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W O R L D F A C T B O O K OF C R I M I N A L J U S T I C E SYSTEMS

INDIA

R.K.

Raghavan

Indian Police Service

This c o u n t r y report is one of m a n y p r e p a r e d for the W o r l d F a c t b o o k of Criminal J u s t i c e Systems under Bureau of J u s t i c e S t a t i s t i c s grant No. 9 0 - B J - C X - 0 0 0 2 to the State U n i v e r s i t y of N e w York at Albany. The p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r was Graeme R. Newman, but r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the a c c u r a c y of the i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d in each report is that of the i n d i v i d u a l author. The contents of these reports do not n e c e s s a r i l y reflect the views or p o l i c i e s of the Bureau of Justice S t a t i s t i c s or the U. S. D e p a r t m e n t of Justice.

GENERAL OVERVIEW

i. Political

system.

India a t t a i n e d i n d e p e n d e n c e from the B r i t i s h Crown on A u g u s t 15, 1947, and b e c a m e a s o v e r e i g n d e m o c r a t i c r e p u b l i c on J a n u a r y 26, 1950. The C o n s t i t u t i o n of India provides for a q u a s i - f e d e r a l s y s t e m of government. The P r e s i d e n t acts as H e a d of State. A Council of Ministers, h e a d e d by the Prime Minister, aid and advise the President. The Council of M i n i s t e r s is c o l l e c t i v e l y r e s p o n s i b l e to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament. The c o u n t r y is d i v i d e d into 25 States, each h e a d e d by a G o v e r n o r a p p o i n t e d by the U n i o n Government. A Council of M i n i s t e r s h e a d e d by the Chief M i n i s t e r aids and advises him or her and is c o l l e c t i v e l y r e s p o n s i b l e to the State L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly. (Article 372 of the C o n s t i t u t i o n of India p r o t e c t s all the law in force b e f o r e the c o m m e n c e m e n t of the C o n s t i t u t i o n until altered, repealed, or a m e n d e d by the c o m p e t e n t L e g i s l a t u r e or authority. It is under this p r o v i s i o n that the common law of the land has survived. This i n c l u d e s not only the p e r s o n a l laws such as the H i n d u Law and M o h a m e d a n Law, but also the rules of E n g l i s h common law and c u s t o m a r y laws.) In addition, there are seven Union T e r r i t o r i e s (including N e w
,, ?

Delhi, the n a t i o n a l capital city) w h i c h are d i r e c t l y a d m i n i s t e r e d by the U n i o n G o v e r n m e n t through its officials. The C o n s t i t u t i o n of India c l e a r l y limits the l a w - m a k i n g power of the U n i o n and State g o v e r n m e n t s in what are known as the U n i o n List, State List and the C o n c u r r e n t List in Schedule VII. Subjects of r e l e v a n c e to the criminal justice s y s t e m include the c o n s t i t u t i o n ; organization, j u r i s d i c t i o n and powers of the Supreme Court of India; and the e x t e n s i o n of the powers and j u r i s d i c t i o n of m e m b e r s of a p o l i c e force. Public Order, Police, o f f i c e r s and servants of the State High Courts and p r i s o n s are w i t h i n the l e g i s l a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e of States. In sum, the criminal Justice S y s t e m in India is a legacy of the B r i t i s h system. It has four subsystems, those being the L e g i s l a t u r e (Parliament), E n f o r c e m e n t (police), A d j u d i c a t i o n (courts), and C o r r e c t i o n s (prisons, c o m m u n i t y facilities). 2. Legal system.

The Indian legal s y s t e m is a mix of a d v e r s a r i a l and accusatorial. In civil law, a c o n s c i o u s attempt has been made to respect and p r e s e r v e the t i m e w o r n tenets of both H i n d u and M u s l i m jurisprudence. (The President of India and G o v e r n o r s act a c c o r d i n g to the advice of the Council of Ministers.) An informal justice s y s t e m does o p e r a t e in the rural areas in civil and family matters. 3. H i s t o r y of the C r i m i n a l Justice System.

The j u r i s p r u d e n c e of A n c i e n t India, w h i c h was e s s e n t i a l l y Hindu-ruled, was shaped by the concept of "Dharma', or rules of right conduct, as o u t l i n e d in the various m a n u a l s e x p l a i n i n g the V e d i c s c r i p t u r e s such as "Puranas' and "Smritis' The King had no i n d e p e n d e n t a u t h o r i t y but d e r i v e d his powers from "Dharma' which he was e x p e c t e d to uphold. The d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a civil w r o n g and a criminal o f f e n s e was clear. W h i l e civil wrongs related m a i n l y to d i s p u t e s a r i s i n g over wealth, the concept of pataka or sin was the s t a n d a r d against which crime was to be defined. (Basham, 1967; Jois, Vol. I, 1990). The M a u r y a s Dynasty, which had e x t e n d e d to s u b s t a n t i a l parts of the Central and E a s t e r n regions d u r i n g the 4th Century, B.C., had a rigorous penal s y s t e m which p r e s c r i b e d m u t i l a t i o n as well as the death p e n a l t y for even trivial offenses. A b o u t the 2nd or 3rd C e n t u r y A.D., the D h a r m a s a h t r a code was drawn up by Manu, an i m p o r t a n t Hindu jurist. The code recognized

assault and other b o d i l y injuries and p r o p e r t y offenses such as theft and robbery. During the rule of the Gupta D y n a s t y (4th to 6th C e n t u r y A.D.), the judicial h i e r a r c h y was formed. The j u d i c i a r y was c o m p r i s e d of the guild, the f o l k - a s s e m b l y or the council and the king himself. Judicial d e c i s i o n s c o n f o r m e d to legal texts, social usage and the edict of the king, who was p r o h i b i t e d from v i o l a t i n g the decisions. (Pillai, 1983; Griffith, 1971; Thapar, 1990). India was s u b j e c t e d to a series of i n v a s i o n s by the M u s l i m s b e g i n n i n g in the 8th C e n t u r y A.D. and ending in the 15th c e n t u r y when a m i x e d race of Persians, Turks and Mongols set up the M o g h u l Empire. T h e y o c c u p i e d most of the N o r t h e r n region and e n f o r c e d a M o h a m m e d a n criminal law that c l a s s i f i e d all offenses on the basis of the p e n a l t y w h i c h each merited. These i n c l u d e d r e t a l i a t i o n (blood for blood), s p e c i f i c p e n a l t i e s (as for theft and robbery) and d i s c r e t i o n a r y p e n a l t i e s (Griffith, 1971; Atchuthan, 1983). India b e c a m e a nation under the B r i t i s h who a r r i v e d in the early 17th C e n t u r y as traders of the East India Company. The C o m p a n y s l o w l y a c q u i r e d t e r r i t o r y across the s u b - c o n t i n e n t , s t r i c t l y for c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s in the beginning, but g r a d u a l l y a s s u m e d c o n s i d e r a b l e powers of governance. C o n s i d e r i n g the M u s l i m criminal law to be i r r a t i o n a l and draconian, the C o m p a n y b r o u g h t about several reforms t h r o u g h a series of r e g u l a t i o n s which m o d i f i e d or e x p a n d e d the d e f i n i t i o n s of some offenses, i n t r o d u c e d new offenses and a l t e r e d p e n a l t i e s to make t h e m more logical and reasonable. (Jois, Vol. II, 1990). In 1857, the large p o s s e s s i o n s and the a u t h o r i t y e n j o y e d by the C o m p a n y were t r a n s f e r r e d to the B r i t i s h M o n a r c h by an Act of Parliament. Until this time, India was a loose c o l l e c t i o n of kingdoms, i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n w h o m were nominal, though cultural links were quite pronounced. An Indian Penal Code (IPC) d e f i n i n g crime and p r e s c r i b i n g a p p r o p r i a t e p u n i s h m e n t s was a d o p t e d in 1860, following the p a i n s t a k i n g work of the First Law Commission, p a r t i c u l a r l y its C h a i r m a n Lord Macaulay. Drawing i n s p i r a t i o n from the E n g l i s h criminal law, the IPC has stood the test of time. As a sequel to the IPC, a Code of Criminal P r o c e d u r e was e n a c t e d in 1861 and e s t a b l i s h e d the rules to be f o l l o w e d in all stages of i n v e s t i g a t i o n , trial and sentencing. (Rao, 1991). This code was r e p e a l e d and a new Code came into effect in 1974. These two codes, along with parts of the Indian Evidence Act of 1872, form the essence of India's criminal law. A large n u m b e r of special and local laws such as the Arms Act, P r o h i b i t i o n Act, Immoral T r a f f i c (Prevention) Act, etc., take care of various other a n t i - s o c i a l

