Control Charts

1.0 Introduction
A control chart (or Shewhart control charts) is a graphical tool for monitoring the activity of an ongoing process. The values of quality characteristic (eg. Length, diameter, surface roughness, tool wear) are plotted on vertical axis and the horizontal axis represents sample number or subgroup number.

Upper Control Limit Quality Characteristic

Centre Line

Lower Control Limit

Sample number

Figure-1

Three lines are indicated on the control chart. The centre line, which typically represents the average value of the characteristic being plotted, is an indication of where the process is centred. Two limits, the upper control limit and lower control limit, are used to make decisions regarding the process. If the points plot within the control limits and do not exhibit any identifiable pattern, the process is said to be in statistical control. If a point plots outside the control limits or if an identifiable pattern the process is said to be out of statistical control. 1.1 Benefits 1. A control chart indicates when something may be wrong so that corrective action can be taken. 2. The pattern of the plot on a control chart diagnoses possible causes and hence indicates possible remedial actions. 3. With the help of control chart, we can calculate capability of the process under study. 4. Control chart provides a base line for instituting and measuring quality improvement. 1.2 Causes of variation Variability is a part of any process. Several factors such as methods, equipment, people, materials, and policies influence variability. Environmental factors also contribute to variability. The causes of variation are divided into two categories: common causes and special causes. Control of a process is achieved through elimination of UCL special causes. Improvement of a process is accomplished through the reduction of common causes. Special causes are not inherent in the process. They can be due to use of wrong tool, an improper raw material, or an operator error. Common causes are inherent in the process. They occur due to natural variation in the process and are not in the control of the operator. They cannot be completely eliminated but minimized. 2.0 Design of control charts Design of control charts involves (i) selection of control limits, (ii) frequency of sampling, (iii) selection of sample size, and (iv) criteria for rational sampling (i) Selection of control limits: Control limits normally chosen are corresponding to 3-sigma limits. In this case, the expected value of the quality characteristic of samples is taken as the centre line value. The

upper control limit is drawn at a distance of 3-sigma on one side of the centre line and the lower control limit is drawn at a distance of 3-sigma on the other side of the centre line. ) UCL= LCL= )+3. )-3. (1) (2) (3)

Sometimes probability limits can also be used. It is based on the degree of probability that the sample statistic falls outside the control limits. Take for example, 3 sigma limits cover 99.73% of the area under normal distribution curve. That means the probability of a statistic value falling outside the range is 0.27%. If we want the probability to be (let us say) 0.10%, the upper control limit is calculated at a distance of 3.29 sigma (obtained from normal distribution tables). Sometimes the control limits are calculated based on allowable errors such as (i) type I error and (ii) type II error. Type I error results from inferring that a process is out of control when it is actually in control. Type II error results from inferring that a process is in control when it is really out of control. (ii) Frequency of sampling: Collecting large samples at frequent intervals provides a lot of information. However, it may not be practicable. Collection of small samples at frequent intervals also does not provide complete information. Selection of frequency depends on current state of process. If the current state of process is stable, the frequency can be decreased. Otherwise, it may be increased. Similarly if the inspection involved is destructive in nature, we cannot afford frequent sampling. If the process involves greater variability, we have to increase the frequency. Finally the cost of sampling and inspection also influence the frequency of sampling. (iii) Selection of sample size: The degree of shift expected to take place will influence the choice of sample size. Large shifts in the process parameter can be detected by smaller sample sizes than those needed to detect smaller shifts. Alternatively, if it is important to detect slight changes in the process, we require smaller sample sizes. (iv) Rational sampling: The rational sample is chosen in such a manner that the variation within it is considered to be due only to common causes. So, the samples are selected such that if special causes are present they will occur between the samples. Therefore, the differences between the samples will be maximized, and differences within samples will be minimized. Selection of sample observations is done by either instant of time method (sample is consecutive units of production at an instant of time) or by sampling interval method (sample is taken from all the units that are manufactured since last sample is taken. UCL 2.1 Rules for identifying an out of control process Rule-1: A process is assumed to be out of control if a single point plots outside the control limits. Rule-2: A process is assumed to be out of control if two out of three points plot outside 2 warning limits on the same side of centre line. Rule-3: A process is assumed to be out of control if four out of five consecutive points fall beyond 1 limit on the same side of centre line. Rule-4: A process is assumed to be out of control if nine or more consecutive points fall on one side of centre line. Rule-5: A process is assumed to be out of control if there is a run of six or more consecutive points steadily increasing or decreasing.

