusSuperstructureConditionRatingof10orless,automaticallyqualify.Bridges
thathaveSufficiencyRatingslessthan30alsoautomaticallyqualify.

EligibleBridgeSelectionSystem(EBSS)
TheSufficiencyRating,establishedduringthebiennialbridgeinspections,playsanimportantrolein
selectingwhichofthebridgesareeligibleforrehabilitationorreplacement.Inorderforabridgetobe
consideredeligible,itmusthaveaSufficiencyRatingof80orlessandbeeitherStructurallyDeficientor
FunctionallyObsolete.Thesethreetermsaredefinedinfollowingsubsectionswiththesametitles.
IftheSufficiencyRatingisbelow50,thebridgeiseligibleforreplacementorrehabilitationifthe
anticipatedreplacementcostsaregreaterthan120percentoftherehabilitationcosts.Rehabilitation
maybeconsiderediftheSufficiencyRatingisbetween50and80.Bridgescannotbeconsideredeligible
iftheirSufficiencyRatingisgreaterthan80.
StructuralDeficiency
AbridgeisconsideredStructurallyDeficientifthereisaConditionRatingof4orlessfor:
Item58(Roadway)or
Item59(Superstructure)or
Item60(Substructure)
orifthereisanAppraisalRatingof2orlessfor:
Item67(StructuralCondition)or
Item71(WaterwayAdequacy)
Item71isconsideredonlyifthelastdigitofItem42(TypeofServiceUndertheBridge)is0,5,6,
7,8,or9
FunctionalObsolescence
ThreemethodsestablishifabridgeisFunctionallyObsolete:
AnAppraisalRatingof3orlessforItem68(RoadwayGeometry),andItem51(BridgeRoadwayWidth)is
lessthanthefollowing:
5000
I tem51(RoadwayWi dth)
CurbtoCurb(feet)
I tem29(ADT)
equal tol essthan
250
750
2700
20
22
24
30

ADTgreaterthan35,000requiresreviewbyHIBBridgeDivision

AnAppraisalRatingof3orlessforeitherof:
Item69(underclearances)or
Item72(ApproachRoadwayAlignment)
Item69isconsideredonlyifthelastdigitofItem42(TypeofServiceUndertheBridge)is0,1,2,4,6,7,
&8
AnAppraisalRatingof3orlessforeitherof:
Item67(StructuralCondition)or
Item71(WaterwayAdequacy)
13.6.3 SufficiencyRatings
CalculationofSufficiencyRatings
TheSufficiencyRatingofabridgeisdeterminedduringthebiennialbridgeinspectionandisintendedto
indicateameasureoftheabilityofabridgetoremaininservice.CalculationsforSufficiencyRatings
utilizeaformulathatincludesvariousfactorsdeterminedduringthebridgefieldinspectionand
evaluation.Theitemsconsideredbelowarethosedescribedintheinstructionsforcodingguide.
Ratingsareonascaleof1to100,with100consideredasanentirelysufficientbridge,usuallynew;an
entirelydeficientbridgewouldreceivearatingof0.Onlybridgesthatcarryvehiculartrafficreceivea
SufficiencyRating.
AninteractiveprogramcanbeusedtocalculateSufficiencyRatingsanddetermineStructural
DeficiencyandFunctionalObsolescence.OneofthoseprogramsiscalledBRISUFanditcalculatesthe
SufficiencyRatingbasedondataenteredthroughaninteractivepromptprocess
WhetherusingthepromptedprogramBRISUForhandcalculations,theSufficiencyRating(SR)is
calculatedbytheequation:
SR=S1+S2+S3S4
Adiscussionofhowtoarriveateachvariableimmediatelyfollows.
S1istheStructuralAdequacyandSafety(55maximum,0minimum)calculatedbytheequation:
S1=55(A+I)
AistheReductionforDeterioration(nottoexceed55orbelessthan0)basedonthelowestvalueof
Item59(SuperstructureRating)orlowestvalueofItem60(SubstructureRating):
if2thenA=55

if=3thenA=40
if=4thenA=25
if=5thenA=10
if6thenA=0
if=NthenA=0
IistheReductionforLoadCapacity(nottoexceed55orbelessthan0)calculatedbythefollowing
equationandtable:I=0.2778(36AIT)
AITistheAdjustedInventoryTonnage,calculatedbythefollowingtableofmultipliersbasedonItem66
(InventoryRating):
1stdi gi tof AI T=2nd&3rddi gi ts
I tem66i s ofI tem66
mul ti pl i edby..
1 1.56
2 1.00
3 1.56
4 1.00
5 1.21
6 1.21
9 1.00

S2istheServiceabilityandFunctionalObsolescence(30maximum,0minimum)calculatedbythe
equation:
S2=30[J+(G+H)+I]
JisaRatingReduction(nottoexceed15)calculatedbythefollowingequationandtables:
J=A+B+C+D+E+F
IfItem58IfItem67

(DeckCondition) (StructuralEvaluation)
3A=5 3B=4

=4A=3 =4B=2
=5A=1 =5B=1
6A=0 6B=0
=NA=0 =NB=0
IfItem68IfItem69

(DeckGeometry) (Underclearances)
3C=4 3D=4
=4C=2 =4D=2
=5C=1 =5D=1
6C=0 6D=0
=NC=0 =ND=0
IfItem71 IfItem72
(WaterwayAdequacy) (ApproachRoadwayAlignment)
3E=4 3F=4
=4E=2 =4F=2
=5E=1 =5F=1
6E=0 6F=0
=NE=0 =NF=0
(G+H)isaWidthofRoadwayInsufficiency(nottoexceed15)calculatedbythefollowingrelationships.
ThevaluesforXandYarefirstfoundbythefollowingtwoequations:X(ADT/Lane)=Item29(ADT)
FirsttwodigitsofItem28(Lanes)Y(Width/Lane)=Item51(RoadwayWidth)FirsttwodigitsofItem
28(Lanes)
Usefollowingthreeconditionsof(1),(2),or(3)tothenobtainthevaluesforGandH:
1. Forallbridgesexceptculverts:(Item43.4,CulvertType,mustbeblankor0)
IfItem51(RoadwayWidth)+2feetislessthanItem32(ApproachRoadwayWidth),setG=5
IfItem51(RoadwayWidth)+2feetisgreaterthanorequaltoItem32(ApproachRoadway
Width),setG=0
2. Foronelanebridges(includingonelaneculverts):
IfthefirsttwodigitsofItem28(Lanes)=01,andY<14setH=15
14Y<18setH=3.75(18Y)
Y18setH=0
3. Forbridgeswithtwoormorelanes(includingculverts):
If1sttwodigitsofItem28=02andY16,setH=0
Ifanyoneoftheabovefourconditionsismet,donotcontinuewithfurtherdeterminationofH
sincenolanewidthreductionsarenecessary.
Otherwise,determineHbasedonthefollowingvaluesforX(ADT/Lane)andY(Width/Lane):

