Signal Noise and Interferences: In comparison to older instrumentation system mo dern instrumentation system based on Digital signals are

very sensitive to any n oise and signal distortion due to noise. Therefore it is needless to emphasize t o adapt modern wiring techniques and better qualities of cables to to achieve a better solution. Noise coupling methods (as per IEEE Guide for Instrumentation a nd Control Equipment Grounding in Generating Stations standard 1050) could be on e of the following: Conductive (common impedance) Capacitive (Electric field) Inductive ( Magnetic Field) Radiative (Electromagnetic) 1. Conductive (Common Impedance) Coupling :When a common junction/ wiring is shared by two circuits, such as common return path, then this noise or int erference occurs. This could be intentional for grounding or could be due to und esired leakage between the two circuits. The resulting ground potential can coup le in to the signal path as shown in Fig no. XII/4.0.2-1a. So Current in one ci rcuit may appear as noise in the other circuit, and such noise voltage depends o n the value of Common Impedance. These may manifest in the plant on account of different ground potential at various locations in the plant. Many times it may be futile to short out this potential. These may occur even if the receiving in strument has high Common Mode Rejection (CMR), when the shield is not correctly terminated or terminated at two points giving rise to a ground loop. In Grounded type Thermocouple this is quite prevalent. 2. Capacitive Coupling: All portions such as between the insulated conducto rs, there is a capacitance. Any voltage change regardless of location will try to push a current through the various possible capacitances for coupling in the circuits, as shown in Fig no. XII/4.0.2-1b. ( as I= C dV/dT). So the length of two parallel wiring will increase the noise due to capacitance coupling. High I mpedance circuits are more susceptible to capacitive coupling. 3. Inductive Coupling : There could be many closed loops having mutual ind uctance, which is proportional to area enclosed by the closed loop as shown in F ig no. XII/4.0.2-1c. There is a transformer effect and is equally applicable fo r a DC circuit whenever their current is interrupted or it changes periodically. ( E= M dI/dT) This coupling is increasing function of the length of the coup led conductors and decreasing function to the distance between them. (Noise Sou rce: dI/dT noise medium : Mutual Inductance Coupled noise : Voltage) 4. Radiative (Electromagnetic) Coupling. : when the circuit/loop route wit hin the electromagnetic radiation profile of interfering source. Normally these field couples voltage in the form of common mode voltage. These coupling is pr oportional to the loop area and frequency. Even though these frequencies may be much higher than the control circuits yet cause harmonic interferences. 5. Interference Modes: Common Mode, Differential Mode and Cross are a few modes of signal interferences. Out of these first two modes are very much inter related and their characteristics have been detailed out in . Table no XII/4.0.2 -1 and associated drawing to be referred to is Fig no. XII/4.0.2-1d. Cross Talk : It is another means of interference. When Ac signals, or pulsating DC signals are transmitted over Multi paired cable then there is a tendency of signals to be superimposed on the signals carried by the other pair of cables, o n account of effects of both inductive and capacitive coupling and is proportion al to the frequency of signals. The impedance change will cause proportional eff ect on capacitive coupling and inversely proportional to inductive coupling. So to minimize cross talk effect one has to assess which of the two couplings are predominant and one has to act accordingly.

Table no XII/4.0.2-1 : Interference Modes. Characters Common Mode Differential Mode Introduction Introduced in to the signal channel from outside having at least