Rule-6: A process is assumed to be out of control if there are fifteen points in a row within 1 limits. Rule-7: A process is assumed to be out of control if there fourteen points in a row alternatively up and down. Rule-8: A process is assumed to be out of control if there is unusual non random pattern in the data.

2.2 Control charts for variables

2.2.1 Control charts for variables Variables are quality characteristics that are measurable on a numerical scale. Examples of variables include length, diameter, surface roughness and tool wear. The objective of control charts for variable is to control the mean value of the quality characteristic as well as its variability. The mean gives an indication of central tendency of a process, and the variability provides an idea of the process dispersion. Therefore, we need information about both these statistics to keep a process in control. 2.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages 1. Variables provide more information than attributes which deal with qualitative information such as whether an item is nonconforming. Variables show the degree to which a quality characteristic is nonconforming. 2. as costs are due to fixed cost of the measuring instruments and variable unit costs in the form of cost of inspection. 3. These types of charts are best suited for control of process at shop floor environment.

2.2.3 Selection of characteristics for investigation As it is not possible to maintain control charts separately for all the quality characteristics of a product due to involvement of large number of characteristics in a product, the management restrict the study to selected number of quality characteristics. In most industries, the quality characteristics are selected by using Pareto analysis. 2.3 Design of Control charts for Mean ( ) and Range (R) The following steps are used to develop the control charts: Step-1: Using a preselected sampling scheme and sample size, record measurements of the selected quality characteristic on the appropriate forms. Step-2: For each sample, calculate the sample mean and range using the following formulas: (4) R = Xmax - Xmin (5) UCL

Where Xi represents the ith observation, n is the sample size, Xmax is the largest observation and Xmin is the smallest observation. Step-3: Obtain and draw the center line and the trial control limits for each chart. For given by (6) Where m represents the number of samples. For the R-chart, the center line is found from chart, the center line is

(7) The control limits for and R charts are given by (8) = (9) (10) The constants A2, D3 and D4 can be obtained from tables. Step-4: Plot the values of the range on the control chart for range, with the center line and the control limits drawn. Determine whether the points are in statistical control. If not, investigate the special causes associated with the out of control points and take appropriate remedial action to eliminate special causes. An R-chart is analyzed before to determine out of control situations. An R-chart reflects process

variability, which should be brought to control first. Once the variability is in control, we can focus our attention on Step-5: Delete the out-of-control points for which remedial actions have been taken to remove special causes and use the remaining samples to determine the revised center line and control limits for the These limits are known as revised control limits. The cycle of obtaining information, determining the trial limits, finding out of control points, identifying and correcting special causes, and determining revised control limits then continues. Step-6: Implement the control charts. The charts should be implemented for future observations, using the revised center line and control limits. The charts should be displayed in a conspicuous place where they will be visible to operators, supervisors and managers. Statistical process control will be effective only if everyone is committed to itfrom the operator to the chief executive officer.