If and set
X50 Y<9 H=7.5
Y9 H=0
50<X125 Y<10 H=15

10Y<13 H=5.0(13Y)
Y13 H=0
125<X375 Y<11 H=15

11Y<14 H=5.0(14Y)
Y14 H=0
375<X1350 Y<12 H=15

12Y<16 H=3.75(16Y)
Y16 H=0
X>1350 Y<15 H=15

15Y<16 H=15.0(16Y)
Y16 H=0
Notethatinanycase,thevalueof(G+H)cannotexceed15.
IisaVerticalClearanceInsufficiency(nottoexceed2)setbythefollowing:
IfItem100(StrategicHighwayCorridorNetwork,alsocalledSTRAHNET)isgreaterthan0andItem53
(MinVertClearanceoverdeck)1600setI=0Item53(MinVertClearanceoverdeck)<1600setI=2
IfItem100(STRAHNET)isequalto0andItem53(MinVertClearanceoverdeck)1400setI=0Item53
(MinVertClearanceoverdeck)<1400setI=2
S3istheEssentialityforPublicUse(nottoexceed15)calculatedbytheequation:
S3=15(P+M)
PistheportionforPublicUse(nottoexceed15)FirstcalculateKwhichisavaluebasedonthe
previouslycalculatedS1andS2:K=(S1+S2)85P=(Item29(ADT)Item19(DetourLength)15)
(200,000K)
MistheportionforMilitaryUse(nottoexceed2)IfItem100(StrategicHighwayCorridorNetwork,also
calledSTRAHNET)isgreaterthan0,setM=2IfItem100(STRAHNET)isequalto0,setM=0
Notethatinanycase,thevalueof(P+M)cannotexceed15.
S4isaSpecialReductionwhichisusedonlywhenS1+S2+S3isgreaterthanorequalto50.
S4iscalculatedbythefollowingequation:S4=R+S+T

RisaDetourLengthReduction(5maximum,0minimum)R=[Item19(DetourLength)]4x
[5.205X108]
SisaStructureTypeReductionsetbythefollowing:Ifthe1stdigitofItem43.1(MainSpanType)
is7or8(Movable,Suspension,orStayed),orifthe2nddigitofItem43.1is2,3,4,5,6,or7
(portionofstructureisbesideoraboveroadway),setS=5Otherwise,setS=0
TisaTrafficSafetyFeatureReductionsetbyItem36(TrafficSafetyFeatures)whichratesthe
adequacyofthebridgerailings,transitions,andapproachguardfences:
If1ornoneofthe4digitsofItem36are0,setT=0
If2ofthe4digitsofItem36are0,setT=1
If3orthe4digitsofItem36are0,setT=2
Ifall4ofthedigitsofItem36are0,setT=3
13.7 BridgeRecords
13.7.1 Overview
Summary
ThispresentsthespecificrequirementsforinspectionrecordsforLibyanbridges.Recordsmustbe
preparedandkeptinaconsistentmanner,whetherdonebyRBDpersonnelorbyContractors.
Thischapterincludesdiscussionofthefollowingmajortopics:
DefinitionofTerms
ContractorsRequirements
CodingGuidelines
Forms
Calculations
DataSubmittal
BridgeFolder

13.7.2 DefinitionofTerms
BridgeRecordTerms
ApartiallistofdefinitionsrelatedtobridgeinspectionisprovidedinvariouschaptersofthisManual.
ThefollowingdiscussionofBridgeRecordsincludessomespecificterms:
Bridge.
Astructure,includingsupports,erectedoveradepressionoranobstruction,suchaswater,ahighway,
orarailway;havingaroadwayortrackforcarryingtrafficorothermovingloads;andhavinganopening
measuredalongthecenteroftheroadwayofmorethan6Mbetweenfacesofabutments,springlinesof
arches,orextremeendsoftheopeningsformultipleboxculvertsormultiplepipesthatare1.50Mor
moreindiameterandthathaveacleardistancebetweenopeningsoflessthanhalfofthesmallestpipe
diameter.
BridgeFolder.
ThefileforeachbridgemaintainedbytheDistrictBridgeInspectionCoordinator.TheBridgeFolderhas
dividersonwhichthevariousbridgerecorddocumentscanbefastenedinaspecificorder.
BridgeIdentification.
Theunique12digitnumberassignedtoanystructuremeetingthedefinitionofabridge.Thenumber
includesthe3digitShabiyaNumber,the4digitControlNumber,the2digitSectionNumber,andthe3
digitPermanentStructureNumber.ThePlanningDepartmentassignstheroadandcitystreetindex
numbers,whichbeginwithaletterinsteadofnumber.Thisoffsystemindexnumberusesthesame6
digitsassignedtoControlandSectionforonsystemhighways.ThePermanentStructureNumberforoff
systembridgesisassignedbythedistrict.
BridgeInventoryFile.
ThisconsistsofelectronicdataofRBDsbridgeinventory,inspection,andappraisalfilesforeachbridge
onapublicroadwayinLibya.Thedatacanbeenteredfromacompletedcodingformorcanbeare
entereddirectlyfromaninputscreenofanyappropriatedataentrydevice.Theinstructionsforcoding
guidedescribethestepbystepdataentryrequirements.
BridgeRecord.
TheoverallcollectionofdataincludingtheBridgeFolderwithcompletedforms,printoutofcoded
electronicdata,sketches,crosssections,photos,etc.ItalsoincludestheBridgeInventoryFilestoredon
electronicmedia.TheBridgeRecordalsoincludesthebridgeplans,ifavailable,copiesofwhichshould
beintheBridgeFolder.Someofthebridgeplansmayalsobeavailableonelectronicmediaintheform
ofcomputeraideddrafting(CAD)drawings.

Culverts.
Multiplebarrelboxculvertsormultiplepipeculvertsaresometimesclassedasbridgesandacomplete
BridgeRecordismade.The1994AASHTOManualdefinesabridgeasanystructurecarryingtraffic
(highwayorrailroad)havinganopeningmeasuredalongthecenterlineoftheroadwayofmorethan6.0
Mbetweenthelimitsoftheextremeopeningsofabutments,arches,ormultipleboxes.Thisdefinition
hascreatedtheanomalyinsomecaseswhere,forinstance,three1.80Mmultipleboxculvertsinstalled
atmorethanabouta15degreeskewtotheroadwaymusthaveaBridgeRecord.Ifthesamethreebox
culvertsareinstalledperpendiculartotheroadway,theyhavenoBridgeRecord.TheAASHTOdefinition
continuesformultiplepipeculvertsbystatingthattheymaybeclassedasbridgesprovidedthedistance
betweenindividualpipes(thefill)islessthanhalftheadjacentpipediameter.Tofacilitateconsistency
infuturerecordingofculvertinstallations,aseparatesubsectiontitledMultiplePipeCulvertsis
containedinthischapter.
ElementsData.
Thesupplementalelectronicbridgeinventory,inspection,andappraisaldatatakenforRBD,thedataare
enteredonforms,butentryfromapromptscreenofanappropriatedataentrydevicecanalsobeused.
TheElements:FieldInspectionandCodingManualdescribesthestepbystepdataentryrequirements.
Engineer.
TheProfessionalEngineerhavingresponsibilityforensuringtheaccuracyoftheinformationcontained
intheBridgeRecord.AprequalifiedContractorthathasaConsultingEngineeronboardengagedby
HIBtoperformroutinebridgeinspectionsisalsoconsideredinthefollowingdiscussionstobecovered
bythetermEngineer.ThesamebasicproceduresareusedbyRBDpersonnelasarerequiredfor
Contractors.
Forms.
SpecificformssuchasBridgeInspectionRecordForm,BridgeAppraisalWorksheetForm,Bridge
InventoryRecordForm.Someformsmaybedevelopedasneededforspecifictypesofdataorclassesof
structure.
NBISheet.
AprintedcopywithabbreviatednamesofthenumericaldataintheelectronicBridgeInspectionFile.
NBIstandsforNationalBridgeInventory,whichmustincludealltheinformationrequiredbyHIB.
PermanentStructureNumber(PSN).
Auniquethreedigitnumberassignedtoanystructuremeetingthedefinitionofabridge.Itispartof
the12digitBridgeIdentification.PSNsareassignedbyControlinascendingorderasthebridgesare
builtandarenotnecessarilyinsequencealongtheControlorSection.Anonsystembridgereplacedby
anewbridgeatthesamelocationwillhaveanewnumberassigned.Awidenedorreconstructedbridge
willretainthesamenumber.Shabiyasassignsimilaruniquenumberstooffsystembridges.Anoff