one terminal not legitimate part of the circuit. Chassis is always a terminal u nless isolated. Introduced in to the channel through the same path as with the l egitimate circuit. Other than main signal path , no current path exists. Cause Caused due to potential difference between ground points, and/or electro magnetic pick up or other electrical coupling. May be due to conversion of comm on mode current to differential mode noise. Effects It indirectly acts on receiver and signal error can be considered as com mon mode interference to differential mode noise. In two wire system, usually each wire has same magnitude but opposite in phase. Normally have frequency characteristic different from desired signal. In two wire system, usually each wire has same magnitude but opposite in phase. Reference Fig no. XII/4.0.2-1d Use of suitable RC filter, Zenners, Varistors can be used to minimize interfer ence. 6. Cable Considerations: In the following clauses a brief discussions on t he type of cable and their dressings and terminations have been explained. Some tips for various signal types have been elaborated in Table no XII/4.0.2-2 : Sig nals & Cable Types Table no XII/4.0.2-2 : Signals & Cable Types Points Analog /Pulse /Digital (Lo)Signals Discrete (Hi) Signal Signal types 4-20mADC, Thermocouple, RTD, Strain gage, Digital / Network com munication signal, pulses, Process switches, Limit switches, Relay contacts , etc. with Higher interrogation Voltages. Conductor Twisted Pair /Triad Twisted pair Screening Individually Shielded Pair/Triads. Screen coverage 100% Overall shield100% coverage is preferred. Grounding: At field drain wire/ Screen to be cut and taped grounding at M arshalling end at in control (equipment) Room. The screen wire/drain wires shal l be properly terminated at the specified ground terminal board. Drain wire/ Scr een of one loop must not be shorted at marshalling rack/ Junction box etc. 7. Considerations to effectively eliminate Electrical noise: In line with standard IEEE 518 following methods may be adapted for effectively eliminate El ectrical Noise: To maintain physical separation between electrical noise source and sensitive eq uipment and between electrical noise bearing wires and sensitive signal wire. Mo st effective means. Twisting pair wiring should be used in critical signal circuits and in noise pro ducing circuit to minimize magnetic interference. Proper shielding practice Proper grounding practice Use of appropriate filter. 8. Shielding: It is generalized termed used as a barrier between an emitter and susceptor. Shield Effectiveness (SE) is measured in Decibel (dB) and 20-80 dB is normal effective shielding. Only short discussions have been presented he re for details latest edition of IEEE 1050 may be referred to. Most of the elect ronic devices are housed in steel cabinets which provides some degree of shield, but their Se depends on a number of factors such as seam, cable penetration, ap ertures etc. as any opening in the enclosure provide highly effective coupling. Similarly when electronic systems are packaged in non conductive material (e.g. ABS), their cases should be treated with conductive materials to provide shieldi ng. Cable shield as already discussed has very important role to play in dimini shing noise effect on the signal. In most of the cases only overall or individua l pair shields are used since the capacitance per unit length greatly increased when both are used. For digital signals in some cases overall shield will suffic e. Common shield used in the cables are copper braid, copper tape, Aluminized M yler tape with (copper) drain wire. Metallic duct/ conduits also act as shield. Double grounding arrangement of Aluminium/ copper tapes give very poor performan ces when grounded at double point. So it is advisable to ground the shield condu ctor(s) at one point only and shield envelope should have insulated jacket so as

to prevent multiple grounds. Some shielding tips in line with IEEE 518 Standar d may be followed: The shield shall never left floating as it enhances electrostatic coupling. Low level signal sources requiring Differential amplifier shall have shield grou nding as per equipment manufacturer recommendation. Digital Logic signals normally has shield grounded at logic power supply end. Multi pair conductors used with thermocouple should have individual insulated sh ield, so that each shield may be maintained at the particular thermocouple groun d potential. . 9. Other Methods of Noise Minimizing Techniques: There are a few other mea ns and methods also to minimize noise. These could be use of Isolation transform er/ neutralizing transformer/differential amplifier etc. 10. Classification of Wiring as per Noise Susceptibility Level(NSL): Accordi ng to noise susceptibility, IEEE 518 classified wiring in to four classes of w iring : Level 1 High Susceptibility Analog Signal <50V and Digital signal <16V mainly t hese include but not limited to the following: Field Bus (foundation) 4-20mA or 4-20 mA along with transmitter protocol( HART) RTD/Thermocouple millivolt /Pulses All Signal associated with Digital hardware Discrete input output such as Process switches, Valve Limit switches relays, sol enoid, indicating lights Wiring connected with sensitive analog hardwire such strain gage Phone lines Level 2 Medium Susceptibility: Analog Signal >50V and switching circuits Common returns to medium susceptible equipment Discrete I/O DC signals like those from Process switches, Valve Limit switches r elays, solenoid, lights Discrete I/O AC signals like those from Process switches, Valve Limit switches r elays, solenoid, lights Analog tachometer signal Level 3 Low susceptibility : Switching signal >50V analog signal > 50V With cur rent < 20A and Ac feeder <20A Fused control bus 50-250VDC Indicating lamp >50V Thyristor field exciter etc various electrical systems ( not discussed here) Level 4 Ac & DC Buses of 0-1000V with current 20-800A Thyristor AC power input and DC output other electrical systems( not discussed here) As per IEEE 518 standard, within the level conditions may exist that require spe cific cables, and regrouping is not allowed. For class code and other details la test edition of IEEE 518 may be referred to. Tray spacing amongst these signals of different NSL have been discussed in section 4.2 of this chapter.