Working Bibliography

WHAT IS A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY? It is a listing (usually on 3x5 cards) of possible sources (books, articles, pamphlets, etc.) that you might use for gathering information and writing your research paper. You may create a Working Bibliography in your computer also. It will be a longer bibliography than the one in your final paper. The working bibliography will evolve and change as you gather new sources and eliminate those that are less useful. Some of the sources may be too technical; some sources may be too general, or unduly biased, inaccurate, or out of date. These are areas where your critical judgment must come into play. Collection of References 1. The first step is to use the finding tools described in this manual, specifically, the web catalog, periodical indexes, encyclopedias, etc. When you use the web catalog or indexes, you will usually find all the bibliographic information you need for your bibliography card. However, the bibliography at the end of an encyclopedia article is usually incomplete. Another step in developing a working bibliography is to look at the books and articles you locate. Is there a bibliography at the end of the books or chapters or articles you are using? If your book or article is a particularly useful one (up to date, packed with solid information, focused on your particular area of research interest), the bibliography in it will probably lead to other sources for your paper. Make bibliography cards for sources that seem to have the greatest potential usefulness to you. Remember that your working bibliography will change as you come across new sources, as you discard others, and as your research is shaped by your reading.

2.

3.

You can save time in your research if you find a basic, up-to-date book or article on your topic, or an aspect of your topic, which leads you by its bibliography to other key books or articles.

WHAT INFORMATION SHOULD YOU NOTE DOWN FOR WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY? FOR BOOKS: The author(s) (or editor or compiler); sometimes this will be an organization The title (and subtitle if there is one, usually separated by a colon) The volume editor, translator, compiler (when applicable) The edition if it is not the first edition The place of publication The publisher

The year of publication The call number (this is for your convenience; it will not appear in your final bibliography) FOR ARTICLES/Research Papers/Book Chapters: The author(s) of the article The title of the article The title of the periodical The volume and issue number of the periodical The date of the issue The page numbers of the article

IMPORTANT NOTE: Some researchers add to the bibliography card a notation of the finding tool in which the book or article was cited. If you have ever gone back to a library to find an article in a journal and discovered that you copied the information incorrectly, you can understand why it is a time saver to know where you found the citation. It is easier to copy too much bibliographic information than to find a missing piece when you are typing your paper. Developing a working bibliography-a detailed list of books, articles and other sources relevant to your project-will keep you organized while gathering and sorting through potentially useful sources. Most importantly, a working bibliography is a tool; one that will change and grow as the focus of your research shifts and narrows. It has two purposes: 1. To keep a record of the sources you've already examined and those that you are going to examine. 2. To record the publishing details of each source you use or cite so that they can be properly referenced in a Works Cited or References List at the end of your document. Many writers record individual sources on 3" X 5" or 4" X 6" inch note cards. Then, as the stack grows, they can be arranged, rearranged and compiled in any order of importance that suits the researcher's purpose. Other writers use notebooks small enough to fit in a pocket. Still others use a word processing program or a computer database such as the Writing@CSU Sources and Source Notes Tool. Regardless of your method, the more care you take at the beginning of your project, the more time you'll save later when it's time to document your sources. Having the titles, authors, dates, page numbers and URLs at your fingertips will save you frantic, trips back to the library or the Internet. Here are some suggestions for creating specific types of working bibliography notes:

Creating Book Source Notes Creating Periodical Source Notes Creating Field Source Notes Creating Electronic Source Notes

Note: You may record your working bibliography notes in any format you like; however, you'll save a lot of time using the format your instructor requires. When in doubt, ask what citation format you are expected to use. To learn about proper citation formats please review our guides on Documentation Systems.

Bibliography It is a complete or selective list of works compiled upon some common principle, as authorship, subject, place of publication, or printer. It is also a list of source materials that are used or consulted in the preparation of a work or that are referred to in the text. A list of the written sources of information on a subject, bibliographies generally appear as a list at the end of a book or article. They may show what works the author used in writing the article or book, or they may list works that a reader might find useful. Below are standard formats and examples for basic bibliographic information recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA). For more information on the MLA format, see http://www.mla.org/style_faq. Basics Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centred title, Works Cited. Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-byletter system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The. For dates, spell out the names of months in the text of your paper, but abbreviate them in the list of works cited, except for May, June, and July. Use either the day-month-year style (22 July 1999) or the month-day-year style (July 22, 1999) and be consistent. With the month-day-year style, be sure to add a comma after the year unless another punctuation mark goes there. Underlining or Italics? When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below. Always check with your instructor regarding their preference of using italics or underlining. Our examples use italics. Hanging Indentation All MLA citations should use hanging indents, that is, the first line of an entry should be flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented 1/2".

Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation The MLA guidelines specify using title case capitalization - capitalize the first words, the last words, and all principal words, including those that follow hyphens in compound terms. Use lowercase abbreviations to identify the parts of a work (e.g., vol. for volume, ed. for editor) except when these designations follow a period. Whenever possible, use the appropriate abbreviated forms for the publisher's name (Random instead of Random House). Separate author, title, and publication information with a period followed by one space. Use a colon and a space to separate a title from a subtitle. Include other kinds of punctuation only if it is part of the title. Use quotation marks to indicate the titles of short works appearing within larger works (e.g., "Memories of Childhood." American Short Stories). Also use quotation marks for titles of unpublished works and songs. Format Examples Books Format: Author's last name, first name. Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company, publication date. Examples: Allen, Thomas B. Vanishing Wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1974. Boorstin, Daniel J. The Creators: A History of the Heroes of the Imagination. New York: Random, 1992. Hall, Donald, ed. The Oxford Book of American Literacy Anecdotes. New York: Oxford UP, 1981. Searles, Baird, and Martin Last. A Reader's Guide to Science Fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1979. Toomer, Jean. Cane. Ed. Darwin T. Turner. New York: Norton, 1988. Encyclopedia & Dictionary Format: Author's last name, first name. "Title of Article." Title of Encyclopedia. Date. Note: If the dictionary or encyclopedia arranges articles alphabetically, you may omit volume and page numbers.

Examples: "Azimuthal Equidistant Projection." Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. 1993. Pettingill, Olin Sewall, Jr. "Falcon and Falconry." World Book Encyclopedia. 1980. Tobias, Richard. "Thurber, James." Encyclopedia Americana. 1991 ed. Magazine & Newspaper Articles Format: Author's last name, first name. "Article title." Periodical title Volume # Date: inclusive pages. Note: If an edition is named on the masthead, add a comma after the date and specify the edition. Examples: Hall, Trish. "IQ Scores Are Up, and Psychologists Wonder Why." New York Times 24 Feb. 1998, late ed.: F1+. Kalette, Denise. "California Town Counts Down to Big Quake." USA Today 9 21 July 1986: sec. A: 1. Kanfer, Stefan. "Heard Any Good Books Lately?" Time 113 21 July 1986: 71-72. Trillin, Calvin. "Culture Shopping." New Yorker 15 Feb. 1993: 48-51. Website or Webpage Format: Author's last name, first name (if available). "Title of work within a project or database." Title of site, project, or database. Editor (if available). Electronic publication information (Date of publication or of the latest update, and name of any sponsoring institution or organization). Date of access and <full URL>. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Examples: Devitt, Terry. "Lightning injures four at music festival." The Why? Files. 2 Aug. 2001. 23 Jan. 2002 <http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html>. Dove, Rita. "Lady Freedom among Us." The Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. 1998. Alderman Lib., U of Virginia. 19 June 1998 <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html>.