2.4 Errors in Making Inferences from Control Charts:

There are two types of errors Type I and Type II --- that can occur when making inferences from control charts. Type I errors result from inferring that a process is out of control when it is actually in control. The probability of Type I error is denoted by . Consider a process that is in control. Suppose a point plots outside the control UCL limits for this process. We tend to conclude that the process is out of control. However, we know very well that we are covering only 3 limits (99.73%) for control charts. We are not covering the rest 0.27% of the points. Thus there is a chance of getting a point out of this 0.27% though a process is in control. Similarly Type II errors result from inferring that a process is in control when it is really out of control. The probability of Type I error is denoted by . If no observations fall outside the control limits, we conclude that the process is in control. Suppose however, that a process is actually out of control. Perhaps the process mean has changed. In this case, the sample statistic may be within limits and the process is out control. This is type II error.

2.5 Example Problem:

Table-1

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 74.03 73.995 73.998 74.002 73.992 74.009 73.995 73.985 74.008 73.998 73.994 74.004 73.983 74.006 74.012 74 73.994 74.006 73.984 74 73.988 74.004 74.01 74.015 73.982 74.002 73.992 74.024 73.996 74.007 73.994 74.006 74.003 73.995 74 73.998 74 74.002 73.967 74.014 73.984 74.012 74.01 74.002 74.01 74.001 73.999 73.989 74.008 73.984

Observations 74.019 74.001 74.021 73.993 74.015 73.997 73.994 73.993 74.009 73.99 73.994 74.007 73.998 73.994 73.998 74.005 73.986 74.018 74.003 74.013 74.009 73.99 73.99 73.993 73.995 73.992 74.011 74.005 74.015 73.989 73.985 74 74.015 74.005 74.007 73.995 74 73.997 74 73.999 73.998 74.005 74.003 74.005 74.02 74.005 74.006 74.009 74 74.017 74.008 74.004 74.002 74.009 74.014 73.993 74.005 73.998 74.004 73.995 73.99 73.996 74.012 73.984 74.007 73.996 74.007 74 73.997 74.003 73.996 74.009 74.014 74.01 74.013

Mean 74.0102 74.0006 74.01 74.003 74.0034 73.9956 74 73.9988 74.0042 73.998 73.9942 74.0014 73.9984 73.9902 74.006 73.9966 74.0008 74.0074 73.9982 74.0092 73.9998 74.0016 74.0024 74.0052 73.9982 74.001336

Range (R) 0.038 0.019 0.026 0.022 0.026 0.024 0.012 0.03 0.014 0.017 0.008 0.011 0.029 0.039 0.016 0.021 0.026 0.018 0.021 0.02 0.021 0.019 0.025 0.022 0.035 0.02236

From variable control charts tables corresponding to a sample size of 5, A2 = 0.577; D3 = 0; D4 = 2.115 (i) Computation of control limits For chart, = = + A2* = 74.001336 + 0.577 * 0.02236 = 74.01423772
UCL

= 74.001336 = -A2* = 74.001336 0.577 * 0.02236 = 73.98843428

For R chart, = D4* = 2.115 * 0.02236 = 0.0472914 = = 0.02236 = D3* = 0 (ii) Construction of control chart -Chart and R-Chart

UCL

CL

LCL

UCL

CL

LCL

(iii) Computation of standard deviation From tables corresponding to a sample size of 5, d2 = 2.326

= 0.0096

(iv) If the specification limits are 74.000 0.05 mm and the quality characteristic is external diameter, (a) Proportion of Scrap Proportion of scrap corresponds to lower specification limit. Lower specification limit = 73.950. UCL Standard normal deviate (z1) = = = - 5.3475 Corresponding to z1 value of -5.3475, from normal distribution tables, proportion of scrap is 0 (zero) (b) Proportion of Rework Proportion of rework corresponds to upper specification limit. Upper specification limit = 74.050 Standard normal deviate (z2) = = = 5.069 Corresponding to z2 value of 5.069, from normal distribution tables, proportion of rework is 0 (zero)