activities.

CRIME

I. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

of Crime.

*Legal classification. The IPC divides an e s t i m a t e d 300 offenses into two classes. C o g n i z a b l e crimes are those in w h i c h a p o l i c e officer may arrest the a c c u s e d or a suspect w i t h o u t a warrant, and includes murder, rioting, rape, k i d n a p p i n g and abduction, robbery, dacoity, o r g a n i z e d robbery, h o u s e - b r e a k i n g and theft. Nonc o g n i z a b l e crimes are those in w h i c h a w a r r a n t is r e q u i r e d for arrest and are g e n e r a l l y of a m o r e trivial nature. Crimes can be c l a s s i f i e d as "bailable" or "non-bailable", d e p e n d i n g on their severity.(Rao, 1991) *Age of criminal responsibility. Under the IPC, criminal r e s p o n s i b i l i t y starts at the age of seven. However, any act by a child b e t w e e n 7 and 12 years old, which w o u l d o t h e r w i s e be criminal, is free from l i a b i l i t y if it is p r o v e d that the child had not a t t a i n e d s u f f i c i e n t m a t u r i t y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g to judge the nature and c o n s e q u e n c e s of his or her conduct on the o c c a s i o n in question. *Drug offenses. The N a r c o t i c Drugs and P s y c h o t r o p i c S u b s t a n c e s Act of 1985 p r o m u l g a t e d by the U n i o n g o v e r n m e n t is the main l e g i s l a t i o n d e a l i n g with drug offenses. The Act defines n a r c o t i c drugs as coca leaf, cannabis (hemp) o p i u m straw, and m a n u f a c t u r e d drugs, which includes all coca derivatives, m e d i c i n a l cannabis, o p i u m d e r i v a t i v e s and p o p p y straw concentrate. P s y c h o t r o p i c s u b s t a n c e s are those listed in the S c h e d u l e of the Act and include, among others, LSD, DET, and MDA. The Act p r o h i b i t s c u l t i v a t i o n of coca p l a n t s and the possession, sale, purchase, and use of coca leaves in v i o l a t i o n of the Act and in c o n t r a v e n t i o n of any license g r a n t e d under it. A similar p r o h i b i t i o n is i m p o s e d by the Act for p s y c h o t r o p i c substances. O f f i c e r s e m p o w e r e d under the Act include those of the Union G o v e r n m e n t (Central Excise, Narcotics, Customs) and the State G o v e r n m e n t (including Revenue, Drug Control, Excise, and the Police). 2. Crime statistics.

The N a t i o n a l Crime Records Bureau of the Union M i n i s t r y of Home A f f a i r s in N e w Delhi

publishes

Crime

in India

annually.

*Murder. T h e r e were 39,174 m u r d e r s r e c o r d e d in 1991. The IPC d e f i n e s m u r d e r as an act by w h i c h death is c a u s e d i n t e n t i o n a l l y . A t t e m p t s are not included. *Rape. T h e r e were 10,410 rapes in 1990. The IPC defines rape as sexual i n t e r c o u r s e b y a m a n w i t h a w o m a n a g a i n s t her will, w i t h o u t her consent, or with her consent, if her consent has b e e n o b t a i n e d by p u t t i n g her or any p e r s o n in w h o m she has an interest in fear of death or harm. A t t e m p t s are not included. * P r o p e r t y crime. There were 10,831 d a c o i t i e s r e c o r d e d in 1990. The IPC defines a d a c o i t y as a robbery c o m m i t t e d or a t t e m p t e d to be c o m m i t t e d jointly by five or more persons. A t t e m p t s are not included. *Serious drug offense. In 1990, there w e r e 5,299 drug offenses, as e s t a b l i s h e d by the N a r c o t i c Drugs and P s y c h o t r o p i c S u b s t a n c e s A c t of 1985. There were 64,234 kilograms of illegal s u b s t a n c e s seized. A t t e m p t s are not included. *Crime regions. In 1991, 8 cities r e c o r d e d m o r e than I0,000 c o g n i z a b l e IPC o f f e n s e s each. These were the four m e t r o p o l i t a n cities of Bombay, Calcutta, M a d r a s and Delhi and the cities of Ahmedabad, Bangalore, H y d r a b a d and Pune. The four d i s t r i c t s of Patna, Bhopal, Indore, and J a i p u r also r e g i s t e r e d m o r e than I0,000 c o g n i z a b l e IPC offenses. M u r d e r s a r i s i n g out of land d i s p u t e s are m o r e common in rural areas. S u b u r b a n areas w h i c h have i s o l a t e d h o u s i n g units and are not i n t e n s i v e l y p o l i c e d report a large number of dacoities. Cities tend to report a large n u m b e r of p o c k e t p i c k i n g s and f o r c i b l e s n a t c h i n g of j e w e l r y cases.

VICTIMS

I. Groups

most

victimized

by crime.

Due to the a b s e n c e of s u r v e y data, it is d i f f i c u l t to say w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r e t h n i c or age group is m o r e v i c t i m i z e d than another. 2. Victims' assistance agencies.

A few p r i v a t e v o l u n t a r y a g e n c i e s are a c t i v e in a s s i s t i n g v i c t i m s and survivors, p a r t i c u l a r l y

in cases of m u r d e r or rape. All of the States have S t a t e - s p o n s o r e d Legal A d v i c e Boards w h i c h offer free legal a d v i c e to the poor, both in criminal and civil litigation. 3. Role of the victim. no role either in p r o s e c u t i o n

The v i c t i m has or in sentencing. 4. Victims' rights

legislation.