Lancashire, Ian. Homepage. 28 Mar. 2002. 15 May 2002 <http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/~ian/>. Levy, Steven. "Great Minds, Great Ideas." Newsweek 27 May 2002. 10 June 2002 <http://www.msnbc.com/news/754336.asp>. Citation formats vary, but an entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following information:

author(s) title publisher date of publication

An entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:

author(s) article title journal title volume pages date of publication

A bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required. Bibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.

Works Cited When you quote directly or summarize from a source, you are required to cite your source(s).

List all of your sources in alphabetical order. Place the list at the conclusion of your paper. Books | Chart or Map | E-Mail | Encyclopedias | Images (from Google) | Magazines - database, printed periodical | Primary Sources | Web Pages

Articles From Magazines, Newspapers & Journals Article from a digital source (EBSCOhost, NewsBank or Opposing Viewpoints). Swist, Martin. "Wikipedia and Groucho" New York Times. August 11, 2006 NewsBank. October 15, 2006 Your citation for an article from an electronic source should include these important elements: Author. (if given) "Article title" Periodical title Date of publication. Database Name (NewsBank in this example) Date of access Article from a Printed Periodical Wenger, Ty. "Wired hoops: How basketball has become the most wired game in sports? And what does that mean for hoops lovers? An obsessive-compulsive guide to b-ball." Yahoo! March 2002: 56-59. Your citation for an article from a printed source should include these important elements: Author. (if given) "Article title." Periodical title Date of publication. Page numbers of the article (if given) Books Book with a Single Author or Editor Voelkel, James R. Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Book with more than one author or editor Yolen, Jane, and Bruce Coville. Armageddon Summer. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998.

Your citation for a book should include these important elements: Author(s) or editor(s). Title of the book. Place of publication: Publisher, Date of publication. Electronic Book Adams, Douglas. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. <http://www.netlibrary.com>. January 1, 2002. Your citation for an electronic book should include these important elements: Author or editor. Title of the book. Place of publication: Publisher, Date of publication. <Address of the site>. Date you accessed it. Short Story Connell, Richard. "The Most Dangerous Game." Short Stories: Characters In Conflict. Ed. John E. Warriner. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Orlando. 1981. 1. Your citation for a short story should include these important elements: Author "Title" of the short story Title of the anthology Editor of the anthology Publisher and city Page on which the story begins Chart or Map Stars and Constellations. Chart. M. Ruskin. 1997 Your citation for e-mail should include these important elements: Name of chart or map. Format. Publisher.

Location. Year. E-Mail Horowitz, Anthony. "Re: Sakura Medal" to Martin Swist, 8 June 2007 Your citation for e-mail should include these important elements: Author's last name, first name "Subject of the e-mail" Recipient's name Date e-mail was sent Encyclopedias and other multi-volume works Lehman, Jeffrey. "French Americans: Bad advice given in good French." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America: Primary Documents. 2nd. ed. Vol.2, p 591.1999. Your citation for an article from an encyclopedia should include these important elements: Author (if given) "Title of article" Title of the encyclopedia Volume number, Page number. Date of publication. From an online encyclopedia: "Einstein, Albert." Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 1999. Encyclopedia Britannica. 27 April 2004 <http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=108494&sctn=1> Your citation for an article from an online encyclopedia should include these important elements: Author (if given) "Title of article" Title of the encyclopedia Date published on the WWW Publisher Date you accessed the material URL

Image located through Google Images Kawasaki, Satoko. Bobby Valentine. October 14, 2005. The Japan Times www.japantimes.co.jp/ sports/2004bbpreview.htm October 27, 2005. Click on the picture and then go to the website it came from. (It's listed at the top of the page.) Your citation should contain the following information about the image: Photographer's or artist's name (often not given) Name of subject or title of picture Date of picture (often not given) Title of website URL Date you accessed the picture. On-Line Listserv, BB, or Discussion Group Posting Cheshire_Cow. Re: "Joey Pigza Swallowed the Key." Online posting. Saturday, March 09, 2002. Mustangs On Books. April 20, 2002. <http://www.harmani.com/discus/index.html>. Your citation for an on-line source should include these important elements: Author. "Title of posting." Name of site host, Date of posting. URL of message site or archives. Date of access. Primary Sources Interview Pumpkin, Great. Interview with Charlie Brown. Rec. October 31, 1990 Your citation for an interview should include these important elements: Interviewee's name Interviewer's name Date conducted Videos Finding Nemo. Dir. John Lasseter. Walt Disney Pictures, 2003.

Web Pages A Document on the World Wide Web Writer's Handbook: MLA Documentation. University of Wisconsin-Madison. February 29, 2000. April 1, 2002. <http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocMLAWorksCited.html#book> Your citation for a web page should include these important elements: Author, if given Title of work Group responsible for the site, if given. Date site was last updated Date of access. | URL of the site. General notes:

give the authors' names in the fullest possible form (Cross, Roberta Louise instead of Cross, R. L.), if there are several places of publication, use the first city mentioned, if you can't find the place of publication, ask for assistance if you can't find a date of publication, write n.d., or ask for assistance if a list of copyright dates are given, use the most recent one, for the United States: a well-known city may be used alone (like New York City), but for lesser-known cities, write the state as well (you may abbreviate the state -- Olympia, Wash.). For other countries, write the city and the country (Nagoya, Japan), if you can't find an author or editor: look on the official title page, look on the reverse (verso) side of the title page, skip the author and put down the rest of the information.

Format of the Paper/Thesis Layout As mentioned in the discussion on "structure", there are certain chapters which are common to all dissertations and theses contain, namely:

the Abstract the Introduction the Literature Review the Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work

These are important components, each fulfilling a distinct role. Format is the layout and typography of a document. Typography includes the style and size of type for a document. Layout includes the type of paper, margins, line spacing, paragraphing, and pagination. This appendix presents a sample professional format [Sandia, 1990] to give you a framework for your assignments. Understand, though, that no universal formats exist in engineering and science. Each company or journal has its own format that suits the needs and desires of that company or journal. Typography Typography includes the size and style of type for a document. Type sizes are measured in points. In general, twelve point type is used for the text portion of most documents. Larger sizes may be used for headings and titles, and smaller sizes may be used for footnotes and illustration call-outs. As far as the styles of types, two main classifications exist: serif and sans serif. Which typestyle should you use? Here, much depends on the situation, but a serif font of 12 points is generally accepted for the text portion of formal documents such as reports and correspondence. An example of a serif typeface is Times. Why are serif typefaces generally used for the text? The reasons are historical as much as anything. For the headings and illustration call-outs of documents, professionals use both serif and sans serif typefaces such as Helvetica. One reason that professionals use sans serif typefaces for these situations is that they contrast nicely with the serif text. Another aspect of typography is the use of initial capitals in titles and headings. One convention, but not the only one, for using initial capitals is that you capitalize the first letter of the first and last words--no matter what the words. Then, you capitalize the first letter of every included word except for articles, conjunctions, and prepositions that have fewer than four letters: a, an, and, as, but, for, in, nor, of, on, or, out, the, to, up, and yet. Besides type sizes, type faces, and initial capitals, there are other typography guidelines that vary from institution to institution. For instance, the following list presents one recommended way to format unusual plurals: IBMs, CDs, 1970s, and 1900s.