2.6 Control chart patterns and corrective action A system working under only common causes is said to be in a state of statistical control. Special causes are due to periodic and persistent disturbances that affect the process intermittently. The objective is to identify the special causes and take appropriate remedial action. Some of the cases of control chart patterns are given here. These cases may not cover entire set of control chart patterns normally found in industries but they give some idea of how to make conclusions. (i) Natural patterns: A natural pattern is one in which no identifiable arrangement of the plotted points exists. No point falls outside the control limits, majority of the points are near the centre line and few points are near the control limits. (ii) Sudden shifts in the level: Many causes can bring about a sudden change (or jump) in pattern level on an or R chart. These can happen in shop floor environment due to introduction of new operators, new equipment, new measuring instruments, new vendors, and new method of processing. (iii) Gradual shifts in the level Gradual shifts occur when a process parameter changes gradually over a period of time. The process stabilizes afterwards. An - chart might exhibit such a shift because the incoming quality of raw materials or components changed over time, the maintenance program changed, or the style of supervision changed. An R-chart might exhibit such a shift because of a new operator, a decrease in worker skill due to fatigue or monotony, or a gradual improvement in the incoming quality of raw materials because a vendor has implemented a statistical process control system. (iv) Trending patterns: Trends differ from gradual shifts in level in that trends do not stabilize or settle down. Trends represent changes that steadily increase or decrease. An -chart may exhibit trend because of tool wear, die wear, gradual deterioration of equipment etc. An Rchart may exhibit a trend because of a gradual improvement in operator skill resulting from on-the-job training, or a decrease in operator skill due to fatigue. (v) Cyclic patterns: They are characterized by a repetitive periodic behaviour in the system. Cycles of low and high points will appear on the control chart. An -chart may exhibit cyclic behaviour because of a rotation of operators, periodic changes in temperature and humidity, periodicity in the mechanical or chemical properties of the material, or seasonal variation of incoming components. An R-chart may exhibit cyclic patterns because of operator fatigue and subsequent energization following breaks, a difference between shifts, or periodic maintenance of equipment. (vi) Wild patterns: A wild pattern is divided into two categories, viz., freaks and bunches. Freaks are caused by external disturbances that influence one or more samples. Such points usually fall outside the control limits and are easily distinguishable from the other points on the chart. Some causes of freaks include sudden, very short-lived power failures; the use of a new tool for a brief test period; and the failure of a component. Bunches or groups are
UCL

clusters of a several observations that are decidedly different from other points on the plot. Possible special causes of such behaviour include the use of a new vendor for a short period of time, use of a different machine for a brief time period, and a new operator used for a short period. (vii) Mixture patterns: A mixture pattern is caused by the presence of two or more populations in the sample and is characterized by points that fall near the control limits, with an absence of points near the centre line. A mixture pattern can occur when one set of values is too high and another set too low because of differences in the incoming quality of material from two vendors. A remedial action would be to have a separate control chart for each vendor..

(viii) Stratification patterns: A stratification pattern has most of the points very close to the centre line. This may be due to presence of two or more population distributions of the same quality characteristic. Sometimes, it may be due to manipulation of the samples by the operator. The method of choosing rational samples should be carefully analyzed so that component distributions are not mixed when samples are selected. (ix) Interaction patterns: An interaction pattern occurs when the level of one variable affects the behaviour of other variables associated with the quality characteristic of interest. Furthermore, the combined effect of two or more variables on the output quality characteristic may be different from the individual effect of each variable. An interaction effect can be detected by changing the scheme of the rational sampling. Suppose that in a chemical process the temperature and pressure are two important controllable variables that affect the output quality characteristic of interest. A low pressure and a high temperature may produce a very desirable effect on the output characteristic, whereas a low pressure by itself may not have that effect. An effective sampling method would involve controlling the temperature at several high values and then determining the effect of pressure on the output characteristic for each temperature value. Samples composed of random combinations of temperature and pressure may fail to identify the interactive effect of those variables on the output characteristic.