systembridgereplacedbyanewbridgewillretainthesamePSN.Abridgewithalongitudinalopenjoint
inthemiddlewillhavetwoPSNs,evenifthesubstructureiscommon.
RouteOverorUnder.
Abridgeatintersectinghighwaysisdefinedasanunderpassoroverpassbasedontheinventory
hierarchyofthetworoutes.Thisdescriptionisusedwhererequiredonallforms,plans,etc.Thelower
routetakesprecedenceifthehighwaysareofequalhierarchy.
SigningandSealing.
TheEngineermustsignanddatemanyofthedocumentspreparedforabridgeinspection.
WorkAuthorization.
AuthorizationissuedbyHIBtoaContractor(Engineer)toperforminspectionsofbridgestructures.The
WorkAuthorizationisnormallyissuedforaspecificperiodoftimewithacommencementandending
datespecified.ToreceiveWorkAuthorizations,Contractorsmustprequalifybydemonstratingthat
theyandtheirstaffsarecompetenttoinspectbridges.
13.7.3 ContractorRequirements
GeneralRequirements
Contractor(Engineers)engagedbyRBDtoperformroutinebridgeinspectionsmustadheretothe
followinggeneralrequirementsinadditiontothosenormallyexpectedforContractors.
TheContractor(Engineer)mustinspecteachbridgeinaccordancewiththeinformationgiveninthis
Manualandmustrecordthefindingselectronicallyandontheappropriatestandardforms.The
Engineermustupholdareasonablestandardofcareforroutineinspections,whichisunderstoodto
implyanattentivevisualandauditoryinspectionaidedbyroutineinspectiontoolsasaffordedby
customarymeansofaccess.
TheEngineermustinspectthebridgeswithintheassignedinspectionareasonlyandmustverifythe
bridgelocations.AqualifiedInspectionTeamLeadermustbepresentateachbridgesiteduringthe
bridgeinspection.Whentheinspectionsarecompleted,reportsaretobereturnedtoRBDwithin30
daysfromthedateofinspection.However,bridgesneedingspecialconsideration(whichincludesall
bridgesthathaveanyConditionRatingof4orlower)mustbebroughttotheimmediateattentionofthe
RBD,bothverballyandinwriting.Iftheinspectionindicatessignificantdeteriorationofanystructural
element,documentationsuchasnotes,measurements,sketches,andphotosmustbeincluded.
ToolsandSafetyEquipment
RoutineinspectiontoolsarelistedinthisManual.TheEngineerisrequiredtousehardhats,safety
vests,trafficcones,vehiclesafetylights,andBridgeInspectionAheadorSurveyCrewAheadsigns
forallbridgesbeinginspected.Theinspectionsmustbeconductedwithminimaldisruptiontotraffic.

CoordinationwithHousingandInfrastructureBoardRoadsandBridgeDepartment(HIB
RBD)
An216x279mmcopyofthebridgelocationmap,withthebridgelocationhighlighted,mustbe
includedaspartofeachBridgeRecord.
NewbridgeslocatedbytheEngineerrequireapprovalfromRBDbeforeanidentificationnumber
(PermanentStructureNumber)isassignedandbeforeauthorizationcanbegivenfortheEngineerto
inspectthebridgeandaddthedatatotheBridgeRecord.Bridgelocationsmustbeindicatedonthe
map(s).TheEngineermustcreateanewBridgeFolder,completeallforms,andinputalldatarequired
fortheelectronicBridgeInventoryFiletoensureacompleteandaccuraterecord.TheEngineermust
notinventoryorinspectabridgethatisunderconstruction.Ifthebridgeopenstopublictrafficata
reasonabletimewithintheworkauthorizationperiod,RBDmaydirecttheEngineertoinventoryand
inspectthebridge.
13.7.4 CodingGuidelines
SummaryofInstructions(foronandoffsystembridges)
TheEngineermustadheretothestepbystepinstructionsforenteringthedataintheelectronicBridge
InventoryFileaspresentedinthedetailedinstructionsforcodingguide.TheCodingGuidealsoincludes
interpretations,examples,andotherdatainputguidance.TheCodingGuidefollowsacarddatainput
sequencesummarizedonafivepageformnotactuallyusedforwrittenentriesbutusedasaninput
referenceguide.Aformcouldstillbeused,butdataareusuallydirectlyinputelectronicallyusing
promptscreensonacomputer,orscreenimagesofthecarddatasequences.Inanycase,theresulting
electronicBridgeInventoryFileforeachbridgeisinaconsistentformat.Thedataentryprocedures
applytobothonandoffsystembridges.TheelectronicBridgeInventoryFilescontainarecordforeach
BridgeClassStructure.ThedefinitionofaBridgeClassStructureisdescribedinItem112inthe
InstructionsforCodingGuide.
MultiplePipeCulverts(foronandoffsystembridges)
Toachievefutureconsistencyinrecordinginformation,thefollowingclarificationsaretobeusedfor
creatingormaintainingBridgeRecordsformultiplepipeculverts:
DonotremoveanyexistingmultiplepipeculvertsfromtheBridgeInventoryFile.The
installationmayalreadybeintheprioritizationprocessforrepairorreplacement,andthe
processshouldnotbedisrupted.
DonotcreateBridgeRecordsforanynewmultiplepipeculvertsthatareindividuallylessthan
1500mmindiameterevenifthetotalinstallation,includingfillbetweenpipes,ismorethan6.0
Malongtheroadway.Inspectionsofsmallerdiameterswouldbedifficulttomakeandthe
resultswouldprobablybeofdubiousquality.Itisalsoveryinconsistentengineeringlogicto
requireinspectionof,forinstance,aninstallationoffive1200mmpipeculvertsandno

