PROJECT NAME: VARIOUS ALLOYS OF IRON

SUBMITTED TO: MR. JASVINDER SINGH

SUBMITED BY: SHIVAM GUPTA Roll No.: B43 Section:M3R16

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to JASVINDER SINGH our material science teacher for having faith in my work, believing in my writing, whispering the words of encouragement and making helpful suggestions from time to time. I hope every student gets a teacher who is as co-operative and supportive as JASVINDER SINGH. I would like to thanks all my friends for enduring the late nights, the clicking keyboard and the noisy printer and mostly for putting up with yet another marathon effort. Also, I would like to thanks my parents for providing me funds so that I can complete the desired work.

Introduction

Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe (from Latin: ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element (by mass) forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust. Iron's very common presence in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production as a result of fusion in high-mass stars, where the production of nickel56 (which decays to the most common isotope of iron) is the last nuclear fusion reaction that is exothermic. This causes radioactive nickel to become the last element to be produced before collapse of a supernova leads to the explosive events that scatter this precursor radionuclide of iron abundantly into space. Like other group 8 elements, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, 2 to +8, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen and water. Fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silverygray, but oxidize in normal air to give iron oxides, also known as rust. Unlike many other metals which form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than iron metal, and thus iron oxides flake off and expose fresh surfaces for corrosion.

Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with molecular oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin; these two compounds are common oxygen transport proteins in vertebrates. Iron is also the metal used at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals.

Some facts about iron

Iron Discovery: Known since prehistoric time Electron Configuration: [Ar]4s23d6 Word Origin: Latin ferrum; Anglo-Saxon iron Isotopes: There are 14 known isotopes of iron. Common iron consists of a mixture of 4 isotopes. Properties: The melting point of iron is 1535C, boiling point is 2750C, specific gravity is 7.874 (20C), with a valence of 2, 3, 4, or 6. Pure iron is chemically reactive and corrodes rapidly, especially in moist air or at elevated temperatures. Four allotropic forms, or ferrites, are known: a, b, g, and d, with transition points at 770, 928, and 1530C. The form is magnetic, but when iron is transformed into the b form, the magnetism disappears, although the lattice remains unchanged. Uses: Iron is vital to plant and animal life. In humans, it appears in the hemoglobin molecule. Iron metal is usually alloyed with other metals and carbon for commercial uses. Pig iron is an alloy containing about 3-5% carbon, with varying quantities of Si, S, P, and Mn. Pig iron is brittle, hard, and fairly fusible and is used to produce other iron alloys, including steel. Wrought iron contains only a few tenths of a percent of carbon and is malleable, tough, and less fusible than pig iron. Wrought iron typically has a fibrous structure. Carbon steel is an iron alloy with carbon and small amounts of S, Si, Mn, and P. Alloy steels are carbon steels that contain additives such as chromium, nickel, vanadium, etc. Iron is the least expensive, most abundant, and most used of all metals. Density (g/cc): 7.874 Appearance: malleable, ductile, silvery metal Atomic Radius (pm): 126 Atomic Volume (cc/mol): 7.1 Covalent Radius (pm): 117 Ionic Radius: 64 (+3e) 74 (+2e) Specific Heat (@20C J/g mol): 0.443 Fusion Heat (kJ/mol): 13.8 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): ~340

Debye Temperature (K): 460.00 Pauling Negativity Number: 1.83 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 759.1 Oxidation States: 6, 3, 2, 0, -2 Lattice Structure: Body-Centered Cubic Lattice Constant (): 2.870 Sources: hematite, magnetite (oxide) Hydride(s): none Oxide(s): FeO, Fe3O4, Fe2O3

Alloy
An alloy is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phasemicro structure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal (heat treatment)history. Alloys usually have different properties from those of the component elements. Alloys' constituents are usually measured by mass.