Table 1. Specifications for Page Layout Margins Line spacing Indentations (optional) Paragraphing Pagination standard (about 1 inch) single space (unless other requested) standard tab for all paragraphs (about 0.4-0.5 inches) lineskip between paragraphs (optional) centered page numbers (about 0.5 inches from bottom)

Headings. A format for headings, subheadings, and sub-subheadings follows the pattern shown below. In this pattern, all headings, subheadings, and sub-subheadings are in initial capitals. In a short report, the major heading is the report's title. In a formal report, the major heading serves as the name of each section--for example, the "Introduction" or "Conclusion." Note that in a long report (more than 50 pages), these major headings begin a new page, while in a shorter report, these major headings follow one another in a continuous fashion. Title or Major Heading For a major heading, skip three carriage returns from the top margin (or previous section) and place the heading. Use a font larger than the text (14 or 18 points), initial capitals, and boldface. For minor reports, the major heading serves as the report's title. First Subheading Subheadings are 12 or 14 points, flush left, and boldfaced. For all subheadings, skip two lines before and one line afterwards. Use initial capitals. First Sub-Subheading. Sub-subheadings are in 12 point type, boldfaced, and followed by a period. Skip one line before the sub-subheading. Begin the sub-subheading's text one space after the period. Use initial capitals for sub-subheadings. Second Sub-Subheading. If you have one sub-subheading, you must have a second. Otherwise, the first sub-subheading has nothing to be parallel with. Note that the subheadings "Introduction" and "Conclusion" are inherently parallel with other types of subheadings: noun phrases, participial phrases, or questions. "Introduction" and "Conclusion" are also descriptive because the audience expects particular kinds of information from them. Incorporation of Illustrations. There are two classes of illustrations: figures and tables. Illustrations should appear below the end of the paragraph in which that illustration is first introduced. If not enough space is available below the end of the paragraph, then continue the text and place the illustration on the next page. When placing an illustration into a document, leave a space between the illustration and the text (one line skip both above and below the illustration).

Captions for figures appear below the figure. Use Arabic numerals to number figures. A figure caption includes a phrase that identifies the figure and a sentence or two that explains important details in the figure. See the example shown in the Figure 1. When referring to figures, call them by their names: Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure IS-1, Figure A-1, and so forth. Note that Figure IS-1 would appear in an informative summary and Figure A-1 would appear in an Appendix A. Unlike figures, titles for tables appear centered above the table. Number tables using Arabic numerals. Use initial capital letters for table titles. In the text, call tables by their names: Table IS-1, Table 1, Table A-1, and so forth. Unlike figures, titles for tables appear above the table. For an example, see Table 2. In the text, call tables by their names: Table 1, Table 2, and so on. Note that another common table format has the title centered above the table. References. When incorporating the opinions, data, and illustrations of other sources into your writing, you must give credit to those sources. In these writing guidelines, the format for bestowing that credit is an author-year referencing system. Within the text of the article or report, references should be cited by giving in brackets the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication of the reference. The year should always be enclosed in brackets; whether the name of the author(s) is enclosed depends on the context. The two possibilities are illustrated as follows: Recently, a new chemical process was developed for eliminating nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines [Perry and Siebers, 1986]. Recently, Perry and Siebers [1986] developed a new chemical process for eliminating nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines. For three or more authors, just list the first author's name as follows: [Lee and others, 1972]. If there is no author listed, give the first word (not articles, conjunctions, or prepositions) of the document: [Manual, 1983] or ["Plastic," 1989]. If you have two documents with the same author and year (for example, two documents by Jones in 2003), then assign the reference listings as follows: [Jones, 2003a] for the citation that alphabetically appears first at the end, and [Jones, 2003b] for the citation that appears second at the end. The full reference citations will appear in an alphabetical list at the end of your document. Given below are examples of the listings. Book Author, Title in Initial Capitals and Italics, edition # (City of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication). Fox, R.W., and A.T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978). A Manual of Style, 12th ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969). McElroy, W.D., Cell Physiology and Biochemistry, 3rd ed., Foundations of Modern Biology Series (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971).

Article Author, "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," Journal Name in Italics, vol. #, no. # (Date), page #s. Owyoung, A. "High Resolution Coherent Raman Spectroscopy of Gases," in Laser Spectroscopy IV, ed. by H. Walther and K. W. Rothe (New York: Springer- Verlag, 1979), pp. 175-182. Perry, R.A., and D. L. Siebers, "Rapid Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides in Exhaust Gas Streams," Nature, vol. 324, no. 2 (August 1986), pp. 657-659. Steeper, R.R., "Reducing Nitrogen Oxides With Ammonia Injection," Phys. Rev., vol. 13, no. 2 (1983), pp. 132-135. Newspaper Author (if known), "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," Newspaper Name (Date), section #, page #s. Luoma, J.R., "U.S. Hunts New Ways to Clean Up Wastes," New York Times (3 January 1988), pp. 15, 18. "Plastic Explosives Blamed for Airline Disaster," New York Times (3 January 1989) sec. 2, p. 11. Report Author, Title in Initial Capitals and Italics, Report # (City of Publication: Publisher (Company or Agency), Date). Borcherdt, R.D., Results and Data From Seismologic and Geologic Studies Following Earthquakes of December 7, 1988, Near Spitak, Armenia SSR, vol. 1, USGS OFR 89-163-A (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey, 1989). Guide to Operations, IBM Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library #1502490 (Boca Raton, Florida: IBM Corporation, 1984). Spent Fuel Storage Requirements, DOE RL-88-34 (Richland, WA: Department of Energy, 1988). Sheldon, K.E., Analysis Methods to Control Performance Variability and Cost in Turbine Engine Manufacturing (Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech, 4 May 2001), pp. 156-158. Patent Patent Holder, Patent # (Date of Patent). Lyon, R.K., U.S. Patent No. 3,900,554 (August 1975). Brochure Author, "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," brochure (City of Publication: Publisher (Company or Agency), Date). Cheng, D., "Chemtronix XT Manometer," brochure (Asheville, NC: Chemtronix Corporation, 1974). Interview Speaker's Name, Speaker's Affiliation (City of Interview: Date of Interview), type of interview. Lee, R., Engineer at Apple Corporation (San Jose: 5 June 1987), phone interview.