inspectionofaninstallationoffourorfewerpipesofthesamediameter.
BridgeRecordsmustbemadeandmaintainedformultiplepipeculvertsthatareindividually
1500mmorgreaterindiameter,providingthetotalinstallationmeetsthe6.0Mlength
criterion.
DataQuality(foronandoffsystembridges)
Dataqualityforallinformationkeptforeachbridge,andinparticulartheelectronicBridgeInventory
Files,cannotbeoveremphasized.Thedatainthefilesmustbekeptinasuptodateconditionas
possible.Dataupdatesreflectingchangestoanexistingonsystemstructuremustbemadewithin90
daysoftheevaluationorinspectionthatdenotesthechangeinstatus.New,rebuilt,orrehabilitated
structuresalsomustbereportedwithin90daysofjobcompletion.Thedataupdatetimelimitis180
daysforoffsystemstructures.
ElementsData(onlyforonsystembridges)
Elementspecificdataaretoberecordedforeachbridge.
ThestepbystepinstructionsforenteringtheelectronicElementsDataarepresentedintheElements:
FieldInspectionandCodingManual.TheinstructionsintheElements:FieldInspectionandCoding
Manualalsoincludeinterpretations,examples,andotherdatainputguidance.TheEngineermust
determinetheelementspecificdata,quantities,andconditionstatesforeachonsystembridge.HIB
requirestheEngineertocompleteordemonstratecompletionofspecialtrainingforrecordingElements
Data.Therearecurrently6ElementMatrixformspresentedintheElements:FieldInspectionand
CodingManual.Thesedatasupplementbutdonotreplacethosedatanormallyrecordedforthe
electronicBridgeInventoryFile.TheElementsDataarealsorecordedelectronically.Acopyoncomputer
disketteintherequiredformatissubmittedtotheRBD.
13.7.5 Forms
GeneralFormsInformation
Specificformsandotherinformationusedtorecordthenecessarybridgedataarebrieflydescribed
belowforbothonandoffsystembridges.Thesamedataarekeptforbothonandoffsystembridges
exceptasnoted.Theformsandnecessaryinformationaretobecompletedforeachbridgeandplaced
ineachfileoftheBridgeFolderintheproperorder.Subsection13.55,RatingsandLoadPosting,
discussesBridgeInspectionRecordFormandBridgeAppraisalWorksheetFromandrelatesthem
directlytotheConditionRatingsandAppraisalRatings.
BridgeInspectionRecord,(foronandoffsystembridges)
Thisthreepageformpresentstheinspectioninformationforthebasiccomponentsofthebridge.The
Engineerentersaratingforeachelementofeachcomponent.Foranyelementratingof7orbelow,
writtencommentsexplainingtheratingmustbeincludedontheform.ThesignatureoftheInspection
TeamLeadermustbeontheformanditmustbesignedanddatedbytheEngineer.

BridgeAppraisalWorksheet,(foronandoffsystembridges)
Thistwopageformpresentsaonedigitratingforeachofthetrafficsafetyfeatures,thestructural
evaluation,thedeckgeometry,theunderclearances,theloadposting,thewaterwayadequacy,andthe
approachroadwayalignment.ItisalsotobecompletedinaccordancewiththeInstructionsforCoding
Guide.UnlikeBIRForm,BAWFormrequireswrittencommentssupportingalltheappraisalratings.
TheseratingsandassociatedwrittencommentsmustbeverifiedbytheInspectionTeamLeaderand
reviewedbytheresponsibleEngineer.Adateandsignaturearerequiredforthisform
BridgeStructuralConditionHistory(foronandoffsystembridges)
Thisformsummarizesthecurrentandpreviousinspectionrecords.Iftheformexistsinthecurrent
BridgeFolder,itshouldbeupdated.IfnoStructuralConditionHistoryformisintheBridgeFolder,create
onebasedonallthepreviousandcurrentinspectionsinthefolder.TheEngineermustenterthedate(s)
ofinspection,theEngineersname,andthevariouscomponentratingsinthepropercolumnsofthe
form.Thisformdoesnotrequiresigning.However,thelastentrydatemustreflectthelatest
inspection.
BridgeInspectionFollowUpActionWorksheet(onlyforonsystembridges)
Thisformsummarizestheareasofdeteriorationandmakesrecommendationsforbridgerepair.The
numberfortheHIBR&BDepartmentshouldbeclearlyshownontheform.
Anextracopyofthisformisrequiredforeachonsystembridge.Theseextracopiesaregroupedwith
copiesforotherbridgeswiththeRBD.TheseextracopiesmustbesubmittedtotheRBDattheendof
eachseriesofinspectionsorattheendoftheinspectionWorkAuthorizationifdonebyaContractor.
BridgeInventoryRecord,(foronandoffsystembridges)
Thistwopageformpresentsadetaileddescriptionofthestructurealongwithadetailedelevation
sketchonthereverseside.
SketchesarenotrequiredforoffsystembridgesifcopiesoftheplansareintheBridgeFolder.Sketches
arenotrequiredforonsystembridgesifplansaremaintainedingeneralfilesbyHIBR&BDepartment.
However,anotationtothiseffectshouldbeshownonthereversesideoftheformalongwiththePlan
Filereferencenumber.
Ifnochangeshavebeenmadetothestructureandtheexistingdescriptionandsketchproperly
representsthefieldconditions,anewformisnotnecessary.Theexistingformmustremaininthe
BridgeFolderwithnomodificationbytheEngineer.
IfnoBridgeInventoryRecordisintheBridgeFolder,theresponsibleEngineermustcompleteanew
form.ThenumberfortheBridgeMaintenanceSectionshouldbeclearlyshownontheform.Theform
mustbesignedanddatedbytheEngineer.