Under S e c t i o n 357 of the Code of C r i m i n a l Procedure, when a Court imposes a fine or a s e n t e n c e w h i c h includes a fine, it m a y o r d e r the fine to be a w a r d e d to the v i c t i m in c o m p e n s a t i o n for any loss or i n j u r y c a u s e d by the offense. In cases w h e r e no fine is imposed, the Court m a y direct the a c c u s e d to c o m p e n s a t e any p e r s o n for loss or injury. S e c t i o n 358 of the Code of C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e p r o v i d e s for c o m p e n s a t i o n to a p e r s o n w r o n g f u l l y a r r e s t e d by the police. Until a few years ago, the courts were r e l u c t a n t to invoke these sections of law. Recently, the Higher Courts have been m o r e i n c l i n e d to award c o m p e n s a t i o n where no fine has been ordered.

POLICE

i. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The Police are a civil a u t h o r i t y s u b o r d i n a t e to the Executive, r e p r e s e n t e d in the U n i o n G o v e r n m e n t by the Prime M i n i s t e r and in the States by the Chief Minister, and their r e s p e c t i v e C o u n c i l s of Ministers. P r o m i n e n t among the U n i o n p o l i c e forces are the C e n t r a l Bureau of Investigation (CBI), Border S e c u r i t y Force (BSF), Central R e s e r v e Police Force (CRPF), C e n t r a l I n d u s t r i a l S e c u r i t y Force (CISF) and the I n d o - T i b e t a n Border Police (ITBP). Each of these forces is h e a d e d by a D i r e c t o r / D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l with the status of a t h r e e - s t a r General in the Army. The CBI is c o n t r o l l e d by the D e p a r t m e n t of P e r s o n n e l of the U n i o n G o v e r n m e n t h e a d e d by a M i n i s t e r of State who reports to the Prime Minister. The other forces are c o n t r o l l e d by the U n i o n M i n i s t r y of Home A f f a i r s h e a d e d by a C a b i n e t Minister. The bulk of the Indian Police is c o m p r i s e d of forces in the States. Each State has its own force h e a d e d by a D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l of Police (DGP) who is e q u i v a l e n t in rank to his c o u n t e r p a r t in the

Union G o v e r n m e n t forces. A n u m b e r of A d d i t i o n a l D i r e c t o r s - G e n e r a l or I n s p e c t o r s - G e n e r a l of Police (IGP) who look after various portfolios, such as Personnel, Law & Order, Intelligence, Crime, A r m e d Police, Training, and T e c h n i c a l Services are l o c a t e d at the State Police H e a d q u a r t e r s and report d i r e c t l y to the DGP. M a j o r cities in a State are h e a d e d by a C o m m i s s i o n e r of Police (CP) who, again, reports to the DGP. Areas outside these cities in a State are d i v i d e d into D i s t r i c t s of varying size. Each d i s t r i c t is h e a d e d by a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of Police (SP) and s u p e r v i s e d by a D e p u t y I n s p e c t o r - G e n e r a l (DIG) w h o s e j u r i s d i c t i o n is called a Range, c o m p o s e d of a group of three or four districts. In each D i s t r i c t and in the city p o l i c e force, the b a s i c p o l i c e unit is a Police S t a t i o n (PS). A few p o l i c e stations have an O u t - p o s t (OP) w h i c h is a m i n i - s t a t i o n for serving remote or t r o u b l e - p r o n e localities. The n u m b e r of p o l i c e stations depends on the size of the State and the District. The state of Madhya Pradesh, w h i c h is the largest state in terms of area (443,447 square kilometers) has i,i01 Police Stations and 554 out-posts. W h i l e the larger d i s t r i c t s have an average of 22 Police stations, the smaller ones have 15. A m e d i u m - s i z e d State such as Tamil Nadu, with an area of 130,058 square kilometers, has 1,090 p o l i c e stations and 163 out-posts. A m e d i u m - s i z e d D i s t r i c t c o v e r i n g an area of about 8,000 square k i l o m e t e r s has about 40 p o l i c e stations. Each p o l i c e s t a t i o n is h e a d e d by a S u b - I n s p e c t o r or I n s p e c t o r r e f e r r e d to as the Station House O f f i c e r (SHO). A d e s i g n a t e d n u m b e r of Constables, the lowest rank in the p o l i c e force, and Head C o n s t a b l e s are a s s i g n e d to each p o l i c e station. In some States, there are a d d i t i o n a l ranks, such as A s s i s t a n t S u b - I n s p e c t o r or A s s i s t a n t Police Inspector. W h i l e urban p o l i c e stations often have certain functional d i v i s i o n s such as Law and Order and Crime and Traffic, no such d i v i s i o n s exist in rural or v i l l a g e p o l i c e stations. An A r m e d R e s e r v e at the D i s t r i c t Headquarters, under the c o m m a n d of the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of Police, handles p u b l i c d i s t u r b a n c e problems, such as religious or caste riots and clashes b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l rivals. There are a few b a t t a l i o n s of the Special A r m e d Police (SAP) used for more serious situations. The SAP is d e p l o y e d by the D i r e c t o r General of Police when the s i t u a t i o n w a r r a n t s it. For example, if d u r i n g a major b r e a k d o w n of p u b l i c peace the State Police are o u t n u m b e r e d and unable to cope with the m a g n i t u d e of the disorder, a State G o v e r n m e n t may ask for Central forces, e s p e c i a l l y the C e n t r a l

Reserve Police Force. The cost of such d e p l o y m e n t is u s u a l l y borne by the State government. The Criminal I n v e s t i g a t i o n Department (CID) is an important arm of every State Police department. Headed by an A d d i t i o n a l Director of General Police or Inspector General of Police, it is a s p e c i a l i z e d agency for c o n d u c t i n g sensitive inquiries into allegations against public figures or police personnel. More importantly, it is e n t r u s t e d with the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of important criminal cases which cannot be solved by the District Police. 2. Resources. *Expenditures. There are separate budgets for the Union and State Police forces. A large State such as Madhya Pradesh has an annual police budget of Rupees 3,730 million. A m e d i u m - s i z e d State such as Tamil Nadu has an annual police budget of Rupees 3200 million. There are two schemes by which the Union G o v e r n m e n t assists State Police d e p a r t m e n t s to strengthen police administration: the Police Housing Scheme and the M o d e r n i z a t i o n Scheme. While the Police Housing Scheme funds the c o n s t r u c t i o n of housing units for lower levels of police personnel, the M o d e r n i z a t i o n Scheme finances the purchase of equipment in the areas of communication, transport and s c i e n t i f i c investigation. *Number of police. As of December 31, 1991, the actual c o l l e c t i v e police strength in the 25 States and 7 Union Territories was 1,152,586. This figure includes 13,654 female police personnel. (Crime in India, 1991, pp.196-200). Madhya Pradesh, the largest state, has a police force strength of 86,345, i n c l u d i n g 1,060 female police. The Constabulary, namely, Head Constables and Constables, constitutes more than 90% of the force strength in almost every State. A m e d i u m - s i z e d State like Tamil Nadu, with a p o p u l a t i o n of 55 million, has a force strength of about 70,000, which includes 1,275 female police personnel. As of December 31, 1991, there were 35.1 police officers per 100 square kilometer and 1.4 police officers per 1,000 p o p u l a t i o n in the country. In Madhya Pradesh, there is one police station for every 60,165 persons in the population. In the State of Tamil Nadu, there is now one police officer per 800 persons in the population, and one police station per 52,000 persons in the population. The Law ensures that the police force is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the t r a d i t i o n a l l y poor and