Letter Author, Affiliation (City: Date of Letter), recipient of letter. Alley, C.D., Plant Manager of Mason-Hanger Pantex Plant (Amarillo, TX: 3 March 1989), letter to Amarillo Globe News. Web Site Author, "Title," web listing in italics (City: Publisher, Date). Bassett, Vicki, "Causes and Effects of the Rapid Sinking of the Titanic," http://writing.eng.vt.edu/uer/bassett.html (Blacksburg, VA: Undergraduate Engineering Review, November 1998). Varian Corporation, "Smithsonian Researchers Use High-Tech Digital Imaging Device to Study Collections," http://www.varian.com/ (Palo Alto, CA: Varian Corporation, 13 February 2002). How to Reference Sources Once you have given a reference listing in the text of the document, you are obligated to give a full reference citation somewhere in the document (usually at the end). Just as there are different ways to give reference listings in the text (author/year, numbers, and so forth), there are different formats for reference citations. Given below is a common system used in engineering and science for the reference listings of this appendix. Format: the way a document or presentation is arranged. Format includes such things as references in a document and time limits in a presentation. In engineering, there is no single ordained format. Whatever company you work for, whatever journal you submit to, you must arrange your document or presentation to meet that company's or journal's format. Illustration: the meshing of words with images. There are two types of illustrations: tables and figures. Tables are rows and columns arrangements of words and numbers. Figures are everything else: graphs, photographs, drawings, and diagrams. Language: the way we use words. Language is more than just vocabulary; it includes the order of words, the lengths of sentences, the use of examples. Mechanics: usage, grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Structure: the strategy of your writing. Structure includes both the organization of details and the emphasis of details. Style: the way you present your information in a document or presentation. Style includes such things as the way you organize details, the words you choose, and the illustrations you choose. Tone: whatever in the writing that shows the attitude that you, the writer, have towards the subject or the audience. These guidelines arose from a writing workbook developed in the late 1980s by Michael Alley

and Christene Moore at the University of Texas at Austin. Used to teach writing to hundreds of engineering students during the 1990s, this workbook was continually revised. Beginning in the mid-1990s, several editing suggestions were incorporated from the following people: Dr. Leslie Crowley at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Professor Gisela Kutzbach and Dr. Laura Grossenbacher at the University of Wisconsin at Madison; and Dr. Jeff Donnell from Georgia Tech. Currently, the Writing Guidelines are edited by Alley, who is an Associate Professor of Engineering Communication at Penn State. Technical assistance to maintain the server and to count user traffic comes from Kaye Kriz at Virginia Tech. During 2006, more than 500,000 students, faculty, and professionals visited the site. Thesis Writing By Maira Sarfraz Thesis writing involves following a predetermined path to reach a destination. Sounds like all you would need is good navigational software, right? Not really. The thesis paper is based upon a theory or idea that the writer will need to attempt to prove within the context of a written work. Since most thesis writing involves academia, chances are the type of class assignment for which the paper is being written, will help determine subject matter. Once a theory or thesis is chosen, the writer can then set about compiling evidence to support it. If they follow the right course, they should arrive at a destination where the thesis becomes, if not fact, at least a theory without outright contradiction. What sort of map takes you from theory to proof? An outline provides the student involved in thesis writing a map or chart to follow. The rudimentary outlines used in grade school will need to be polished up a bit for higher educational thesis papers, but it works on the same formula. The outline should have three main sections, an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Under the first subject heading, Introduction, the writer can jot down their thesis, since this is the portion of the paper where the idea or theory is introduced. The next subject area, the Body, may have quite a few subsections. In most instances, each subsection will represent one of the aspects of research used to prove or substantiate the theory. Some of the subsections may require subsections of their own. The final subject, the conclusion, marks the destination on the map. Here is where the author will want to note summarization points and strongly worded arguments urging the reader to agree with the theory and conclude, that it is correct. Thesis writing, must be meticulous in composition, continuity, correct grammar and spelling, and the proper citation of sources. Using the roadmap of the outline and making sure your thesis writing skills have all of these basics covered, your paper should be a valuable learning tool and a means to advance your educational future. Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Maira_Sarfraz

Dissertation Writing Explained By Maira Sarfraz Some things are too important to rush through and hurry. Some things have the capability to change a person's life. One of these things is your dissertation for your doctorate degree. If you have taken the time and effort, put forth your energy and ambition to finally reach this point, you should be ready to spend whatever time it takes, and expend as much of yourself as is required, to complete a dissertation that will not only allow you to take that grand step up the ladder of higher education. To do this, you will need to be prepared to work hard and prove yourself, on paper. Whatever your field of study and expertise, the idea of a dissertation on any facet of the subject has got to be a bit daunting if not downright frightening. It's like facing a charging rhino with a gun that has only one bullet. You succeed or you do not. But, if you have worked hard laying the groundwork and are prepared to stretch yourself even farther to delve into your subject with keen interest and maybe even a little genuine enthusiasm, you will end up with a well written paper that will vouch for your worth in your field. Writing a dissertation is a lot like writing a thesis or a term paper, but with more stress and a great deal more work involved. Still, you don't have to deviate from those basic rules that enabled you to write the shorter papers. Good grammar, spelling, and following the basic formula for research papers will provide you a framework in which to fit your ideas and explorations on the subject you have chosen. Good research papers begin with a thesis. A dissertation's thesis will be weighty, and will ask questions of the writer and your readers that are worth the asking. Take your time before you fine-tune your choice of a subject, but be sure to write to your strengths. If you've reached this level, you know what you do best. Write about it. That way the research and wording will both come more easily and the outcome will meet or surpass the requirements of the work. Develop an outline and then fill in the blanks with facts, data and other arguments to support your thesis. You have accumulated a good deal of resources in your field and your own research, especially at this level, has extreme merit. Use the outline to maintain continuity and when it comes time to write your conclusions in a summary statement, you will have put together a dissertation worthy of adding a couple of important letters to your name. Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Maira_Sarfraz

TEACHING TECHNICAL ENGLISH WRITING Lic. Luis A. Viad

THE WRITING PROCESS Writing and Thinking THE WRITING PROCESS Writing skill is an important element in engineering success. In order to develop the writing ability that you need, you have to follow certain steps. Any time you decide to write a paragraph or an essay, you become involved in an ongoing process that involves thinking and making decisions, and rethinking. Writing does not happen all at one time. Rather, many steps are required from the time you first think about a piece of writing until the time that you consider yourself finished. Basically, there are five stages in the writing process that you must consider whenever you decide to write. Each of these stages is made up of the different steps that should be very carefully analysed: PREWRITING Complex technical writing is likely to be very difficult to read. Readability further decreases when the writer does not define major ideas for the reader and when the written document is not relevant to the readers experiences and interests. These two impediments can be eliminated if you clearly define your purpose and your audience. It this stage, the first step that must be considered is purpose since every piece of writing has a purpose, sometimes, even more than one. No matter what you write, always consider your reasons for writing before you begin: What is the subject of your document? Are you trying to introduce a theory, propose an improvement, explain a technique, describe a process, or report the results of your research? Where will your document appear? You may be writing a report that will be circulated within your company, an article that will appear in a commercial publication, a research paper that will be published in a professional journal, or a procedure that will be used in training. Why are you writing? Is your purpose to instruct, inform, persuade, or inspire? The subject and purpose of your document must be clear to you if you hope to make it clear to the audience. Another important step is the audience as it is always helpful to consider the different audiences for whom you may be writing. When you are asked to write a report, your first step should be to ask yourself three questions: Who will read the report? For what purpose are they reading it? Are they engineers? Based on the answers to those questions, readers usually fall into one of five categories: a. Expert Other engineers, preferably in the same field, who read the report for information relating to their own projects b. Executive Managers, usually lacking an engineering background, who read the report to make executive decisions c. Technician People usually lacking an engineering background, who read the report for direction in using products and systems designed by engineers