Ifsignificantstructuralmodificationshavebeenmadetothebridge,anewBridgeInventoryRecord,
includingadetailedsketchshowingthechangesfromtheplansonfile,mustbecompleted.Thenew
formmustbesigned,sealed,anddatedbytheEngineer.
TheBridgeInventoryRecordwithsketchservesasthebestavailableasbuiltplansifcopiesofthe
originalplansarenotavailable.WhenplansareavailableandcopiesareincludedortheHIBfilelocation
referenced,adetailedsketchonthereversesideoftheformisnotrequired.
BridgeInventoryRecordRevision(foronandoffsystembridges)
Thisformistobeusedonlyforminor,nonstructuralchangestotheBridgeInventoryRecord.Thisform
doesnotrequiresigning.However,adateisrequired.
ChannelCrossSectionMeasurementsRecord(foronandoffsystembridges)
Thistwopageformiscompletedorupdatedforeachbridgeoverawaterway(wetordry).Thereis
spaceontheformforfourchronologicalcrosssections(coveringapproximatelyeightyears).Thefifth
andfollowingchannelcrosssectionsshouldberecordedonanewformandtheoriginalformretainedin
theBridgeFolder.Thisformisnotrequiredforbridgelengthculverts.Thecrosssectionmeasurements
arerecordedfortheupstreamsideofthebridgestartingatthefirstabutment.Theymustbefromthe
topofthebridgerailingorparapetdowntothechannelbed.Thesemeasurementsaremadeateach
bent,eachsignificantchangeinthechannelbed,andatthemidpointofthechannel.Thehorizontal
distanceisrecordedbetweeneachverticalmeasurementaswellasthecumulativehorizontaldistance
fromthebeginningofthefirstabutment.Severaladditionalreferencedimensionsarerecorded,
includingtopofwaterlevelasshownontheform.TheresponsibleEngineermustaddcommentsonthe
backoftheform.Thisformrequireadateandsignature.
Asketchonthisformisrequiredonlyforspantypebridges.Bridgelengthculvertsdonotrequirean
upstreamchannelsketchoranupdatetoanysuchsketchthatmayalreadybeintheBridgeFolder.
Calculationsofsedimentmaterialquantitieswillnotberequired.Ifthereisanexistingchannelcross
section,plottedtoscale,itshouldbebroughtforwardintothecurrentsketchandthenewdataplotted
onitindifferentcolorinkandreferencedwiththeEngineersinitialsanddate.Forallbridgesthathave
plansavailable,thecurrentchannelsectionmustbeplottedonacopyofthebridgelayoutsheet(s)
madefromtheplans.TwocopiesofthelayoutmustbeinsertedintheBridgeFolder.Onecopymustbe
plottedwiththecurrentchannelcrosssectionandmarkedasaworkcopyandonecopymustbe
identifiedasamastercopywithnoplotofthecurrentchannelcrosssection.Ifplansarenot
available,asketchistobedrawntoscale.However,thehorizontalandverticalscalesmaydifferif
convenient.Thissketchdoesnotrequiresigningorsealing.However,adateisrequiredforeachplotor
verificationofthecurrentchannelcrosssection.
UnderclearanceSketch(foronandoffsystembridges)
Asketchonthisformisrequiredforallgradeseparations,includingpedestrian,utility,andrailroad
underpasses.Allnecessarydimensionsandreferencepointsmustbeshown.Item54.2,describedinthe
instructionsforcodingguide,mustreferencetheminimumverticalclearance(tothenearest
millimeters)underthestructure.Theverticalclearancesignmustread75mmlowerthantheactual
measuredverticalclearance.UltrasonicmeasurementscannotbeusedThissketchdoesnotrequire

signing.However,adateisrequired.
BridgeSummarySheet(onlyforoffsystembridges)
Thisonepageformsummarizeseachcomponentrating,providesrecommendationsforstructure
upgrades,indicatespreviousandobservedandrecommendedloadpostings,recordscurrentstatusof
allsigns,anddenotesmaterialsneededtoproperlyloadpostthebridgeifnecessary.TheEngineer
must,whereappropriate,providearecommendationforminimumormoderateupgradingforeach
bridgewithanInventoryRatingofHS13orless.Therecommendationshouldconsiderthecapabilities
ofthelocaljurisdiction.TheEngineermustdocumentthecondition,location,andnumberofallsignsin
placeonthedateofinspectionatallloadpostedbridges.Theloadlimitshownonexistingsignsmust
alsoberecorded.Thesesignsmustappearandbelegibleinthebridgephotographs.Theformmustbe
signedanddatedbytheEngineer.
RecommendedChangeinBridgeLoadZoning,(onlyforonsystembridges)
Thisformpresentsarequestforchangedloadrestrictionsforanonsystembridge.Itmustbesigned
anddatedbyanEngineer.Ifitinvolvesanewlimitorareductionofacurrentloadlimit,itmustbe
accompaniedbythemostrecentinspectionreport,plans(layoutsandstructuraldetails),andanyload
ratingsthatsupporttherecommendedchange.
13.7.6 Calculations
GeneralCalculationRequirements
BridgeloadratingcalculationsmustbeprovidedinaccordancewithcurrentlyacceptedHIBbridge
inspectionproceduresasdescribedinthisManualandintheHIBBridgeManual.Notethatthemethods
ofcalculationaredifferentforonandoffsystembridges.
Thedatingandsigningofdocumentsmustbeinaccordancewiththerequirementsgiveninthischapter.
OnSystemBridgeCalculations
Typically,onsystembridgeplansareonfileattheRBDofficeandtheplanscontaindocumentationof
theoriginaldesignloadcapacity.Loadratinganalyses(calculations)areusuallynotrequiredforon
systembridges.However,theEngineerisrequiredtoprovideloadratinganalysisforallonsystem
bridgesthathaveanyConditionRatingof4orless.Allonsystembridgefilesforallbridgetypesmust
containdocumentationtosupportanyrecommendedchangesinloadratings.IftheEngineeragrees
withthepreviouscalculations,aconcurringsignedanddatedstatementmustbeprovided.
AllloadratingcalculationsforonsystembridgesmustbeperformedusingtheLoadFactor(LF)method
aspresentedintheAASHTOManualforConditionEvaluationofBridges
withnoexceptions.Ratings
mustbecalculatedandpresentedtoRBDwithonlyanHSloadingforallonsystembridgesforwhich
calculationsarerequired.Someadditionalanalysesmayinvolvebridgesthathavesectionlossor
damagetostructuralmembers.Inthesecases,theresponsibleEngineerisrequiredtoverifyand
documenttheconditionsofthedeficientmembersandincorporatethosefindingsintheanalyses.

Allcalculationsanddocumentationreferringtoloadratingcapacityarerequiredtobesignedanddated
byaqualified,ProfessionalEngineer.
OffSystemBridgeCalculations
ThecalculationsforoffsystembridgesmaybeperformedusingaBridgeLoadRating(BLR)computer
program,whichcalculatesloadratingsusingaworkingstress(WS)analysismethod.However,either
WSorLFanalysisisacceptable.Allsteel,andtrussbridgesmusthavecalculationsfortheloadratings
ofallapplicablestructuralelementsincludingthedeck,stringerorbeams,trussmembers,bentcaps,
andpilingorcolumns.TheBLRprogramwillgiveInventoryandOperatingRatingsforbothHandHS
loadings.However,therecommendedloadpostingsignmustcontinuetobebaseduponFigure81,
SimplifiedLoadPostingProcedure,whichrelatescalculatedHloadratingtoanequivalentloadposting,
signtype,andweightlimit.
Loadratingdocumentation,includingassumptions,isrequiredinthebridgefilesforallbridges,
includingbridgeclassculverts.Anyassumedloadratingsforconcretestructuresandrecommended
loadpostingsmustbeinconformancewithcurrentHIBpolicies.Thesepoliciesaredescribedin
Subsection13.4CustomaryRatingProcedures,RatingConcreteBridgeswithnoPlans,Recording
AppraisalRatings,BridgePosting.Alloffsystembridgefiles,forallbridgetypes,mustcontain
documentationtosupportanyrecommendedchangesinloadratings.IftheEngineeragreeswiththe
previouscalculations,aconcurringsignedanddatedstatementmustbeprovided.
Allcalculationsanddocumentationreferringtoloadratingcapacityarerequiredtobesignedanddated
byaqualifiedProfessionalEngineer.However,itisacceptabletoonlyinitialanddatethecalculations
andsign,anddatetheBridgeSummarySheetforoffsystembridgesratherthaneachpageofthe
calculations.
SpecialattentioniscalledtothecodingofItems41,41.1,and41.2oftheelectronicBridgeInventory
Files(seecodingguide)relatingtooperationalstatusandloadpostinglimits.Theseitemsmustbe
verifiedandrevised,ifneeded,forallbridgesandbridgeclassculverts.TheEngineermustimmediately
notifytheRBDofanybridgesrecommendedforclosureandmustincludedetailsandcalculations.RBD
willsetatimetodiscusstheconcernswiththeEngineertoreviewthefindingsifbridgeclosureis
necessary.
SimplifiedLoadPostingProcedure
Thisprocedureisappropriateforcomputingpostingloadsequivalenttotheinventoryrating.
Approximationsareinvolvedwhichmakethisprocedureunacceptableatloadlevelshigherthanthe
InventoryRatings.
ThepostingloadinpoundsistheproductoftheRATINGMULTIPKIERandtheINVENTORYRATINGin
TonsforthestandardHtruck.InselectingtheRATINGMULTIPLIERfromthetableusethelongest
simplespanlengthor80%ofthelongestcontinuousspanlength,whichevergivesthelongestspan
lengthforthebridge.Iftheresultingspanlengthis48.0Morgreater,thenthebridgeshouldreceivean
analysismoreexactthanthisprocedure.