2.7 Control charts for the mean ( ) and standard deviation ( ) Although an R-chart is easy to construct and use, a standard deviation chart is preferableUCL larger for samples sizes (greater than 10). For the given data, the control limits for both mean and standard deviation charts are calculated using the following equations: -chart UCL = CL = LCL = -A3* b) s-chart + A3* (12) (13) (14)

UCL = B4* CL = LCL = B3*

(15) (16) (17)

Where

(18)

2.8 Control charts for Attributes:

An attribute is a quality characteristic for which a numerical value is not specified. It is measured on a nominal scale. It is characterized as acceptable or unacceptable, or is categorized as exceptional, good, fair, or poor. A quality characteristic that does not meet certain prescribed standards is said to be nonconformity (or defect). For example, if the diameter of a shaft is expected to be 250.20mm, a diameter of 25.4mm is not acceptable. The shaft has a defect. In case the shaft does not meet the specifications in regard to its length also, we say shaft has a defect in regard to length also. As shaft has defect(s), it is called a defective and is rejected. Thus, a nonconforming item or defective may have more than one defect. The different types of control charts used for controlling defects and defectives are grouped into three categories. The first category includes control charts that focus on proportion: the proportion of nonconforming items (p-chart) and the number of nonconforming items (np-chart). These two charts are based on binomial distributions. The second category deals with three charts that focus on the nonconformity (defect) itself. The chart for the total number of nonconformities (c-chart) is based on the Poisson distribution. The chart for nonconformities per unit (u-chart) is applicable to situations in which the size of the sample unit varies from sample to sample. In the third category, the chart for demerits per unit (U-chart) deals with combining nonconformities on a weighted basis such that the weights are influenced by the severity of each nonconformity.

2.9 Advantages and Disadvantages:

Certain quality characteristics are best measured as attributes in order to save time and cost or if the quality characteristic is qualitative in nature. This is best applicable when a quality is maintained at company level. Once we move to departmental level, it is better to use variable measurement. Thus, attribute charts assist in going from the general to a more focussed level. Attribute information does not give us the exact value of the quality characteristic. How much correction is to be made in case a quality characteristic is outside limits, remains unanswered. Attribute charts require larger sample sizes than variable charts to ensure that adequate protection is obtained against a certain level of process changes. UCL If no historical information is available, attribute charts are first used. In situations where summary information is required, attribute charts are better applicable.

2.10 Chart for Proportion of Nonconforming (p-Chart):

The construction of p-chart is based on Binomial distribution. The mean and variance of p-chart is given by p and respectively. A p-chart is one of the most versatile control charts. It is used to control the

acceptability of a single quality characteristic (say, the diameter), a group of quality characteristics of the same type or on the same part (the length, the width, the diameter, or height of the component), or an entire product. The following procedure is used for construction:

Step 1: Select the objective: Decide on the level at which the p-chart will be used that is the plant , the department, or the operator level. Decide to control a single quality characteristic, multiple characteristics, a single product, or a number of products. The criteria for selection is influenced by number of potential quality characteristics, the number of products produced, and the cost and time required for inspection. Step 2: Determine the sample size and sampling interval: The sample size must be large enough to allow the opportunity for some nonconforming items to be present on average. The sampling interval that is the time between successive samples is a function of the production rate and the cost of sampling, among other factors. Step-3: Obtain the data, and record on an appropriate form. A typical data sheet for p-chart includes the date and time at which the sample is taken, the number of items inspected (sample size), and the number of non conforming items. The proportion of nonconforming is found by dividing the number of nonconforming items by the sample size. Usually 25-30 samples should be taken prior to performing an analysis. Step-4: Calculate the centre line and the trial control limits. Once they are determined, draw them on the pchart. Plot the values of the proportion nonconforming ( )for each sample on the chart. Examine the chart to determine whether the process is in control. (19) (20)