u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d sections of the society. T h e r e is a quota of 22.5% for r e c r u i t m e n t in e v e r y force for S c h e d u l e d Castes and S c h e d u l e d Tribes. A d d i t i o n a l l y , in some States, there is a p r e s c r i b e d quota for those listed as B a c k w a r d and Most Backward. 3. Technology. * A v a i l a b i l i t y of p o l i c e automobiles. Considerable a t t e n t i o n has been given by both the U n i o n G o v e r n m e n t and State G o v e r n m e n t s to i n c r e a s e the m o b i l i t y of p o l i c e through the p r o v i s i o n of p a s s e n g e r cars, jeeps (including f o u r - w h e e l drive), trucks, buses and m o t o r c y c l e s . For example, the Tamil Nadu Police force has a fleet s t r e n g t h of 3,980. The fleet s t r e n g t h of the M a d h y a Pradesh is 3,008. Cars are used for VIP s e c u r i t y duty and for senior officers above the level of s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . All other v e h i c l e s are a l l o t t e d to teams of p e r s o n n e l at the D i s t r i c t or police station level for p a t r o l l i n g or i n v e s t i g a t i o n work. * E l e c t r o n i c equipment. Radio c o m m u n i c a t i o n is very well o r g a n i z e d in most of the forces. Very High F r e q u e n c y (VHF) t e l e p h o n e s c o n n e c t e d by a large n u m b e r of relay stations are used to link the p o l i c e h e a d q u a r t e r s to the p o l i c e stations in every State. For instance, in Tamil Nadu, 1,015 p o l i c e stations out of a total of 1090 have b e e n p r o v i d e d V H F telephones; I01 of the 163 o u t p o s t s also have this facility. In M a d h y a Pradesh, 1,062 p o l i c e stations and 256 outposts have a w i r e l e s s t e l e g r a p h facility. The State Police have 1,516 static and 590 m o b i l e V H F sets. There is also an I n t e r - S t a t e Police W i r e l e s s (ISPW) w h i c h offers a national grid. At present, the n a t i o n a l capital, New Delhi, is c o n n e c t e d to the capital cities of States and Union T e r r i t o r i e s t h r o u g h high f r e q u e n c y radio t e l e g r a p h and by numerous t e l e p r i n t e r links. Fax facilities are also a v a i l a b l e in a n u m b e r of forces. C o m p u t e r i z a t i o n of crime i n f o r m a t i o n has taken place in a m a j o r i t y of States and is m o n i t o r e d by the N a t i o n a l Crime Records B u r e a u (NCRB) w o r k i n g under the Union Home M i n i s t r y in New Delhi. Both m a i n f r a m e and p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r s are used. C o m p u t e r - a i d e d d i s p a t c h is yet to be introduced. (While the use of computers for p e r s o n n e l m a n a g e m e n t is still l i m i t e d to a few p o l i c e forces, there is the d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y of w i d e s p r e a d use in the near future.) (Encyclopedia of the Indian Police, 1993) *Weapons. The most common weapon a v a i l a b l e at the p o l i c e s t a t i o n level is the .410 musket. The

D i s t r i c t A r m e d Reserve p o l i c e use .303 rifles and tear-gas guns. The Special A r m e d Police p o s s e s s stun-guns, mortars, light m a c h i n e guns and A K-47 rifles. A few i n d i v i d u a l p o l i c e o f f i c e r s on special assignments, such as VIP security, carry revolvers. B u l l e t - p r o o f vests are g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e to p o l i c e a s s i g n e d to p r o t e c t high dignitaries. 4. T r a i n i n g and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .

There are d i f f e r e n t r e c r u i t m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s for the Constabulary, S u b - I n s p e c t o r / I n s p e c t o r and A s s i s t a n t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t (ASP)/Deputy S u p e r i n t e n d e n t (DSP) levels. W h i l e the m i n i m u m e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n for the C o n s t a b u l a r y and S u b - I n s p e c t o r / I n s p e c t o r is a High School diploma, an u n d e r g r a d u a t e college degree is r e q u i r e d for entry into the ASP and DSP level. Physical r e q u i r e m e n t s include a m i n i m u m height of five feet five inches, good e y e - s i g h t and m i n i m u m a t t a i n m e n t s in a p h y s i c a l e f f i c i e n c y test c o n s i s t i n g of running, jumping, c l i m b i n g and throwing. P s y c h o l o g i c a l tests are not yet used in a m a j o r i t y of forces. S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s of Police (SP) are r e c r u i t e d every year by the Union G o v e r n m e n t on the basis of a national c o m p e t i t i v e e x a m and are a p p o i n t e d into what is known as the Indian Police S e r v i c e (IPS). (Although IPS officers are r e c r u i t e d by the Union Government, they are a s s i g n e d to each of the 25 States and c o l l e c t i v e l y to the 7 U n i o n Territories. Positions in the Central forces are m a n n e d p a r t l y by IPS officers drawn from the States and p a r t l y by r e c r u i t m e n t from the open market.) The other levels are r e c r u i t e d by the Union G o v e r n m e n t forces or by the State Governments. S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s of Police are t r a i n e d at the N a t i o n a l Police Academy, Hyderabad, for about a year. At the end of the year, they also u n d e r g o a brief o r i e n t a t i o n t r a i n i n g at the Police A c a d e m y of the State to which each is assigned. (IPS officers are e x p o s e d to a v a r i e t y of training p r o g r a m s during their career. These are given at the N a t i o n a l Police A c a d e m y or at the various m a n a g e m e n t institutions.) A l m o s t every State and Central Police force has its own t r a i n i n g institution. In c e r t a i n cases, t r a i n i n g resources m a y be pooled, as in the case of the North E a s t e r n Police Academy, w h i c h covers the smaller States in that region. The d u r a t i o n of training varies from State to State, and with rank. Generally, DSPs and S u b - I n s p e c t o r s spend a year at the A c a d e m y and C o n s t a b l e s are t r a i n e d for a shorter p e r i o d (9 months) at Police Recruit Schools. The t r a i n i n g faculty are n o r m a l l y police p e r s o n n e l themselves.