Therecommendedpostingincrementsarelistedbelow.Roundofftothenearestincrementlisted.
Postaxleandgrossloadforspanlengths12.0Mandgreater.Postaxleloadonlyforspanlengths12.0M
andless.WeightlimitsignsshouldconformtotheTrafficManagementSectionofHIBDesignCriteria.
TherecommendedsignsareR122TborR124TbexceptiftheaxleloadisnotedusesignsR122Tcor
R124Tc.
EXAMPLE1:
10.0MSimpleSpanSlab&GirderBridge,H14Rating
Axle=14x660Kgs=9240Kgs
Post21,000tandemaxle(SignsR122Tc)
EXAMPLE2:
36.0MPonyTruss.H7Rating
Axle=7x660=4,620Kgs
Gross=7x1045Kgs=7315Kgs
Post4545Kgsaxleortandemand7273KgsGross(signR124Tb)
EXAMPLE3:
9.0M12.0M9.0MContinuousSlabBridgewith7.6Mslabapproachspans,H10Rating
0.8x12.0M=9.0M>7.6M=Use7.6Mspan
Axle=10x673Kgs=6730Kgs
Post673KgsAxleortandem(SignR122Tb)

SPAN
AXLE
OR GROSS
TANDEM
METER Kgs./HTON Kgs/HTON
6 727
7.6 704
9.1 682
10.7 659
12.2 659 1410
13.7 659 1340
15.2 659 1270
18.3 659 1180
21.3 659 1140
24.4 659 1110
27.4 659 1090
30.5 659 1070
36.6 659 1040
42.7 659 1020
48.8 659 1000
RATI NGMULTI PLI ER
LOADI NCREMENTS LOADI NCEMENTS

FORAXLEOR FORGROSSLBS
TANDEMKgs
2270 3640
3410 4540
4540 5450
5680 6360
6820 7270
7940 9090
9540 10910
10910* 12730
12730* 14540
14540* 16360
18180
20000
21820
23640
27270
30910
34540
*Axl el oadexceeds9090Kgs.Si ngl eaxl e
l i mi t,thereforepostfortandemaxl e
(Si gnsR122TcorR124Tc)


R122Tb R122Tc R124TbR124Tc

60mmx90mm 60mmx105mm
13.7.7 DataSubmittal
GeneralDataSubmittalRequirements(foronandoffsystembridges)
WhenHIBcontractsforbridgeinspectionsbyContractors,theContractorsmustprovidemonthly
submissionsofpreparedBridgeFoldersunlessotherwisedirectedbytheRBD.Folderscanbe
submittedtotheRBDbymailorinperson.
BridgeFolderspreparedbyRBDpersonnelmustbedocumented,signedanddatedinthesameformat
ashereindescribed.
AlldataincludedintheBridgeFolderarepreparedtomeettherequirementsgiveninthisManual.
UpdatestotheelectronicBridgeInventoryFilemustbemadewithin90daysforonsystembridgesand
180daysforoffsystembridges.

Photographs(foronandoffsystembridges)
TheEngineermustprovide100mmx150mmcolorphotographsofeachbridgeforthebridge
inspectionfiles.Thephotosmustbesuitablymounted,twoonapage,withcompatibleadhesiveon216
mmx280mmpaper.Sprayonadhesiveisnotacceptable.Eachphotomusthaveadescriptivecaption
andmustnotetheapproximatecompassdirectionthephotographerwasfacing.Eachphotowillhavea
datetakenaspartofthecaptionunlessthedateisautomaticallyprintedonthephoto.
Digitalphotographswillbeacceptedataminimumresolutionof1024x768.Theyaretobepresented
inthesameformatanddimensionasdescribedabove.
ThefollowingphotosmustbepresentineachBridgeFolderasaminimum:
RoadwayView.Photosmustbetakenalongthecenterlineoftheroadwaylookingdownthebridge
showingviewsofthebridgeasseenfromtheroadway.Thedirectionshouldnormallybeinthe
increasingstationdirection,ifknown,orintheincreasingdirectionofthefieldreferencemarkers.Long
orcurvedbridgesmayrequiremultiplephotosatdifferentbridgelocations.
ElevationView.Photosmustbetakenofthebridgeshowingthecompletelength.Forsomebridgesit
maybeimpossibletoshowtheentirestructureduetolength,curvature,orvegetation.Inthesecases,
obliqueanglesatgreaterdistancesareacceptable.However,multiplephotosattemptingtoshowevery
partofthebridgeshouldnotbesubmitted.
UndersideView.Photosmustbetakenoftheundersideofthebridgeshowingthetypicaltypeof
superstructure.Bridgeswithseveraltypesofsuperstructurewillrequireadditionalphotos.
StreamorRoadwaybelowBridge.Photosshouldbetakenfrombelowthebridgeshowingthestream
orroadwayasitpassesunderthebridge.Anyscourorsignificanterosionthatispresentshouldbe
photographed.
WeightLimitSigns.Photosmustbetakenonbothapproachestodocumenttheactualsignsinplace,
missing,ordamaged.Thephotosmustshowthepositionofthesignswithrespecttothebridge.The
weightlimitonthesignsshouldbelegibleinthephotos.
UpstreamandDownstreamChannelViews.Photosmustbetakentodocumenttheconditionofthe
channelupstreamanddownstreamofthebridge.Thesephotosshouldbetakenfromthebridge.
PhotosofComponentswithPoorCondition.Photosmustbetakenofallelementsthatresultin
ComponentRatingsof4orlessontheBridgeInspectionRecord.DetailsoftheConditionRatingforthe
deficientelementsmustbenotedinthephotocaptions.However,multiplephotosarenotneeded
withinadeficientelement.Forinstance,apoorsuperstructurecomponentratingduetoadeficientfloor
beamdoesnotmeanthatdetailedphotosmustalsobetakenofalltheelementsmakingupthe
superstructurecomponent.
PhotosofUnusualFeatures.Photosshouldbetakenoffeatureswhich,intheopinionoftheinspector,
areunusual,nonstandard,orpoorlyrepaired.Forinstance,abridgerailingfieldfabricatedfromnon
standardpartswhichmaynotbeequivalenttoanacceptablebridgerailingshouldbedocumentedby