d. Lay People lacking an engineering background, such as special-interest groups, who read the report for non-engineering reasons e. Combined A group such as a government agency, comprising engineers, who read the report to make decisions Placing your reader in one of these categories helps you structure the report to fulfil readers information needs considering that for each of the different audiences your way of writing will be different. Also, you must identify your attitude toward your subject, which will be expressed through the tone of your writing. This involves having to choose a subject which involves deciding what your attitude or point of view toward the subject will be. A subject is a broad area of knowledge, whereas a topic, on the other hand, is a limited subject__ one that is specific enough so that it can serve as the basis of a paragraph or a composition. You must then limit your subject so that it can be adequately covered in the form of writing you have chosen. Once this is done, you can think of the details you will include in your writing. These details are largely determined by your purpose; therefore you must gather and order information appropriate to your writing purpose. . THE WRITERS PURPOSE Have in mind a clear purpose for writing. If, for example, you decide to write a research paper about accommodations in Cuernavaca, your purpose is to give information or explain. If you write a paragraph about what happened when you were looking for accommodation when you first arrived in Cuernavaca, your purpose is to relate a series of events. Most writing has one of the following purposes: (1) Narrative writing relates a series of events. An essay relating a witness memories of the day Mxico City was struck by the 1985 earthquake. A letter to your father about your financial situation in Cuernavaca. (2) Expository writing gives information or explains. An article explaining the results of a research on geothermal reservoirs. An answer to an essay question that asks for a definition of enthropy. (3) Descriptive writing describes a person, place, or thing. An essay about the appearance of a fluometer. A paragraph describing what a hydroelectric plant looks like. (4) Persuasive writing attempts to persuade or convince. A letter encouraging potential customers to buy a gas turbine. A set of instructions about the dangers of misusing a new machine. THE WRITERS AUDIENCE You must always identify the audience for whom you are writing. To write to and for your audience, you must get to know them. In order to identify your audience, there are five questions you must answer: Who will be reading your document? What prior knowledge do these readers have about the subject? What do these readers need to know? Why will these readers read your document?

 How will these readers use the information you provide? Most of the time you will probably be writing for people who share the same interests with you. This means that you will be writing formal, scientific and technical English. Therefore, your purpose will mostly be expository, that is, to give information, or to explain. In some cases your purpose will be persuasive too. Since audience definitely affects writing, you have to be prepared to express these purposes as clearly as you can, as your audience is likely to have the most knowledge of your subject. However, you must be prepared to offer background information whenever it should be necessary. CHOOSING A SUBJECT It is possible to write about practically any subject for any audience as long as you are willing to spend the time and energy necessary to explain terms and give background information. You could, for instance, conceivably explain a complicated scientific theory to an audience of secondary students. However, you would have to know your subject very well in order to simplify it enough for a young audience. ATTITUDE AND TONE Considering that your attitude toward your subject is expressed through the tone of your writing it is possible to say that your attitude may be positive (favourable) or negative (unfavourable), humorous or serious, angry or enthusiastic. Why is this important? Well, an awareness of your attitude will help you to make choices not only of what details to include in your writing, but also of what vocabulary to use since your choice of language will help to create a tone that is serious or humorous, formal or informal, personal or objective, etc. LIMITING THE SUBJECT We have to limit the subject so that it can be adequately covered in the form of writing we have chosen. We have defined subject as a broad area of knowledge and topic as a limited subject. For example, Computers is a subject, whereas The advantages of a Laser Printer is a topic, that is, a limited subject that can serve as the basis for a paragraph or a composition. A topic for a paragraph is necessarily more limited than a composition topic, because in a paragraph you have only a few sentences in which to develop your ideas. In a composition, on the other hand, you have anywhere from five paragraphs to several pages, so a composition topic can be less limited than a paragraph topic. Remember, however, that a topic must be adequately covered in whatever space you have available to you. GATHERING INFORMATION Whatever the details that you may include in your writing may be, they are largely determined by your purpose. If for example, your purpose is to provide information, the kind of details you would be looking for should be specific facts, statistics, examples, and quotations. There are many different techniques for gathering information for your writing some of which you may be acquainted with. In any case, you may use a combination of several different methods while you gather information for a particular writing assignment, or you may decide to use only one technique. Direct and Indirect Observation (1) Use your powers of observation in order to take note of specific details.

Your observations may be firsthand experiences i.e., through your senses of sight, smell, sound, etc. In which case they are called direct observations. When your observations are not made directly, through your own senses, they are called indirect observations, e.g. when you listen to someone elses experiences or read about them. Observing involves carefully noting the specific details that make up an experience. This means that even though you cannot obviously notice everything all at once, you have to work hard toward improving your capacity for observing. To do this you mustconcentrate on paying attention to as many specific details as possible. A Writers Journal (2) Keep a writers journal to record your thoughts and feelings about your experiences. A writers journal is useful in two ways: (1) It can be a source of ideas for writing topics, and (2) it can help you to recall specific details about an experience. You can write about your ideas and your experiences as well as your own reactions to other people and to events. In other words, a writers journal should contain only those ideas, experiences, quotations, and feelings that you would like to share with others. Keeping a writers journal is common practice with people who have to carry out every day observations and evaluations on the development of experiments in a laboratory. Taking notes of the daily changes in, for instance, temperatures, condensing, etc. All these are details that will give you ideas for writing. On the basis of a journal entry, you may decide whether you could write an essay describing the development of a laboratory research or a simple paragraph about it Brainstorming (3) Use brainstorming in order to find writing ideas This is a very popular technique which is mostly used to generate a free flow of ideas. You may use this technique in order to think of topics for writing or to generate specific details to develop a topic you have already chosen. When you brainstorm, you concentrate on a particular subject or topic and write down every idea, word, and phrase that comes to mind. At the top of a blank piece of paper, write the subject or topic that you are going to begin with, and list under it whatever ideas come to mind. Work as quickly as possible, jotting down every idea that occurs to you. Keep doing this until you run out of ideas. As you are doing this, do not stop to judge, or evaluate, the ideas that you are listing; your purpose is simply to write down all the ideas you can think of. If you started with a subject, you must decide which of the items on your list might be usable topics for writing, and circle them. These circled topics may help you to think of other ideas you want to add to your list. Asking the 5W__How? Questions (4) Gather information and ideas by asking the 5W__How? Questions. This method consists of asking the basic questions Who? When? Where? What? Why? and How? which can help you to gather specific details to use in your writing although not every question will apply to every topic. ORDERING INFORMATION Classify your ideas and information by grouping related ideas together. In this very important step in the writing process, you must classify, or group, the ideas you have

gathered. In fact, grouping together related items will result in an informal outline of your topic. When you classify, you identify details that are similar in some way, and you group together these similar items under a heading that explains what they have in common. You have to keep in mind that the basic task of classifying is to group together related ideas. At this point in the writing process, you must not hesitate to discard any item that does not seem to fit into any of your groups or headings. ARRANGING INFORMATION Arrange your ideas in order. Once you have classified your ideas under main headings, you must consider the order in which you will present these ideas to your readers. As it most often happens, the order will be suggested by your purpose. WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT When you are ready to write your first draft, you must keep in mind the audience and purpose. A first draft is not the final version of your writing. In fact, you will revise your first draft several times and will make changes in both content and wording. Also, you will spend some time proofreading your revised version in order to detect and correct mechanical inaccuracies in usage (remember that most errors in the use of verbs occur when students misuse the tense forms of verbs.), punctuation, and spelling. While you are writing, keep in front of you the list of details that you have classified and arranged in order. Try to express your ideas as clearly as possible, and do not forget to choose specific details and language that are appropriate both for your audience and your purpose. All writing is a kind of synthesis, for writers put words and ideas together in new ways in order to create paragraphs, compositions, essays, articles, etc. As you write your first draft, you will be rethinking all of your earlier decisions about content and organization. At this time you will perhaps decide that a term you initially thought would be appropriate to your audience needs to be defined and explained. You may also decide to change the order in which you decided to present your ideas. Other considerations you must take into account are related to questions you can ask yourself, e.g., is the tone appropriate for intended audience and purpose, Is the topic limited enough for the length of the paper you are writing?, etc. REVISING YOUR WRITING Revising requires several rereadings of the first draft. You must first consider each sentence in relation to the paragraph and to the writing as a whole. For any composition, you will need to judge how effectively each paragraph contributes to the total work. Ask yourself if the main idea is adequately developed or supported. Is the development or support clear and logical? Next, look closely at each sentence and make whatever changes you consider necessary. FORMAL REPORTS. WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER Formal reports are written accounts of major projects. Most formal reports are divided into three primary parts: front matter-, body, and back matter - - each of which contains a number of elements. The number and arrangement of the elements may vary, depending on the subject, the length of the report, and the kinds of material covered.