Only at the NPA, Hyderabad, are o u t s i d e r s such as lawyers and m a n a g e m e n t c o n s u l t a n t s a s s o c i a t e d with t r a i n i n g programs. 5. Discretion. *Use of force. The C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e Code permits the use of force by the Police to d i s p e r s e an u n l a w f u l a s s e m b l y that threatens p u b l i c peace. A p o l i c e o f f i c e r acting under this legal a u t h o r i t y cannot be p r o s e c u t e d except with the s a n c t i o n of the Government. The use of d e a d l y force is p e r m i t t e d as a final resort a g a i n s t an i n d i v i d u a l a c c u s e d of an offense p u n i s h a b l e with death or with life i m p r i s o n m e n t if he f o r c i b l y resists or a t t e m p t s to evade an arrest. The Constabulary, whose duties g e n e r a l l y involve patrol, carry a long baton (lathi). O f f i c e r s m a y carry a r e v o l v e r d u r i n g s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i o n s or when the o c c a s i o n o t h e r w i s e demands it, such as d u r i n g the tour of a VIP or while p a t r o l l i n g a d i s t u r b e d area. * S t o p / a p p r e h e n d suspect. A c o m p l a i n t of the c o m m i s s i o n of a c o g n i z a b l e o f f e n s e is d o c k e t e d into what is known as a First I n f o r m a t i o n Report (FIR). An i n d i v i d u a l could be a r r e s t e d by the Police on a s p e c i f i c c o m p l a i n t or on s u s p i c i o n of h a v i n g c o m m i t t e d a c o g n i z a b l e offense. In all such cases, the a r r e s t e e has to be b r o u g h t b e f o r e the n e a r e s t M a g i s t r a t e w i t h i n 24 hours of the arrest. A n y d e t e n t i o n in police c u s t o d y b e y o n d 24 hours is a l l o w e d only with the orders of a Magistrate. The M a g i s t r a t e has the a u t h o r i t y under the Criminal P r o c e d u r e Code to either release the i n d i v i d u a l on bail or lodge him in a sub-jail for p r e - t r i a l d e t a i n e e s and those u n d e r investigation. In certain cases, to f a c i l i t a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the M a g i s t r a t e may p e r m i t an a r r e s t e e to be r e t a i n e d in police c u s t o d y for a short period. A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g the i n v e s t i g a t i o n and o b t a i n i n g legal o p i n i o n from the p r o s e c u t i n g personnel, the p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t o r either e s t a b l i s h e s a charge-sheet, a c c o m p a n i e d by s t a t e m e n t s of witnesses, b e f o r e the c o m p e t e n t M a g i s t r a t e under the a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n of law, or, in the event of i n s u f f i c i e n t evidence, files a Final Report d r o p p i n g further action. If the d e f e n d a n t is charged, during the trial, it is the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the i n v e s t i g a t i n g o f f i c e r to assist the Public P r o s e c u t o r in every way, i n c l u d i n g the p r o d u c t i o n of witnesses. * D e c i s i o n to arrest. Police may arrest, w i t h o u t w a r r a n t and w i t h o u t an order from a Magistrate, any p e r s o n who has c o m m i t t e d or is s u s p e c t e d to a

have c o m m i t t e d a c o g n i z a b l e offense. Police m a y also a r r e s t p e r s o n s for the p u r p o s e of p r e v e n t i n g the c o m m i s s i o n of such an o f f e n s e w i t h o u t a w a r r a n t or order. V e r y few a r r e s t s are m a d e on the basis of a warrant. * S e a r c h and s e i z u r e of property. Normally, a w a r r a n t is o b t a i n e d by the Police to s e a r c h a place. However, when an o f f i c e r b e l i e v e s that a m a t e r i a l n e e d e d for i n v e s t i g a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e in a c e r t a i n p l a c e and c o n c l u d e s that the loss of time i n c u r r e d by o b t a i n i n g a w a r r a n t w o u l d be p r e j u d i c i a l to the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , he m a y s e a r c h the p l a c e w i t h o u t a w a r r a n t after r e c o r d i n g the grounds for his belief. A n y p o l i c e o f f i c e r m a y seize any p r o p e r t y w h i c h is a l l e g e d or s u s p e c t e d to be s t o l e n or w h i c h is found under c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h create s u s p i c i o n of the c o m m i s s i o n of any offense. *Confessions. U n d e r S e c t i o n 25 of the I n d i a n E v i d e n c e Act, no c o n f e s s i o n m a d e to a p o l i c e o f f i c e r is a d m i s s i b l e as evidence. However, there is a p r o v i s i o n in S e c t i o n 27 which states that when such c o n f e s s i o n leads to the r e c o v e r y of a m a t e r i a l fact (for example, the w e a p o n u s e d in a murder), the p o r t i o n of the c o n f e s s i o n w h i c h h a d d i r e c t l y led to the r e c o v e r y can be a d m i t t e d into evidence. Also, d u r i n g the course of an investigation, a M a g i s t r a t e m a y record the c o n f e s s i o n of any p e r s o n after w a r n i n g the p e r s o n that the r e c o r d i n g could be used as e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t him/her. 6. A c c o u n t a b i l i t y . C o m p l a i n t s of p o l i c e m i s c o n d u c t are first h a n d l e d by the d e p a r t m e n t a l hierarchy. A l l e g a t i o n s of t o r t u r e or d e a t h in p o l i c e c u s t o d y are often p r o b e d by the CID. Charges of c o r r u p t i o n are i n v e s t i g a t e d by the D i r e c t o r of V i g i l a n c e who is u s u a l l y a p o l i c e o f f i c e r of the rank of DGP or IGP and is s t a t i o n e d o u t s i d e the department. The D i r e c t o r of V i g i l a n c e reports to a V i g i l a n c e C o m m i s s i o n e r , who is a high r a n k i n g civil s e r v i c e officer. In some States, p o l i c e s t a n d i n g orders p r o v i d e for an a u t o m a t i c i n q u i r y into c o m p l a i n t s of p o l i c e t o r t u r e by a civil a u t h o r i t y c a l l e d the D e p u t y Collector. Complaints can also be m a d e to a r e v e n u e d i v i s i o n a l o f f i c e r who p o s s e s s e s m a g i s t e r i a l powers. If the i n q u i r y proves the c o m p l a i n t to be true, a c h a r g e - s h e e t under the IPC m a y be filed in Court a g a i n s t the d e l i n q u e n t p o l i c e o f f i c e r s who may u l t i m a t e l y stand trial as offenders.

PROSECUTORIAL

AND

JUDICIAL

PROCESS

I. Rights

of the Accused.

*Rights of the accused. An a c c u s e d is not r e q u i r e d to be p h y s i c a l l y p r e s e n t in court and m a y be r e p r e s e n t e d by his pleader. The a c c u s e d is e n t i t l e d to r e c e i v e w i t h o u t d e l a y a copy of the p o l i c e report, the first i n f o r m a t i o n report (FIR), and all s t a t e m e n t s and c o n f e s s i o n s on w h i c h the p r o s e c u t i o n p r o p o s e s to rely for p r o v i n g its case. This p r i v i l e g e also extends to cases i n i t i a t e d in a m a n n e r other than by a p o l i c e report. All e v i d e n c e a d m i t t e d d u r i n g a trial shall be r e c o r d e d in the p r e s e n c e of the a c c u s e d or his pleader. If the a c c u s e d pleads guilty, the Judge shall r e c o r d the plea and may, using his or her discretion, convict h i m or her thereon. The s y s t e m of trial by jury was given up decades ago. * A s s i s t a n c e to the accused. A n y p e r s o n a c c u s e d of an o f f e n s e b e f o r e a criminal court has the right to be d e f e n d e d by a p l e a d e r of his choice. In cases w h e r e the a c c u s e d has no m e a n s of e n g a g i n g a pleader, it is i n c u m b e n t on the C o u r t to a s s i g n a p l e a d e r for his or her d e f e n s e at State expense. 2. Procedures.