closeupphotos.TheEngineermustdetermineifitisappropriatetosubmitthesephotosaspartofthe
BridgeRecord.Photosofutilityattachmentsshouldalsobemadewithenoughdetailtoshowthetype,
condition,andattachmenthardwareused.
ElectronicMedia(foronandoffsystembridges)
TheEngineermustprovideallapplicableelectronicdatafortheBridgeRecordsonaCD/DVDorFlash
Memorystick.Multiplebridgesmaybesubmittedonthesamediskette;however,theyshouldbe
groupedbylocaljurisdiction,maintenancesection,etc.
PresentationofDocuments(foronandoffsystembridges)
TheEngineermustensurethatallinspectionresultssubmittedtotheBridgeInspectionDivisionare
typed,usingthecurrentversionsoftheelectronicformswhereapplicable,andareofsuchqualitythat
legiblereproductionscanbemadeonatypicalofficecopymachine.Allcopiesandrecordssubmittedto
beplacedintheBridgeFoldershouldbe216mmx280mmunlessanothersizeisallowedbyHIBforthe
specificapplication.However,copiesofbridgeplansmaybeA3sizepaper.
TheContractorEngineermustprovidetheRBDwiththefollowinginformationinlistformatattheend
oftheWorkAuthorization.TheselistsarenotplacedintheindividualBridgeFolders.Thelistsshouldbe
groupedbyjurisdictionsuchasshabiya,,municipality,city,maintenancesection,etc.
Listofbridgesrecommendedforspecialinspections.Thislistmustincludeonlybridgestobe
addedtothecurrentlistofbridgeswithfracturecriticaldetailsorbridgeswiththeneedfor
underwater(scubadiver)inspection.Bridgescurrentlyonthefracturecriticalandunderwater
listsneednotbeplacedonthisnewrecommendedlist.
Listofbridgeswithpoorconditionrating.Thislistmustincludeallbridgesthathavean
individualelementorcomponentwithaConditionRatingof4orless.
Listofbridgeswithoverheightloaddamage.Thislistmustincludeallbridgeswhichhave
damagefromoverheightloadsorwhichhavehadrepairsmadeaftersuchdamage.The
extentofthedamagemustbedocumentedontheBridgeInspectionRecord,andItem128
oftheelectronicBridgeInventoryFilemustbecoded.
Listofbridgeswithcrackedprestressedbeamends.Thislistmustincludeallbridgesthat
haveprestressedboxbeamsorprestressedconcretebeamswithcracksatornearthe
beamends.Photosofthesecracksmustbetaken.Ifcommontoseveralbeamsinthe
bridge,onlyrepresentativephotosareneeded.Theseverity,numberofcracks,andspecific
locationofeachcrackedbeammustbeindicated.
ListofbridgesrequiringchangesinOperationalStatus.Thislistmustincludeallbridgesthatdo
notmeetcurrentHIBloadpostingpolicyrequirementsforpostingloadrestrictions.Thispolicy
isdescribedinChapter5inthesubsectiontitledLoadPosting.Thebridgesonthislistshouldbe
groupedbylocaljurisdiction.Bridgesarenottobeplacedonthislistwhichcurrentlyhavea
loadpostingandforwhichnochangeisrequired.

Listofbridgesrequiringverticalclearancechanges.Thislistmustincludeallbridges
requiringchangesintheverticalclearancedataasindicatedbyItem54.2oftheelectronic
BridgeInventoryFile(seethecodingguide).Eventhoughonlyminorchangesintheactual
verticalclearancemayhaveoccurredduetoapavementoverlay,theupdateddataare
necessarysoRBDcanmaintaintheinformationneededforoverheightloadpermits.
Listofbridgeswithsuggestedchangestoblockeddatafields.Thislistmustbesubmittedfor
changestotheblockeddatarecommendedbytheEngineer.Thesedatawillbereviewedand
updatedonlybytheHIBR&BDepartment.
OriginalandDuplicateFiles(foronsystembridges)
Foreachonsystembridge,theEngineerisrequiredtosubmittotheRBDoneoriginalandoneduplicate
BridgeRecord.OneadditionalcopyoftheBridgeInspectionFollowUpActionWorksheet(onlyusedfor
onsystembridges)willalsoberequired.ThisworksheetisdescribedintheFormssectionofthis
chapter.
OriginalBridgeRecord.Theoriginalbridgerecordmustbesubmittedclippedintothesixsided
BridgeFolderdiscussedinthefollowingBridgeFoldersectionofthischapter.Theorderofthe
variousforms,sketches,photos,etcintheBridgeFoldermustbemadeuniformwithno
exceptions.ThisoriginalBridgeRecordwillcontaintheoriginalsofalldocumentscreatedor
updatedbytheEngineer,includingphotos.
DuplicateBridgeRecord.Aduplicatefilemustbesubmittedandclippedintoamanilafolder
thatmustcontaincopiesofallthedocumentspreparedbytheEngineer,includingcolorcopies
ofallthemountedphotographsheetswithcaptions.
AdditionalFiles(foroffsystembridges)
Foreachoffsystembridge,theEngineermustsubmitoneOriginalBridgeRecordasdescribedabove,
andonesetofSummaryReportswhicharedescribedbelow.ADuplicateBridgeRecordisnotrequired
foroffsystembridges.
SummaryReports(foroffsystembridges)
TheitemstobeincludedintheSummaryReportsmustbegroupedforallthebridgeswithineachlocal
jurisdiction.Thebridgesincludedineachlocaljurisdiction(regions,municipalities,citiesetc.)mustbe
asagreeduponwiththeRBD.ThearrangementandcontentoftheSummaryReportswillbe
maintained.TheSummaryReportsareintendedtosummarizethebridgeinspectionfindings,
maintenanceorrepairsneeded,andloadpostingrequirements.TheSummaryReports,whether
preparedbytheContractororbyRBDpersonnel,mustbeassembledasshowninatypicalexample
whichcanbeobtainedfromtheRBD.TheSummaryReportmustbedeliveredtotheRBD.TheRBDwill
forwardtheSummaryReporttothelocaljurisdiction.EachSummaryReportmustincludethefollowing
informationforeachbridge:
Colorcopiesofthemountedphotographsheetsincludingcaptions