(21) Step-5: Calculate the revised control limits after analysing the plotted values of p and the pattern for out of control conditions. Typically one or two rules are used concurrently. Step-6: Implement the chart: use the revised center line and control limits of the p-chart for future observations as they become available. Periodically revise the chart using guidelines similar to those given for variable charts. Example Problem: Frozen orange juice concentrate is packed in 6-oz cardboard cans. These cans are formed on a machine by spinning them from cardboard stock and attaching a metal bottom panel. By inspection of a can, we may determine whether, when filled, it could possibly leak either on the side seam or around the bottom joint. Such a nonconforming can has an improper seal on either the side seam or the bottom panel. We wish to set up a control chart to improve the fraction of nonconforming cans produced by this machine. To establish the control chart, 30 samples of n = 50 cans each were selected at half hour intervals over a three shift period in which the machine was in continuous operation. The data are shown in the following table along with UCL calculations of . Table-2 Sample Number of Fraction Sample Number of Fraction Number nonconforming nonconforming, Number nonconforming nonconforming, cans, Di cans, Di 1 12 0.24 16 8 0.16 2 15 0.30 17 10 0.20 3 8 0.16 18 5 0.10 4 10 0.20 19 13 0.26 5 4 0.08 20 11 0.22 6 7 0.14 21 20 0.40 7 16 0.32 22 18 0.36 8 9 0.18 23 24 0.48 9 14 0.28 24 15 0.30

10 11 12 13 14 15

10 5 6 17 12 22

0.20 0.10 0.12 0.34 0.24 0.44

25 26 27 28 29 30

9 12 7 13 9 6 Total

0.18 0.24 0.14 0.26 0.18 0.12 6.94

Step-3: p-value for sample number-6 is calculated as follows: = Similarly p-values for all the samples is calculated. Step-4: The Central Line is at average of, . i.e., = 6.94/30 = 0.2313 = 0.14.

The trial Upper and Lower control limits are calculated by using the equations 19,20 and 21 given in step-4 of procedure given above. = 0.4102

= 0.0524

The control chart is drawn with trial control limits.

UCL UCL CL

LCL

Sample number Figure-3 It is found from the chart that sample numbers 15 and 23 are out of control limits. These two points are deleted from the data. The control limits are recalculated as

UCL = 0.3893; CL = 0.2150; LCL = 0.0407. The chart is redrawn. After redrawing, it is found that all the points are within the control limits except sample number 21. There is no undesirable pattern whatsoever in the data. So the point may be retained and it may be concluded that the process is now in control and this chart can be used for further analysis. (The point may be excluded from the data and control limits may be recalculated again).

UCL

CL

LCL

Sample number Figure-4 p-Chart for variable sample size: The following reasons contribute to variation in sample size: 1. Lack of available inspection personnel 2. Change in the unit cost of inspection 3. Change in rate of production There are two approaches to handle the cases if the sample size n varies. The first approach is to take the average value of sample size n of all the samples. If the average is the UCL and LCL for p-chart can be calculated by usual expressions by substituting instead of n. The rest of the terms are same as given in equation no.s 19,20 and 21. The second approach is to calculate the control limits for individual samples by using the equations 19,20 and 21. We add two columns to Table-2 and Enter the data UCLi and LCLi . Draw a p-chart with the procedure given before. The UCL and LCL lines are not straight as earlier and a separate point is plotted for each of the sample as explained in the class. UCL Example: Twenty random samples are selected from a process that makes vinyl tiles. The sample size as well as the number of nonconforming tiles is shown in the following table. Calculate control limits for each data value by using second approach and draw the chart. However, Centre line is calculated by usual formula.