Many institutions and organizations have a preferred style for formal reports and provide guidelines for report writers to follow. The following list includes most of the elements a formal report might contain, in the order of their appearance in the report. Often, a cover letter or memo precedes the front matter. Front matter Title page Abstract Table of contents List of figures List of tables Foreword Preface List of abbreviations and symbols Body Executive summary Introduction Text (including headings) Conclusions Recommendations References Back matter Appendixes Bibliography Glossary Index Front Matter The front matter serves several purposes: It gives the reader a general idea of the authors purpose; it gives an overview of the type of information in the report; and it lists where specific information is covered in the report. Not all formal reports include every element of front matter described in this unit. A title page and a table of contents are usually mandatory, but the scope of the report and its intended audience determine whether the other elements are included. Title Page Although the formats of title pages for formal reports vary, a title page should include the

following information: The full title of the report. The title should reflect the topic, scope, and purpose of the report. Follow these guidelines when creating the title: Avoid titles that begin with Notes on, Studies on, A Report on, or Observations on. Those phrases are redundant and state the obvious. However, phrases such as Annual Report and Feasibility Study should be used in a title or subtitle because they help define the purpose and scope of the report. Do not use abbreviations in the title. Use acronyms only when the reports audience is familiar with the topic. Do not include the time period covered by the report in the title; include that information in a subtitle. The name of the writer, principal researcher, or compiler. Sometimes contributors identify themselves by their job title in the institution or organization (John Smith, Field Analyst; Peter Jones, Head, Research and Development), and sometimes they identify themselves by their tasks in contributing to the report (Helen Anderson, Principal Researcher; James Holland, Compiler). The date or dates of the report. For one-time reports, list the date when the report is to be distributed. For periodic reports, such as those issued monthly or quarterly, list in a subtitle the period that the report covers; elsewhere on the title page, list the date when the report is to be distributed. The name of the institution or organization where the writer works. The name of the organization or institution to which the report is being submitted. The title page, although unnumbered, is considered page i (small roman numeral). The back of the title page, which is blank and unnumbered, is page ii, and the abstract falls on page iii. The body of the report begins with Arabic number 1, and new chapters or large sections typically begin on a new right- hand (odd numbered) page. Reports with printing on only one side of each sheet can be numbered consecutively regardless of where new sections begin. Throughout the report, center page numbers at the bottom of the page. Abstract. An abstract, which normally follows the title page, highlights the major points of the report, enabling readers to decide whether to read the entire report. Table of Contents. A table of contents lists all the major sections or headings of the report in their order of appearance, along with their page numbers. List of Figures. When a report contains more than five figures, list them, along with their page numbers, in a separate section beginning on a new page and immediately following the table of contents. Number figures consecutively with Arabic numbers. Figures include all illustrationsdrawings, photographs, maps, charts, and graphs-contained in the report. List of Tables. When a report contains more than five tables, list them, along with their titles and page numbers in a separate section immediately following the list of figures (if there is one). Number tables consecutively with Arabic numbers. Foreword. A foreword is an optional introductory statement written by someone other than the author. The foreword author is usually an authority in the field or a head of the institution. The

foreword authors name and affiliation and the date the foreword was written appear at the end of it. The foreword generally provides background information about the publications significance and places it in context of other works in the field. Preface. The preface is an optional introductory statement written by the author of the report. It announces the purpose, background, and scope of the report. Typically, it highlights the relationship of the report to a given project or program and discusses any special circumstances leading to the work. A preface may also specify the audience for whom the report is intended, and it may acknowledge those who helped during the course of the project or in the preparation of it. List of Abbreviations and Symbols. When the report uses numerous abbreviations and symbols and there is a chance that readers will not be able to interpret them, the front matter should include a list of all symbols and abbreviations (including acronyms) and what they stand for. Body The body is the section of the report in which the author describes in detail the methods and procedures used to generate the report, demonstrates how results were obtained, describes the results, and draws conclusions and makes recommendations. Introduction. The purpose of the introduction is to give readers any general information necessary to understand the detailed information in the rest of the report. Text. The text of the body presents the details of how the topic was investigated, how the problem was solved, what alternatives were explored, and how the best choice among them was selected. The information is often clarified and further developed by illustrations and tables and may be supported by references to other publications. Conclusions. The conclusions section pulls together the results of the research and offers conclusions based on the analysis. Recommendations. Recommendations, which are sometimes combined with the conclusions, state what course of action should be taken based on the results of the study. References. If in your report you refer to material in or quote directly from published works or other research sources, including online sources, you must provide a list of references, or works cited in a separate section. For a relatively short report, the references should go at the end of the body of the report. For a report with a number of sections or chapters, a reference section should fall at the end of each major section or chapter. In either case, the reference section should be labelled as such and should start on a new page. Back Matter The back matter of a formal report contains supplementary material, such as where to find additional information about the topic (bibliography), and expands on certain subjects (appendixes). Other back matter elements clarify the terms used (glossary) and how to easily locate information in the report (index). Appendixes. An appendix contains information that clarifies or supplements the text. An appendix provides information that is too detailed or lengthy to appear in the text without impeding the orderly presentation of ideas for the primary audience. Be careful: Do not use appendixes for miscellaneous bits of information that you were unable to work into the text. Bibliography. A bibliography is an alphabetical list of all sources that were consulted (not just those cited) in researching the report. A bibliography is not necessary if the reference listing contains a complete list of sources. Glossary. A glossary is an alphabetical list of selected terms used in the report and their definitions.

Index. An index is an alphabetical list of all the major topics and their subcategories discussed in the report. It cites the page numbers where discussions of each topic can be found and allows readers to find information on topics quickly and easily. The index is always the final section of a report.

Writing of Dissertation/Thesis

Quick Reference Guide Writing a thesis well is simple if you know how. There are three aspects: structure substance style but all three are entwined. Start at the beginning by keeping good records. Understand what it is you are doing and why. Be clear what story you are going to tell. Keep the hypothesis to the fore always. Stick to the thesis structure you have been given. Start writing your Experimental Chapters first. If you have done a Literature Review, write it next. Then complete the rest: Conclusions Introduction Summary in that order. The other bits and pieces like the Appendices may be written as you go along. Think, plan write, revise. Think clearly. Write carefully. The three watchwords are: Clarity Precision Brevity in that order. Leave no gaps in the chain of logic or ideas you express. Avoid verbiage. Avoid clutter. Develop your own writing style by careful reading and even more careful writing. Polish what you have written by repeated reading and revision. Ask your supervisor to critique your thesis draft and amend it accordingly. Submit your best effort as your completed thesis.