AcopyoftheBridgeInspectionRecord
AcopyoftheBridgeSummarySheet.
SummaryofNewLoadPostingMaterials(foroffsystembridges)
Thisformisusedtoorderthesignsandhardwareneededforeachoffsystembridgewhichrequiresa
changeintheloadposting.TheEngineermustcompletethisformforeachgroupofbridgeswithineach
localjurisdiction.Thebridgesincludedineachlocaljurisdiction(shabiyas,municipalities,cities)mustbe
asagreeduponwiththeRBD.Thiscompletedformwillbeusedtoensurethatthenecessarymaterials
areavailabletoloadpostthebridgesineachlocaljurisdiction.TheEngineerwillsubmitthisformtothe
RBD.Itmustneverbesubmittedinanyformtoanylocaljurisdiction.Thisformdoesnotrequire
signing.However,adateisrequired.
ScourRecordsandReports(foronandoffsystembridges)
Manybridgesaresusceptibletoscourofthefoundationsandabutmentsfromflowingwater.These
bridgesarescreenedandclassifiedfortheirpotentialforscour.Variousscourreports,calculations,and
photosarenecessarytodocumentthescourpotential.Thescourinformationformostbridgescan
usuallybedirectlyincludedintheBridgeFolder.However,somebridgeshaveextensivescourdata,and
thelocationofexternalscourfilesmustbecrossreferencedintheBridgeFolder.TheRBDmust
determinetheamountofscourdocumentstobeincludedwitheachBridgeFolder.
13.7.8 TheBridgeFolder
FolderInformation(foronandoffsystembridges)
Theoriginalrecords,sketches,plansifavailable,andlatestinformationoneachbridgeonLibyahighway
systemarekeptinaconsistentandregularmannerbyRBD.
FolderAssembly(foronandoffsystembridges)
EachBridgeFoldermusthaveanencompassingfoldercontainingtwodividerstowhichdocumentscan
befastened.Beginningwiththeinsidesurfaceofthefrontcover(hereaftercalledSide1)andending
withtheinsidesurfaceofthebackcover(Side6),theinformationconsistsofandisassembledinthe
followingorderintheBridgeFolder.
FortheDuplicateFilerequiredforonsystembridges,whichisplacedinamanilafolderwithoutdividers,
theinformationshouldbeassembledinthesameorderfromtoptobottom,ignoringtheSide
number.
Side1
Top 1.LocationMapwithbridgehighlighted
2. Allcurrentinspectionphotos(includingthosewithlowconditionratings)
3. Allotherphotosfrompreviousinspectionsinchronologicalorder(negativesmaybe
removedatthediscretionoftheHIBR&BDepartment.

Side2
Top 1.BridgeSummarySheet(offsystem)
2. BridgeInspectionFollowUpActionWorksheet(onsystem)
3. BridgeInspectionRecord
4. BridgeAppraisalWorksheet
5. CurrentLoadRatingCalculationsorcopiesofbridgeplans;areferencetotheHIBR&B
DepartmentPlanFileDesignatororTabNumberfortheplansisalsoacceptable
6. BridgeInventoryRecord(mustincludepropersketch(s)ifbridgeplansarenotonfile)
7. BridgeInventoryRecordRevisions(ifapplicable)
Side3
Top 1.UnderclearanceSketch(ifapplicable)
2. UpstreamChannelCrossSectionMeasurements(ifapplicable)
3. UpstreamChannelCrossSectionSketch(ifapplicable)
Side4
Top 1.NBISheet(printoutoftheelectronicBridgeInventoryFile)
2. SecondaryScourScreeningForm(ifapplicable)
3. Thelistofscoursusceptiblebridgeswiththeirscourclassification
4. Anyscourrelatedreportsordocuments(ifapplicable);referencetotheHIBfilelocationis
alsoacceptable
5. Allscourphotos
Side5
Top 1.ElementalDataInspectionRecords
2.SpecialInspectionRecordsandReports(UnderwaterInspection,FractureCriticalInspection,
etc)
Side6
Top 1.BridgeStructuralConditionHistory
2. Previousinspectionsandallattachmentsinreversechronologicalorder(themostrecent
informationisattachedontop)
3. Bridgeplansifavailable

13.8 Appendix
BridgeInspectionForms
1. BridgeInspectionRecord
2. BridgeAppraisalWorksheet
3. BridgeStructuralConditionHistory
4. BridgeInspectionFollowupActionWorksheet
5. BridgeInspectionFollowupActionWorksheet
6. BridgeInventoryRecord
7. BridgeInventoryRecordSketch
8. RevisiontoBridgeInventoryRecord
9. ChannelCrossSectionMeasurementsRecord
10. ChannelCrossSectionMeasurementsRecord
11. UnderclearanceRecord
12. BridgeSummarySheet
13. RecommendedChangeinBridgeLoadPosting



BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORT
Page 3 of 3
Comment Sheets: (Per Item, if any)












JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ELECTRICAL141
14 Electrical
AllelectricalworkshallbecoordinatedwithGeneralElectricCompanyofLibya(GECOL)andotherutility
serviceproviders.ThedesignshallbeincompliancewithGECOLDocumentsandHIBMaster
SpecificationsandStandardDetails.TheGECOLSpecificationsanddesigncriteriashouldbeissuedtothe
contractorsbyHIB.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 TELECOMMUNICATION151
15 Telecommunication
AlltelecommunicationworkshallbecoordinatedwithLibyanPost,TelecommunicationandITCompany
(LPTIC)otherutilityserviceproviders.ThedesignshallbeincompliancewithLPTICDocumentsandHIB
MasterSpecificationsandStandardDetails.TheLPTICSpecificationsanddesigncriteriashouldbeissued
tothecontractorsbyHIB.
JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 GASDistribution161
16 GasDistribution
AllgasdistributionworkshallbecoordinatedwithGeneralGasCompany(GGC)ofLibyaandotherutility
serviceproviders.ThedesignshallbeincompliancewithGGCDocumentsandHIBMasterSpecifications
andStandardDetails.TheGGCSpecificationsanddesigncriteriashouldbeissuedtothecontractorsby
HIB.

2009.06design Criteria For Infrastrcture Projects-Rev 02 Final June

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2009.06design Criteria For Infrastrcture Projects-Rev 02 Final June

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JUNE 2009 REVISION NO. 02 I

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 WATERDesignStandards14

Antimony 0.006mg/L Granularactivatedcarbon

Beryllium 0.004mg/L Chemicalprecipitation

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 WATERDesignStandards125

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SEWERAGE21

Type/Activity Unit UnitFlowRate

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SEWERAGE25

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SEWAGETreatment31

Population SewageFlow PeakFlowFactor

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SEWAGETreatment315

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SEWAGETreatment317

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STORMWater42

2year 5year 10year 25year 50year 100year

Grass (Lawn) 10 mm/day

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign61

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign64

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign66

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign612

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign615

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign621

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign625

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign626

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign627

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign628

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign631

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign632

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 STANDARDSforBarrierFreeDesign633

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SURVEYINGStandards71

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 SURVEYINGStandards75

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY83

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY85

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY811

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY813

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY814

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY815

Where Ls= lengthofspiral(m)

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY818

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY819

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY820

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY821

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY825

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY826

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY828

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY829

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY835

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY836

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY840

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY843

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY847

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY848

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY850

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY851

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY852

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY860

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY862

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY863

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY864

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY869

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY871

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY879

JUNE2009 REVISIONNO.02 ROADWAY880