UCL

CL

LCL

Sample i

No. inspected ni 200 180 200 120 300 250 400 180 210 380 190 380 200 210 390 120 190 380 200 180 4860

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

No. of non conformances Di 14 10 17 8 20 18 25 20 27 30 15 26 10 14 24 15 18 19 11 12 353

Proportion nonconforming, pi 0.070 0.056 0.085 0.067 0.067 0.072 0.062 0.111 0.129 0.079 0.079 0.068 0.050 0.067 0.061 0.125 0.095 0.050 0.055 0.067

UCLi

LCLi

0.128 0.131 0.128 0.144 0.118 0.122 0.112 0.131 0.126 0.113 0.129 0.113 0.128 0.126 0.112 0.144 0.129 0.113 0.128 0.131

0.018 0.015 0.018 0.002 0.028 0.023 0.034 0.015 0.019 0.033 0.016 0.033 0.018 0.019 0.033 0.002 0.016 0.033 0.018 0.015

UCL It appears that only one point is outside the control limits and it may be either omitted or the process may be continued by including it. c-Chart: A non conformance (defective) is an article that in some way fails to conform to specifications in one or more quality characteristics. A non conformity (defect) is a non conformance of one quality characteristic. Thus, a defective article may result in due to one or more defects. c-Chart is used to control the number of defects in a defective article. This process control method is assumed to follow Poisson distribution and the parameter used is . Examples for cases fit for c-Chart include (i) number of non conforming rivets in an aircraft, (ii) number of breakdowns at weak spots in insulation in a given length of insulated wire subjected to a specified test voltage, (iii) number of surface imperfections observed in a galvanized sheet or a painted, plated, or enamelled surface of a given area, (iv) number of seeds observed in a glass bottle, (v) number of imperfections in a bolt of cloth, (vii) number of errors made in completing a form.

The control limits are calculated by using the following expressions: L (22,23,24)

Example: The following table gives the numbers of errors of alignment observed at final inspection of a certain model of an aeroplane. Airplane number 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 No. Of alignment errors 7 6 6 7 4 7 8 12 9 9 8 5 5 9 8 Airplane number 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 No. Of alignment errors 15 6 4 13 7 8 15 6 6 10 7 13 4 5 9 Airplane number 231 232 234 233 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 No. Of alignment errors 3 4 6 7 14 18 11 11 11 8 10 8 7 16 13 Airplane number 247 247 248 249 250 TOTAL No. Of alignment errors 12 9 11 11 8 436

By using equations 22,23 and 24, the control limits are calculated. = 436/50 =8.72; UCL = 8.72 +3 = 17.52 LCL= max (0, 8.72 -3 =0 UCL

The plot is given in the following figure.

CL

UCL LCL

All the points in the plot are in control. This chart may be considered as final and can be used for further analysis. Warning limits in c-Chart are calculated just by replacing 3 with2 in the equations 22 and 24 of UCL and LCL.

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Observations 74.012 73.995 73.987 74.008 74.003 73.994 74.008 74.030 74.015 74.001 74.001 74.015 74.035 74.017 74.010 74.015 74.010 73.999 74.010 74.000 74.003 74.002 74.005 74.000 74.004 73.990 74.020 74.010 74.013 74.005 74.030 73.990 73.985 74.003 74.001 74.015 74.018 74.000 74.016 73.990 73.995 74.024 74.012 74.036 74.029 73.986 74.015 74.000 73.991 73.986 74.020 73.995 74.016 74.025 73.996 74.010 74.005 74.015 74.025 74.000 74.000 74.001 73.990 74.006 73.997 74.004 74.005 73.998 74.000 73.998 74.024 74.019 74.026 74.026 74.020

Mean

Range (R)

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Observations 74.012 73.995 73.987 74.008 74.003 73.994 74.008 74.030 74.015 74.001 74.001 74.015 74.035 74.017 74.010 74.015 74.010 73.999 74.010 74.000 74.003 74.002 74.005 74.000 74.004 73.990 74.020 74.010 74.013 74.005 74.030 73.990 73.985 74.003 74.001 74.015 74.018 74.000 74.016 73.990 73.995 74.024 74.012 74.036 74.029 73.986 74.015 74.000 73.991 73.986 74.020 73.995 74.016 74.025 73.996 74.010 74.005 74.015 74.025 74.000 74.000 74.001 73.990 74.006 73.997 74.004 74.005 73.998 74.000 73.998 74.024 74.019 74.026 74.026 74.020