Chicago-Style Citation Guide The Chicago Manual of Style presents two basic documentation systems: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) author-date. Choosing between the two often depends on subject matter and the nature of sources cited, as each system is favored by different groups of scholars. The notes and bibliography style is preferred by many in the humanities, including those in literature, history, and the arts. This style presents bibliographic information in notes and, often, a bibliography. It accommodates a variety of sources, including esoteric ones less appropriate to the author-date system. The author-date system has long been used by those in the physical, natural, and social sciences. In this system, sources are briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by authors last name and date of publication. The short citations are amplified in a list of references, where full bibliographic information is provided. Aside from the use of notes versus parenthetical references in the text, the two systems share a similar style. Click on the tabs below to see some common examples of materials cited in each style, including examples of common electronic sources. For numerous specific examples, see chapters 14 and 15 of the 16th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. Notes and Bibliography: Sample Citations The following examples illustrate citations using the notes and bibliography system. Examples of notes are followed by shortened versions of citations to the same source. For more details and many more examples, see chapter 14 of The Chicago Manual of Style. For examples of the same citations using the author-date system, click on the Author-Date tab above. Book One author 1. Michael Pollan, The Omnivores Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (New York: Penguin, 2006), 99100. 2. Pollan, Omnivores Dilemma, 3. Pollan, Michael. The Omnivores Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New York: Penguin, 2006. Two or more authors 1. Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The War: An Intimate History, 19411945 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 52. 2. Ward and Burns, War, 5961.

Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. The War: An Intimate History, 19411945. New York: Knopf, 2007. For four or more authors, list all of the authors in the bibliography; in the note, list only the first author, followed by et al. (and others): 1. Dana Barnes et al., Plastics: Essays on American Corporate Ascendance in the 1960s . . . 2. Barnes et al., Plastics . . . Editor, translator, or compiler instead of author 1. Richmond Lattimore, trans., The Iliad of Homer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 9192. 2. Lattimore, Iliad, 24. Lattimore, Richmond, trans. The Iliad of Homer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. Editor, translator, or compiler in addition to author 1. Gabriel Garca Mrquez, Love in the Time of Cholera, trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1988), 24255. 2. Garca Mrquez, Cholera, 33. Garca Mrquez, Gabriel. Love in the Time of Cholera. Translated by Edith Grossman. London: Cape, 1988. Chapter or other part of a book 1. John D. Kelly, Seeing Red: Mao Fetishism, Pax Americana, and the Moral Economy of War, in Anthropology and Global Counterinsurgency, ed. John D. Kelly et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 77. 2. Kelly, Seeing Red, 8182. Kelly, John D. Seeing Red: Mao Fetishism, Pax Americana, and the Moral Economy of War. In Anthropology and Global Counterinsurgency, edited by John D. Kelly, Beatrice Jauregui, Sean T. Mitchell, and Jeremy Walton, 6783. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010. Chapter of an edited volume originally published elsewhere (as in primary sources) 1. Quintus Tullius Cicero. Handbook on Canvassing for the Consulship, in Rome: Late Republic and Principate, ed. Walter Emil Kaegi Jr. and Peter White, vol. 2 of University of Chicago Readings in Western Civilization, ed. John Boyer and Julius Kirshner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 35. 2. Cicero, Canvassing for the Consulship, 35.

Cicero, Quintus Tullius. Handbook on Canvassing for the Consulship. In Rome: Late Republic and Principate, edited by Walter Emil Kaegi Jr. and Peter White. Vol. 2 of University of Chicago Readings in Western Civilization, edited by John Boyer and Julius Kirshner, 3346. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Originally published in Evelyn S. Shuckburgh, trans., The Letters of Cicero, vol. 1 (London: George Bell & Sons, 1908). Preface, foreword, introduction, or similar part of a book 1. James Rieger, introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), xxxxi. 2. Rieger, introduction, xxxiii. Rieger, James. Introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, xixxxvii. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Book published electronically If a book is available in more than one format, cite the version you consulted. For books consulted online, list a URL; include an access date only if one is required by your publisher or discipline. If no fixed page numbers are available, you can include a section title or a chapter or other number. 1. Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), Kindle edition. 2. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), accessed February 28, 2010, http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/. 3. Austen, Pride and Prejudice. 4. Kurland and Lerner, Founders Constitution, chap. 10, doc. 19. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007. Kindle edition. Kurland, Philip B., and Ralph Lerner, eds. The Founders Constitution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Accessed February 28, 2010. http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/. Journal article Article in a print journal In a note, list the specific page numbers consulted, if any. In the bibliography, list the page range for the whole article. 1. Joshua I. Weinstein, The Market in Platos Republic, Classical Philology 104 (2009): 440. 2. Weinstein, Platos Republic, 45253. Weinstein, Joshua I. The Market in Platos Republic. Classical Philology 104 (2009): 43958.

Article in an online journal Include a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) if the journal lists one. A DOI is a permanent ID that, when appended to http://dx.doi.org/ in the address bar of an Internet browser, will lead to the source. If no DOI is available, list a URL. Include an access date only if one is required by your publisher or discipline. 1. Gueorgi Kossinets and Duncan J. Watts, Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social Network, American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009): 411, accessed February 28, 2010, doi:10.1086/599247. 2. Kossinets and Watts, Origins of Homophily, 439. Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J. Watts. Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social Network. American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009): 40550. Accessed February 28, 2010. doi:10.1086/599247. Article in a newspaper or popular magazine Newspaper and magazine articles may be cited in running text (As Sheryl Stolberg and Robert Pear noted in a New York Times article on February 27, 2010, . . .) instead of in a note, and they are commonly omitted from a bibliography. The following examples show the more formal versions of the citations. If you consulted the article online, include a URL; include an access date only if your publisher or discipline requires one. If no author is identified, begin the citation with the article title. 1. Daniel Mendelsohn, But Enough about Me, New Yorker, January 25, 2010, 68. 2. Sheryl Gay Stolberg and Robert Pear, Wary Centrists Posing Challenge in Health Care Vote, New York Times, February 27, 2010, accessed February 28, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/28/us/politics/28health.html. 3. Mendelsohn, But Enough about Me, 69. 4. Stolberg and Pear, Wary Centrists. Mendelsohn, Daniel. But Enough about Me. New Yorker, January 25, 2010. Stolberg, Sheryl Gay, and Robert Pear. Wary Centrists Posing Challenge in Health Care Vote. New York Times, February 27, 2010. Accessed February 28, 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/28/us/politics/28health.html. Book review 1. David Kamp, Deconstructing Dinner, review of The Omnivores Dilemma: A Natural