* P r e p a r a t o r y p r o c e d u r e s for b r i n g i n g a s u s p e c t to trial. A p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and the filing of a charge-sheet before a Magistrate precede a criminal trial. If the M a g i s t r a t e b e l i e v e s that on the basis of the a v a i l a b l e r e c o r d there is s u f f i c i e n t g r o u n d for prosecution, a summons or w a r r a n t is issued. W a r r a n t s are u s e d for o f f e n s e s p u n i s h a b l e w i t h death, life i m p r i s o n m e n t , or for p r i s o n terms e x c e e d i n g 2 years. W h e n the a c c u s e d appears b e f o r e the Magistrate, the M a g i s t r a t e ensures that, on the facts of the case, the charges a g a i n s t the a c c u s e d have b e e n c o r r e c t l y framed. This is done a f t e r the M a g i s t r a t e has f u r n i s h e d a copy of the p o l i c e report and other records to the accused. At this stage or at any time b e f o r e j u d g m e n t is delivered, the M a g i s t r a t e m a y alter or add any c h a r g e and e x p l a i n the charge to the accused. The trial c o m m e n c e s t h e r e a f t e r w i t h the A s s i s t a n t Public P r o s e c u t o r (APP) e x a m i n i n g p r o s e c u t i o n witnesses. However, w h e n the M a g i s t r a t e finds that a cited o f f e n s e is in fact t r i a b l e e x c l u s i v e l y by the h i g h e r Court, namely, the Court of Sessions, he or she commits the case to that Court after n o t i f y i n g the Prosecutor. Except for m i n o r d i f f e r e n c e s , the trials b e f o r e

Sessions fashion.

and M a g i s t r a t e

Courts

proceed

in s i m i l a r

* O f f i c i a l who conducts p r o s e c u t i o n . An Assistant P u b l i c Prosecutor, who is u s u a l l y a f u l l - t i m e G o v e r n m e n t counsel, c o n d u c t s the p r o s e c u t i o n in the M a g i s t r a t e ' s Court. A Public P r o s e c u t o r (PP) is also a v a i l a b l e at e v e r y D i s t r i c t h e a d q u a r t e r s to conduct cases b e f o r e the S e s s i o n s Court. The Public P r o s e c u t o r is a p p o i n t e d on a c o n t r a c t b a s i s for a s p e c i f i e d period. T h e r e is also a P u b l i c P r o s e c u t o r who is c o n t r a c t e d for the w h o l e State and appears on b e h a l f of the G o v e r n m e n t b e f o r e the High Court. A n y person, i n c l u d i n g a p o l i c e o f f i c e r with a r a n k i n g at or a b o v e Inspector, who has not i n v e s t i g a t e d the case m a y c o n d u c t the p r o s e c u t i o n in a M a g i s t r a t e ' s Court. This p e r s o n m a y c o n d u c t the p r o s e c u t i o n after r e c e i v i n g the p e r m i s s i o n of the court or the Public P r o s e c u t o r \ A s s i s t a n t Public Prosecutor. * A l t e r n a t i v e s to trial. Indian criminal not p r o v i d e for plea b a r g a i n i n g . law does

* P r o p o r t i o n of p r o s e c u t e d cases going to trial. W h i l e almost all cases b e f o r e the Sessions Court p r o c e e d to a trial, a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of those b e f o r e a M a g i s t r a t e ' s Court do not. The d i f f e r e n c e is e x p l a i n e d by the s e v e r i t y of the cases b e f o r e the former. * P r e - t r i a l i n c a r c e r a t i o n conditions. In cases w h e r e p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n cannot be c o m p l e t e d w i t h i n 24 hours of the arrest, the a c c u s e d is p r e s e n t e d to the n e a r e s t J u d i c i a l M a g i s t r a t e . If the c i r c u m s t a n c e s w a r r a n t c u s t o d y of the accused, the M a g i s t r a t e will order a p e r i o d of detention. For f i r s t - t i m e offenders, 15 days is ordered. However, such d e t e n t i o n p e r i o d s can be e x t e n d e d to 90 days if the o f f e n s e is one p u n i s h a b l e by d e a t h or i m p r i s o n m e n t for m o r e than i0 years or for 60 days for other lesser offenses. *Bail procedure. The First S c h e d u l e of the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e Code c l a s s i f i e s o f f e n s e s as n o n - b a i l a b l e or bailable. Non-bailable offenses i n c l u d e m u r d e r or a t t e m p t e d murder, c a u s i n g g r i e v o u s hurt, rape, theft, robbery, and dacoity. A p e r s o n a r r e s t e d for a b a i l a b l e o f f e n s e m a y be r e l e a s e d by the p o l i c e or by a court b e f o r e w h o m he or she is produced. Based on the d i s c r e t i o n of the p o l i c e or the court, the s u s p e c t m a y be d i s c h a r g e d on h i s / h e r own r e c o g n i z a n c e . A n i n d i v i d u a l a c c u s e d of a n o n - b a i l a b l e o f f e n s e p u n i s h a b l e with d e a t h or i m p r i s o n m e n t for life, m a y be r e l e a s e d on bail only by the High Court or a Court of Session. This p r o v i s i o n e x c l u d e s women,

p e r s o n s b e l o w 16 years sick or infirm.

of age or those

who

are

* P r o p o r t i o n of p r e - t r i a l o f f e n d e r s i n c a r c e r a t e d . N e a r l y 75% of p r e - t r i a l o f f e n d e r s are incarcerated, m o s t for 1 or 2 days. Only about 25% of p r e - t r i a l o f f e n d e r s m a y be e x p e c t e d to be in jail d u r i n g the trial. W h i l e no n a t i o n a l data exists, the n u m b e r of p r i s o n e r s a w a i t i n g trial in Tamil Nadu p r i s o n s was 607 as of June 1993.