Mean

Range (R)

UCL

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Observations 74.03 73.995 73.998 74.002 73.992 74.009 73.995 73.985 74.008 73.998 73.994 74.004 73.983 74.006 74.012 74.002 73.992 74.024 73.996 74.007 73.994 74.006 74.003 73.995 74 73.998 74 74.002 73.967 74.014 74.019 74.001 74.021 73.993 74.015 73.997 73.994 73.993 74.009 73.99 73.994 74.007 73.998 73.994 73.998 73.992 74.011 74.005 74.015 73.989 73.985 74 74.015 74.005 74.007 73.995 74 73.997 74 73.999 74.008 74.004 74.002 74.009 74.014 73.993 74.005 73.998 74.004 73.995 73.99 73.996 74.012 73.984 74.007

Mean

Range (R)

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Observations 74.03 73.995 73.998 74.002 73.992 74.009 73.995 73.985 74.008 73.998 74.002 73.992 74.024 73.996 74.007 73.994 74.006 74.003 73.995 74 74.019 74.001 74.021 73.993 74.015 73.997 73.994 73.993 74.009 73.99 73.992 74.011 74.005 74.015 73.989 73.985 74 74.015 74.005 74.007 74.008 74.004 74.002 74.009 74.014 73.993 74.005 73.998 74.004 73.995

Mean

Range (R)

UCL

Sample number Sample 1 number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Observations 74.03 73.995 73.998 74.002 73.992 74.009 73.995 73.985 74.008 73.998 73.994 74.004 73.983 74.006 74.012 74 73.994 74.006 73.984 74 73.988 74.004 74.01 74.015 73.982 74.002 Observations 73.992 74.019 73.992 74.024 73.996 74.007 73.994 74.006 74.003 73.995 74 73.998 74 74.002 73.967 74.014 73.984 74.012 74.01 74.002 74.01 74.001 73.999 73.989 74.008 73.984 74.001 74.021 73.993 74.015 73.997 73.994 73.993 74.009 73.99 73.994 74.007 73.998 73.994 73.998 74.005 73.986 74.018 74.003 74.013 74.009 73.99 73.99 73.993 73.995 74.011 74.005 74.015 73.989 73.985 74 74.015 74.005 74.007 73.995 74 73.997 74 73.999 73.998 74.005 74.003 74.005 74.02 74.005 74.006 74.009 74 74.017 74.008 74.004 74.002 74.009 74.014 73.993 74.005 73.998 74.004 73.995 73.99 73.996 74.012 73.984 74.007 73.996 74.007 74 73.997 74.003 73.996 74.009 74.014 74.01 74.013

Mean Mean

Range (R) Range (R)

UCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

74.03 73.995 73.998 74.002 73.992 74.009 73.995 73.985 74.008 73.998 73.994 74.004 73.983 74.006 74.012 74 73.994 74.006 73.984 74 73.988 74.004 74.01 74.015 73.982

74.002 73.992 74.024 73.996 74.007 73.994 74.006 74.003 73.995 74 73.998 74 74.002 73.967 74.014 73.984 74.012 74.01 74.002 74.01 74.001 73.999 73.989 74.008 73.984

74.019 74.001 74.021 73.993 74.015 73.997 73.994 73.993 74.009 73.99 73.994 74.007 73.998 73.994 73.998 74.005 73.986 74.018 74.003 74.013 74.009 73.99 73.99 73.993 73.995

73.992 74.011 74.005 74.015 73.989 73.985 74 74.015 74.005 74.007 73.995 74 73.997 74 73.999 73.998 74.005 74.003 74.005 74.02 74.005 74.006 74.009 74 74.017

74.008 74.004 74.002 74.009 74.014 73.993 74.005 73.998 74.004 73.995 73.99 73.996 74.012 73.984 74.007 73.996 74.007 74 73.997 74.003 73.996 74.009 74.014 74.01 74.013

UCL