Different alloys of iron

1. Elinvar- Elinvar is a nickel steel alloy with a modulus of elasticity which does not
change much with temperature changes. The name is a contraction of the French elasticit invariable. It was invented in the late 1890s by Charles douard Guillaume, a Swiss physicist who also invented Invar, another alloy of nickel and iron, which has very low thermal expansion. Guillaume won the 1920 Nobel Prize in Physics for these discoveries, which indicates how important these alloys were for scientific instruments. Elinvar consists of 59% iron, 36% nickel, and 5% chromium. It is almost nonmagnetic and corrosion resistant. USE: The largest use of Elinvar was in balance springs for mechanical watches and chronometers. A major cause of inaccuracy in watches and clocks was that ordinary steels used in springs lost elasticity slightly as the temperature increased, so the balance wheel would oscillate more slowly back and forth, and the clock would lose time.

2. Fernico- Fernico is an alloy of Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co). The
abbreviation forms the name which is (or was) a trademark. The alloy has the same linear coefficient of expansion as certain types of glass, and thus makes an ideal material for the lead out wires in light bulbs and thermionic valves.

3. Ferroalloy- Ferroalloy refers to various alloys of iron with a high proportion of one or
more other elements, manganese or silicon for example. It is used in the production of steels and alloys as a raw material. The main ferroalloys are: FeAl ferroaluminum FeB ferroboron 1220% of boron, max. 3% of silicon, max. 2% aluminium, max. 1% of carbon FeCe ferrocerium FeCr ferrochromium FeMg ferromagnesium FeMn ferromanganese FeMo ferromolybdenum min. 60% Mo, max. 1% Si, max. 0.5% Cu FeNb ferroniobium, also called ferrocolumbium FeNi ferronickel FeP ferrophosphorus FeSi ferrosilicon 1590% Si FeSiMg ferrosilicon magnesium (with Mg 4 to 25 %), also called nodulizer FeTi ferrotitanium 10..3065..75% Ti, max. 56.5% Al, max. 14% Si FeU ferrouranium FeV ferrovanadium FeW ferrotungsten

4.

Invar- Invar, also known generically as FeNi36 (64FeNi in the US), is

a nickel iron alloy notable for its uniquely low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE or ). The name, Invar, comes from the word invariable, referring to its lack of expansion or contraction with temperature changes. It was invented in 1896 by Swiss scientist Charles douard Guillaume. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920 for this discovery, which enabled improvements in scientific instruments.

5. Kovar- Kovar (trademark of Carpenter Technology Corporation) is a nickelcobalt ferrous alloy designed to be compatible with the thermal expansion characteristics of borosilicate glass (~510-6 /K between 30 and 200C, to ~1010-6 /K at 800C) in order to allow direct mechanical connections over a range of temperatures. It finds application in electroplated conductors entering glass envelopes of electronic parts such as vacuum tubes (valves), X-ray and microwave tubes and some lightbulbs. The name Kovar is often used as a general term for Fe-Ni alloys with these particular thermal expansion properties. Note the related particular Fe-Ni alloy Invar which exhibits minimum thermal expansion.

6. Spiegeleisen- (literally "mirror-iron", German: Spiegelmirror or specula; Eiseniron) is

a ferromanganese alloy containing approximately 15% manganese and small quantities of carbon and silicon. Historically, this was the standard form in which manganese was traded and used in steel making. Being remarkably free from impurities, as phosphorus, sulphur, silica, it was much used in the Bessemer process for the purpose of reintroducing carbon. It reduces the iron oxide and is itself subject to oxidation. It mostly originated in Germany and was made from hematite. Today, manganese is usually traded and used in more concentrated form, 80% manganese content being typical. Spiegeleisen is sometimes also referred to as specular pig iron, Spiegel iron, just Spiegel, or Bisalloy.

7. Steel- Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and the form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased

carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but such steel is also less ductile than iron. Alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point and good castability. Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron, which can contain a small amount of carbon, but it is included in the form of slag inclusions. Two distinguishing factors are steel's increased rust resistance and better weldability.

8.

Tool steel- Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are

particularly well-suited to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures (red-hardness). Tool steel is generally used in a heattreated state. With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The manganese content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during water quenching. However, proper heat treating of these steels is important for adequate performance, and there are many suppliers who provide tooling blanks intended for oil quenching.

9.