JUDICIAL

SYSTEM

i. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Supreme Court. The h i g h e s t Court of the land is the S u p r e m e Court of India l o c a t e d in N e w Delhi. Other j u d i c i a l b o d i e s at the U n i o n level take the form of t r i b u n a l s whose m e m b e r s m a y be from the j u d i c i a r y or from the civil service. The S u p r e m e Court of India is a court of records and hears appeals from any judgments of a High Court. It has the p o w e r to issue p r e r o g a t i v e writs in the n a t u r e of habeas corpus, mandamus, p r o h i b i t i o n , quo w a r r a n t o and c e r t i o r a r i in the e n f o r c e m e n t of f u n d a m e n t a l rights (Sandhu and C h o u d h u r i 1987). High Courts. Each State or a group of States has a High Court. This is also a court of r e c o r d which hears appeals from the d i s t r i c t courts and has the power to grant writs. Court of Sessions. B e l o w the High Court is a Court of Sessions of w h i c h the Judge, in his or her c a p a c i t y as D i s t r i c t Judge, also h a n d l e s civil cases. T h e r e are a few A d d i t i o n a l and A s s i s t a n t Judges e x e r c i s i n g the powers of the S e s s i o n s Judge in s p e c i f i e d offenses. D i s t r i c t Courts. At the d i s t r i c t level, the lower criminal courts (sub-divisional courts) are h e a d e d by M a g i s t r a t e s (sub m a g i s t r a t e s and s u b - d i v i s i o n a l m a g i s t r a t e s ) with j u r i s d i c t i o n over o f f e n s e s l i s t e d in the First S c h e d u l e to the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e Code. One of the M a g i s t r a t e s in a D i s t r i c t is a p p o i n t e d as the Chief J u d i c i a l Magistrate. Magistrates commit for trial to the Court of Sessions c e r t a i n offenses, such as murder, w h i c h are e x c l u s i v e l y triable by S e s s i o n s Judges. M a g i s t r a t e s are c o m p e t e n t to try and d i s p o s e of lesser offenses. (To o v e r s e e and assist the Police in the m a i n t e n a n c e of p u b l i c peace, p a r t i c u l a r l y in m a t t e r s such as d i s p e r s a l of an u n l a w f u l a s s e m b l y p o s i n g threat to p u b l i c

t r a n q u i l l i t y and the h a n d l i n g of d i s p u t e s over immovable property, the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e Code empowers the G o v e r n m e n t to appoint a few E x e c u t i v e M a g i s t r a t e s . E x e c u t i v e M a g i s t r a t e s are civil servants who look after M a g i s t e r i a l functions in a d d i t i o n to their own a d m i n i s t r a t i v e duties. The most senior civil servant in a District, n a m e l y the C o l l e c t o r / D e p u t y C o m m i s s i o n e r , is a p p o i n t e d as the D i s t r i c t Magistrate.) 2. Special courts.

The C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e Code e m p o w e r s the High Court, upon b e i n g r e q u e s t e d by the U n i o n or State Government, to confer on any p e r s o n the powers of a Judicial M a g i s t r a t e to try p a r t i c u l a r cases or classes of cases. Special courts exist for h a n d l i n g a v a r i e t y of problems, i n c l u d i n g t e r r o r i s t violence, family disputes, j u v e n i l e delinquency, theft of forest wealth, c o r r u p t i o n among p u b l i c officials, and various s o c i o - e c o n o m i c offenses (such as adulteration, h o a r d i n g and b l a c k - m a r k e t i n g of essential food articles). Judges p r e s i d i n g over such courts sometimes look after IPC offenses. 3. Judges. *Number of judges. I n c l u d i n g the Chief Justice, the S u p r e m e Court of India has 26 Judges. The number of judges varies in the State High Courts. One of the m e d i u m - s i z e d High Courts is M a d r a s with 24. Increasingly, female judges are b e i n g a p p o i n t e d at all levels. At present, there is one female on the Supreme Court. T h e r e is no regional or e t h n i c quota for the higher judiciary. *Appointment, training, and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts are a p p o i n t e d by the President of India acting on the advice of the E x e c u t i v e and after a p r o c e s s of c o n s u l t a t i o n with the e x i s t i n g Judges. Judges who have sat on a High Court for at least 5 years, or have p r a c t i c e d as an A d v o c a t e in a High Court for I0 years, or a person who, in the o p i n i o n of the President, is a d i s t i n g u i s h e d jurist, are all e l i g i b l e for the Supreme Court. A n y o n e who has held a judicial office for I0 years or has been an A d v o c a t e in a High Court for i0 years is e l i g i b l e for a p o s i t i o n on the High court. Sessions Judges are a p p o i n t e d by the State G o v e r n o r in c o n s u l t a t i o n with the High Court. Other judicial a p p o i n t m e n t s are made by the G o v e r n o r after c o n s u l t a t i o n with the State Public Service C o m m i s s i o n and the High Court.

PENALTIES AND SENTENCING

i. S e n t e n c i n g

Process. The trial judge

*Who D e t e r m i n e s the s e n t e n c e ? d e t e r m i n e s the sentence.

*Is there a special s e n t e n c i n g h e a r i n g ? There is no special s e n t e n c i n g hearing. At the end of a trial, the s e n t e n c e is w h o l l y d e t e r m i n e d by the Judge, who d e l i v e r s the sentence. The a c c u s e d is r e q u i r e d to be p r e s e n t in Court at this time, unless a b s e n c e at the trial had b e e n p r e v i o u s l y a p p r o v e d or if the s e n t e n c e is a fine. *Which p e r s o n s have input into the s e n t e n c i n g p r o c e s s ? No other p e r { o n (social worker, p s y c h i a t r i s t or victim) has input in the s e n t e n c i n g process. 2. Types of Penalties

*Range of penalties. Available penalties include the death sentence, life imprisonment, imprisonment, f o r f e i t u r e of property, and fines. Under certain circumstances, a p e r s o n under 21 years of age who is c o n v i c t e d of an o f f e n s e p u n i s h a b l e with a fine or with i m p r i s o n m e n t for 7 years or less may be r e l e a s e d on probation. C o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t r e a t m e n t is also available. P r o b a t i o n with and w i t h o u t s u p e r v i s i o n is the p r i m a r y c o m m u n i t y b a s e d treatment. The p r o b a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t functions under the Home D e p a r t m e n t in most states and under the w e l f a r e d e p a r t m e n t in the other states. Generally, p u n i s h m e n t takes the form of a term of i m p r i s o n m e n t or fine or some c o m b i n a t i o n of both. *Death penalty. A death sentence can be i m p o s e d for m u r d e r and for s p e c i f i e d offenses a g a i n s t the State w h i c h include w a g i n g war a g a i n s t the G o v e r n m e n t of India, a t t e m p t i n g or a b e t t i n g war or mutiny. Special reasons have to be given for i m p o s i n g the death penalty. For instance, in a d d i t i o n to the above circumstances, the d e a t h p e n a l t y can be i m p o s e d for a b e t t i n g the s u i c i d e of a child, an insane or d e l i r i o u s person, an idiot, or an i n t o x i c a t e d person. The death p e n a l t y can also be i m p o s e d when an i n d i v i d u a l s e r v i n g a life s e n t e n c e attempts to murder, even if a n o n - f a t a l injury results from the attempt. E x e c u t i o n is by hanging. While n a t i o n w i d e figures on e x e c u t i o n s are not available, i n q u i r i e s indicate that in Tamil Nadu, two to three p e r s o n s are h a n g e d each year.

PRISON

I. Description. *Number of p r i s o n s and type. As of A p r i l I, 1992, there w e r e 1,155 p r i s o n s in India. These included 86 Central Prisons, 252 D i s t r i c t Prisons and 718 sub-jails. In a typical State, such as Tamil Nadu, there are five c a t e g o r i e s of prisons. In T a m i l N a d u there are 8 central prisons, w h i c h are u s e d for convicts s e r v i n g one m o n t h or more, 2 special prisons for women, which are used for female convicts s e r v i n g more than 1 month; 113 sub-jails, w h i c h are u s e d for convicts s e r v i n g less than 1 m o n t h or a w a i t i n g trial; 1 Borstal School u s e d for a d o l e s c e n t convicts from 16 to 23 years old; and one O p e n A i r Prison. In addition, some States have a D i s t r i c t Prison which a c c o m m o d a t e s c o n v i c t s serving a t e r m of 1 year or less. *Number of p r i s o n beds. As of A p r i l i, 1992, the total p r i s o n c a p a c i t y of India was 193,987. The State of Tamil N a d u is at 50% capacity, with a p r i s o n p o p u l a t i o n of 18,228. W o m e n a c c o u n t for less than 5% of the total Indian p r i s o n population. * N u m b e r of annual obtained. admissions. Information not

*Average daily population/number I n f o r m a t i o n not obtained.

of prisoners.