History of Four Meals, by Michael Pollan, New York Times, April 23, 2006, Sunday Book Review, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/23/books/review/23kamp.html. 2. Kamp, Deconstructing Dinner. Kamp, David. Deconstructing Dinner. Review of The Omnivores Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals, by Michael Pollan. New York Times, April 23, 2006, Sunday Book Review. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/23/books/review/23kamp.html. Thesis or dissertation 1. Mihwa Choi, Contesting Imaginaires in Death Rituals during the Northern Song Dynasty (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2008). 2. Choi, Contesting Imaginaires. Choi, Mihwa. Contesting Imaginaires in Death Rituals during the Northern Song Dynasty. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2008. Paper presented at a meeting or conference 1. Rachel Adelman, Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made On: Gods Footstool in the Aramaic Targumim and Midrashic Tradition (paper presented at the annual meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 2124, 2009). 2. Adelman, Such Stuff as Dreams. Adelman, Rachel. Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made On: Gods Footstool in the Aramaic Targumim and Midrashic Tradition. Paper presented at the annual meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 2124, 2009. Website A citation to website content can often be limited to a mention in the text or in a note (As of July 19, 2008, the McDonalds Corporation listed on its website . . .). If a more formal citation is desired, it may be styled as in the examples below. Because such content is subject to change, include an access date or, if available, a date that the site was last modified. 1. Google Privacy Policy, last modified March 11, 2009, http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html. 2. McDonalds Happy Meal Toy Safety Facts, McDonalds Corporation, accessed July 19, 2008, http://www.mcdonalds.com/corp/about/factsheets.html.

3. Google Privacy Policy. 4. Toy Safety Facts. Google. Google Privacy Policy. Last modified March 11, 2009. http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html. McDonalds Corporation. McDonalds Happy Meal Toy Safety Facts. Accessed July 19, 2008. http://www.mcdonalds.com/corp/about/factsheets.html. Blog entry or comment Blog entries or comments may be cited in running text (In a comment posted to The BeckerPosner Blog on February 23, 2010, . . .) instead of in a note, and they are commonly omitted from a bibliography. The following examples show the more formal versions of the citations. There is no need to add pseud. after an apparently fictitious or informal name. (If an access date is required, add it before the URL; see examples elsewhere in this guide.) 1. Jack, February 25, 2010 (7:03 p.m.), comment on Richard Posner, Double Exports in Five Years?, The Becker-Posner Blog, February 21, 2010, http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/beckerposner/2010/02/double-exports-in-five-yearsposner.html. 2. Jack, comment on Posner, Double Exports. Becker-Posner Blog, The. http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/beckerposner/. E-mail or text message E-mail and text messages may be cited in running text (In a text message to the author on March 1, 2010, John Doe revealed . . .) instead of in a note, and they are rarely listed in a bibliography. The following example shows the more formal version of a note. 1. John Doe, e-mail message to author, February 28, 2010. Item in a commercial database For items retrieved from a commercial database, add the name of the database and an accession number following the facts of publication. In this example, the dissertation cited above is shown as it would be cited if it were retrieved from ProQuests database for dissertations and theses. Choi, Mihwa. Contesting Imaginaires in Death Rituals during the Northern Song Dynasty. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2008. ProQuest (AAT 3300426).

Variations of Documentation
The following styles are generally used by writers of technical papers Sample 3 [Author, Title in Initial Capitals and Italics, edition # (City of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication). Fox, R.W., and A.T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978). A Manual of Style, 12th ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969). McElroy, W.D., Cell Physiology and Biochemistry, 3rd ed., Foundations of Modern Biology Series (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971). Sample 4 [1] D. Thompson, ed., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 9th ed., 1995. 2] The University of Western Australia, Doctor of Philosophy Regulations. [web page], 30 August 1999. http://www.acs.uwa.edu.au/research/phd/regs.html [cited 29 February 2000]. [3] Honours Working Party, Honours Working Party Report: 30 June 1999 (Amended 14 July 1999). [web page], 10 August 1999. http://www.acs.uwa.edu.au/reg/ internal/sec/hwp/6.htm [cited 29 February 2000]; Internal report of The University of Western Australia. [4] The University of Western Australia, PhD Examination Procedures. [web page], 13 January 2000. http://www.acs.uwa.edu.au/research/phd/exam.html; [cited 29 February 2000]. [5] D. Lindsay, A Guide to Scientific Writing. Melbourne, Australia: Addison Wesley Longman Australia, 2nd ed., 1997. [6] R. Barrass, Scientists Must Write: A guide to better writing for scientists, engineers and students. London, UK: Chapman & Hall, 1991. [7] P. B. Medawar, The Strange Case of the Spotted Mice and other classic essays on science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1996. [8] K. F. Schaffner, Nineteenth-Century Aether Theories. New York, USA: Pergamon Press, 1972. [9] L. Carroll, The Annotated Alice: Alices Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, UK: Penguin Books, 1978. Illustrated by John Tenniel; with an Introduction and Notes by Martin Gardner. [10] M. Faraday, Faradays Diary: Being the Various Philosophical Notes of Experimental Investigation made by Michael Faraday during the years 18201862, vol. II, Aug 25 1832Feb 29 1836. London, UK: G Bell and Sons, 1932. edited by Thomas Martin. [11] M. E. Van Valkenburg, Network Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall, 3rd ed., 1974. [12] B. P. Lathi, Signals, Systems and Communication. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons, 1965. [13] G. D. Gopen and J. A. Swan, The science of scientific writing, American Scientist, vol. 78, pp. 550558, 1990.

[14] Y. Attikiouzel, Writing the PhD Thesis. Private verbal communication, as the authors PhD supervisor, Centre for Intelligent Information Processing Systems, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6907, Australia, 19931996. [15] D. Lindsay, Writing and Publishing in Scientific Journals. Staff Development Programme entitled Writing and Publishing in Scientific Journals organised on 3 June 1999 by the Centre for Staff Development, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia, 1999. [16] P. Hartmann, R. Fraser, and P. Maddern, The characteristics of a good thesis. Discussion during Staff Development Programme entitled Supervising Postgraduate Students organised on 29 March 1999 by the Centre for Staff Development, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia, 1999. [17] T. Buzan and B. Buzan, The mind map book. London, UK: BBC Books, revised ed., 1995. [18] D. Holtom and E. Fisher, Enjoy Writing Your Science Thesis or Dissertation!: A step by step guide to planning and writing dissertations and theses for undergraduate and graduate science students. London, UK: Imperial College Press, 1999. Sample 5 4Taylor and William Francis, 1855. Reprinted from the Philosophical Transactions of 18461852 with other Electrical Papers from the Proceedings of the Royal Institution and Philosophical Magazine. [39] J. C. Maxwell, The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. New York, USA: Dover Publications, 1965. Edited by W D Niven; two volumes bound as one. [40] Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Baron,, Scientific Papers by Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), vol. I: 18691881. New York, USA: Dover Publications, 1964. Six volumes bound as three. [41] J. C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. 1. New York, USA: Dover Publications, 3rd unabridged ed., 1954. [42] R. A. Day, How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. Phoenix, AZ, USA: Oryx Press, 5th ed., 1998. [43] H. B. Michaelson, How to Write and Publish Engineering Papers and Reports. Philadelphia, PA, USA: ISI Press, 1982.

Sample 6 Connor, U., & Johns, A. M. (Eds.). (1990). Coherence in writing: Research and pedagogical perspectives. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Gopen G. D. & Swan, J. A. (1990). The science of scientific writing. American Scientist, 78, 550-558. Huckin, T. N., & Olsen, L. A. (1991). Technical writing and professional communication for nonnative speakers of English (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Weissburg, R. C. (1984). Given and new: Paragraph development models for scientific English. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 485-500.