Wootz steel- Wootz steel is a steel characterized by a pattern of bands or sheets

of micro carbides within a tempered martensite or pearlite matrix. It was developed in India around 300 BC. The word wootz may have been a mistranscription of wook, an anglicised version of urukke, the word for steel in Tamil and Malayalam or ukku, the word for steel in Kannada, Telugu and many other southern Indian languages.

10. Irona. Cast iron- Cast iron is derived from pig iron, and while it usually refers to gray iron, it
also identifies a large group of ferrous alloys which solidify with a eutectic. The color of a fractured surface can be used to identify an alloy. White cast iron is named after its white surface when fractured, due to its carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured surface, which occurs because the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks. Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the amount ranging from 2.1 to 4 wt% and 1 to 3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes these base alloys ternary Fe-C-Si alloys, the principle of cast iron solidification is understood from the binary iron-carbon phase diagram. Since the compositions of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of the iron-carbon system, the melting temperatures closely correlate, usually ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 C (2,102 to 2,192 F), which is about 300 C (572 F) lower than the melting point of pure iron.

b. Pure iron- Pig iron is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore with a high-carbon fuel such as coke, usually with limestone as a flux. Charcoal and anthracite have also been used as fuel. Pig iron has a very high carbon content, typically 3.54.5%, which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.

c. Wrought

iron- Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content, in

comparison to steel, and has fibrous inclusions, known as slag. This is what gives it a "grain" resembling wood, which is visible when it is etched or bent to the point of failure. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile and easily welded. Historically, it was known as "commercially pure iron"; however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008 wt%.

Applications of iron alloys

These alloys combine the high-temperature strength and stability of o x i d e d i s p e r s i o n s t r e n g t h e n i n g w i t h e x c e l l e n t r e s i s t a n c e t o o x i d a t i o n , carburization, and hot corrosion. These alloys are suitable for use in gas turbine combustion chambers. Incoloy alloy MA 956 is particularly well suited for use in heat processing applications. For example, vacuum furnace textures made of MA9 5 6 h a v e s h o w n e x c e l l e n t d u r a b i l i t y a n d a r e a b l e t o c o m p e t e w i th wroughtm o l yb d e n u m , w h i c h i s a l s o u s e d i n t h e s e a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n c o m p a r i s o n t o m o l yb d e n u m , M A 9 5 6 i s a b o u t 3 0 % l o w e r i n d e n s i t y, p r o v i d i n g w e i g h t s a v i n g s a n d cost advantages. Further, since MA 956 has a lower vapor pressure than molybdenum, it will not coat the inside of the vacuum chamber or the parts beingh e a t t r e a t e d . T h u s , M A 9 5 6 r o d s , a t s , a n d s h e e t s a r e u s e d i n n u m e r o u s atmosphere and vacuum furnace applications including mues, baskets, and t h e r m o w e l l s . .

Alloy MA 956 in tubing form has also been used for high itemperature, severe service applications such a s coke injection lance pipes in steelmaking. The alloy MA 956 is also being us ed in glass processing industrybecause of its resistance to attack by molten glass. Because of this

corrosion resistance, the alloy is being evaluated for applications such as ring-kiln rollers, mu e tubes,a n d f u r n a c e r a c k s . O t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e m o l t e n g l a s s r e s i s t a n c e h e a t e r s , thermocouple protection tubes, glass -processing components used in nuclear waste disposal and the bushings used to make single and multi-strand bers.M o r e r e c e n t l y, M A 9 5 7 h a s b e e n e v a l u a t e d f o r u s e a s t h e f u e l c l a d d i n g i n f a s t neutron, breeder reactors. Conventional austenitic alloys are unsuitable for thisa p p l i c a t i o n d u e t o t h e d i m e n s i o n a l s w e l l i n g p h e n o m e n o n c a u s e d b y t h e h i g h n e u t r o n u x e s . T h e m e c h a n i c a l l y a l l o ye d m a t e r i a l s a r e a l s o b e i n g evaluated forheat exchanger components in high-temperature gascooled reactors.

Ref eren ces

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