*Actual or e s t i m a t e d p r o p o r t i o n s of inmates incarcerated. I n f o r m a t i o n not obtained. 2. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . *Administration. The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Prisons in India is the sole r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the States. All p r i s o n s are m a n a g e d by State g o v e r n m e n t s or by the U n i o n T e r r i t o r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t is l a r g e l y c o n c e r n e d with p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n and p l a n n i n g services. In each State, the head of p r i s o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is an I n s p e c t o r General who is u s u a l l y a p o l i c e officer. He has a few D e p u t y I n s p e c t o r s - G e n e r a l to look after the jails in each of the various g e o g r a p h i c a l ranges into w h i c h the State is divided. In the state of Tamil Nadu there are four such Ranges. P r i s o n e r s are c l a s s i f i e d on the basis of age, sex, m e n t a l health, nature of o f f e n s e

(criminal, civil, or security), and the f r e q u e n c y of the c o m m i s s i o n of crime. In Tamil Nadu prisons, prisoners are c a t e g o r i z e d into A and B classes. The criteria for A class are social status, education, style of living, character and antecedents. Those c o n v i c t e d for offenses involving gross d e p r a v i t y of character or for offenses against society are not eligible for A class. The Central Prisons and the jails have both custodial and treatment staff who include m e d i c a l doctors, psychologists, welfare officers, social workers, teachers and vocational instructors. The h i e r a r c h y of custodial staff in the p r i s o n s y s t e m takes the following form: superintendent, jailer, deputy jailer, assistant jailer, head warders, warders. *Number of prison guards. Prison guards are known as warders, who are s u p e r v i s e d by head warders. While no national data is available, as of 1993, the state of Tamil Nadu had 2,108 warders, 347 head warders, and 33 chief head warders, of which 76 were female. *Training and qualifications. While no national data is available, the basic q u a l i f i c a t i o n for recruitment of warders in the state of Tamil Nadu is a High School diploma. They are put through a six-month training p r o g r a m in discipline, the p r i n c i p l e s of prison administration, and the p r a c t i c e of correctional procedure. * E x p e n d i t u r e on Prison system. While no national data is available, during the fiscal year 1992-93, the Tamil Nadu Prison Department had a budget of Rupees 238 million. 3. Prison conditions.

*Remissions. Different scales of remission exist. For instance, 2 days per month for good conduct or work done while in prison can be given. Convicts employed in prison services such as cooking and sweeping and who must work on Sundays and other holidays get 3 days of remission every quarter. There is also a Special remission of 30 days a year for m a i n t a i n i n g prison discipline. Parole is allowed in the form of e m e r g e n c y leave (15 days yearly) and o r d i n a r y leave (30 days yearly) for p a r t i c i p a t i n g in family ceremonies, such as marriages or funerals and for a t t e n d i n g to domestic problems like enrollment of children into school and repairs to one's home. *Work/education. Prisoners sentenced to rigorous i m p r i s o n m e n t are assigned the a p p r o p r i a t e class of

hard, medium, or light labor under r e c o m m e n d a t i o n of the m e d i c a l officer. P u r p o s e l e s s and n o n - p r o d u c t i v e forms of labor are avoided. Prisoners are often taught trades such as carpentry, tailoring, weaving, and book binding. Every central p r i s o n has an e l e m e n t a r y school with q u a l i f i e d teachers. A d u l t e d u c a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e for all prisoners. A t t e n d a n c e is optional. Prisoners can also enroll in d i s t a n c e e d u c a t i o n programs, such as u n i v e r s i t y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e courses. There are m a n y i n s t a n c e s of p r i s o n e r s r e c e i v i n g u n d e r - g r a d u a t e and g r a d u a t e degrees. *Amenities and Privileges. V e g e t a r i a n and n o n - v e g e t a r i a n food is p r o v i d e d at fixed costs, which are s l i g h t l y higher for A class prisoners. A special diet is a v a i l a b l e to women and their babies, and to sick p r i s o n e r s on m e d i c a l advice. Each central p r i s o n has a h o s p i t a l with a p a r t - t i m e m e d i c a l officer. W r i t i n g and r e c e i v i n g letters and i n t e r v i e w s with relatives are permitted. R e c r e a t i o n in the form of games, yoga, t e l e v i s i o n w a t c h i n g and m e d i t a t i o n classes are also available.

EXTRADITION AND TREATIES

*Extradition. India has e n t e r e d into b i l a t e r a l e x t r a d i t i o n treaties with Nepal, the U n i t e d States of America, Uganda, Bhutan, The Netherlands, Belgium, Canada and the U n i t e d K i n g d o m (including N o r t h e r n Ireland). India is a m e m b e r of the South Asia A s s o c i a t i o n for Regional C o o p e r a t i o n (SAARC) C o n v e n t i o n on S u p p r e s s i o n of T e r r o r i s m along with Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangla Desh, Nepal and the Maldives. The C o n v e n t i o n provides for the e x t r a d i t i o n of fugitive offenders. * E x c h a n g e and t r a n s f e r not obtained. of prisoners. Information

* S p e c i f i e d conditions. As a general rule, offenses of a p o l i t i c a l nature are e x c l u d e d from the p u r v i e w of extradition. Also, the return of a fugitive criminal to India is sought only if the offense with w h i c h he is charged is r e c o g n i z e d by the e x t r a d i t i o n treaty with the c o u n t r y from which such e x t r a d i t i o n is sought.

SOURCES

Basham, A.L, The Wonder that was India. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1967. Constitution of India, 1950. Criminal Procedure Code, 1974. Ghosh, S.K, and Rustamji, K.F (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Police in India. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1993. Govt. of Tamil Nadu, Policy Note on the Administration of Jails, 1993-94. Madras, Home Department, 1993. Griffith, Percival, To Guard My People: The History of the Indian Police. Bombay: )~llied Publishers, 1971. Indian Penal Code, 1860. Jois, Rama, M, Legal and Constitutional History of India, Vol. I & II. Bombay: N.M.Tripathy Ltd., 1990. Mohanty, A. and Hazary, N., The Indian Prison System. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1990. National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 1991. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, November 1992. Pillai, Atchutan, Criminal Law. Bombay: N.M. Tripathi, 1983. Rao, Venugopal., Criminal Justice. Delhi: Konark publishers, Pvt. Ltd., 1991. Thapar, Romila., A History of India, Volume I. London: Penguin, 1990. Additional R.K. Raghaven Professor and General-Director Indian Police Service 3 Sir Ramaswami Street Vepery, Madras 600 007 India

of Police