Proto-Indo-European Grammar Introduction 8 cases, 3 genders, reconstructed language, origins, peoples etc.

keep it brief but complete enough o be sufficient for language understanding and use. How to use this grammar. PIE has 8 noun cases. The first four of these cases will be familiar to those w ho have studied Germanic languages. The last four are merely expansions of some of the first four, and are used to indicate more precise meaning. Unlike Modern English, PIE has different forms for words which occur in differen t positions of a sentence, these different forms are the 8 cases. .However, thi s system is not as intimidating as it first may seem. The primary form of each noun is the nominative case, in which the noun is in its subject form. In diction aries and lexicons, nouns appear in the nominative form. The accusative case is the object form of a noun. So, in the dog bites the man, the dog is nominative, and the man is accusative.

The 3rd case is genitive, which indicates possession. In the mans bite, man is in a g nitive form. Prepositional Cases The 4th case is dative, and is the 1st case which indicates a preposition: the phrase to the pound is dative. The Locative is the 2nd indicates a preposition, but only a special kind of prep osition. It indicates that something is coming into or going of a specific loca tion, such as to the sea or into the hearth. The Instrumental case is the 3rd case which indicates a preposition. The specif ic type of preposition indicated is something that is used as an instrument to a ccomplish something. For example, in he killed the dog with an axe axe is in the i nstrumental. The vocative case is used for invocations, in other words, when someone is address ed directly. When you call out to someone by their name, the name would be cons idered to be in the vocative case. The Ablative case indicates the origin of something. For example English does not have separate noun forms to indicate prepositions, much less di stinguishing between different types of prepositions. Rather Nouns Histerodynamic (HD) nouns, and Proterodynamic nouns (PD) have mobile accent whic h can fall on either the root or ending depending on the case: nom. has initial accent, acc. and loc. have accent on the stem (the syllable containing the stem, such as -r, -m, -t, -us, etc. Gen./abl. dat and ins. have accent on the case e nding. The vocative case always has initial accent. Some stems have variations of this pattern, see charts for these details. Athematic nouns (with mobile str ess) with zero grade in the nominative have initial stress. The Consonant Stems, are Athematic and have mobile accent. This means that the accented syllable of any word will either be on the root or on the ending, depen

ding on what case is used. For the nom. voc. acc. and loc. cases, the vowels of the root appear in full grade, and the root receives the accent. For gen. abl. dat. and ins. cases, the accent is on the ending. This is because in these case s, the roots become zero-grade, which means that the root vowels disappear in al l syllables of the root. General Singular, Plural and Dual nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. Ins. sg. -s, 0 0 -m -(o)s -(o)s; -(e)i -i, 0 -e, pl. -es -es -ns -om (e)t -mus -su -bhi du. -e -e -e -s -yos -m -u bhye

General Neuter nom./voc./acc. 0, -m N-Stems nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins. Singular Plural -n -on-es -on -on-es -on/en-m -on/en-ns -n-os/es -n-om -n-os/es -n-ios -n-ei -n-mus -en(i) -n-su -n- -n-bhi -a, 0 -ye

R-Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -r -r-es acc. -r-m -r-ns gen. -r-s -r-om abl. -r-(o)s, -(e)t -r-yos dat. -r-ei -r-mus loc. -r-i -r-su ins. -r- -r-bhi L-Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -l - l-es acc. -l-m -l-ns gen. -l-s -l-om abl. -l-(o)s, -(e)t -l-yos dat. -l-ei -l-mus loc. -l-i -l-su ins. -l- -l-bhi M-Stems HD Sing. nom./voc. Plural -m - m-es

acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins.

0-m-m -m-ns 0-m-s -m-om 0-m-(o)s, -(e)t -m-yos 0-m-ei -m-mus -m-i -m-su 0-m- -m-bhi

M-Stems differ (from the other consonant stems, or just from r, l and n?) in tha t the accusative also has zero grade of only the first vowel of the root. Gen, d at and ins. has the standard 0-grade of both vowels in the root. T-Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -t - t-es acc. -t-m -t-ns gen. -t-s -t-om abl. -t-(o)s, -(e)t -t-yos dat. -t-ei -t-mus loc. -t-i -t-su ins. -t- -t-bhi The t-stems only have zero grade of the second vowel in the root, while the firs t vowel remains in full grade. (If there is only one vowel in the root, that vow el will become zero grade). NT-Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -wnt(s) acc. -wnt-m -wnt-ns gen. -wnt-s -wnt-om abl. -wnt-(o)s, -(e)t dat. -wnt-ei -wnt-mus loc. -wnt-i -wnt-su ins. -wnt- -wnt-bhi NT Participles HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -nt - nt-es acc. -nt-m -nt-ns gen. -nt-s -nt-om abl. -nt-(o)s, -(e)t -nt-yos dat. -nt-ei -nt-mus loc. -nt-i -nt-su ins. -nt- -nt-bhi These have zero grade in the nom. and full grade in the acc. Note that the nom. and acc. receive the accent in the suffix. OS-Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. us-s us-es acc. aus-s-m aus-s-ns gen. aus-s-s aus-s-om abl. aus-s-(o)s, -(e)t aus-s-yos dat. aus-s-ei aus-s-mus loc. aus-s-i aus-s-su -wnt-es -wnt-yos

ins.

aus-s- aus-s-bhi

Aus- is a root, not a suffix. These have zero grade also in the accusative. The Comparative Inflection HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -is - ios-es acc. -is-m -is-ns gen. -is-s -is-om abl. -is-(o)s, -(e)t -is-yos dat. -is-ei -is-mus loc. -is-i -is-su ins. -is- -is-bhi The Perfect Participle HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -wid-ws - wid-ws-es acc. -wid-ws-m -wid-ws-ns gen. -wid-us-s -wid-us-om abl. -wid-us-(o)s, -(e)t -wid-us-yos dat. -wid-us-ei -wid-us-mus loc. -wid-us-i -wid-us-su ins. -wid-us- -wid-us-bhi I-Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -i, is -i -es acc. -oi-m -oi-ns gen. -i-os -i-om abl. -i-(o)s, -(e)t -i-yos dat. -i-ei -i-mus loc. -i-i -i-su ins. -i- -i-bhi U-Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. - /us(s) - /us-es acc. -e/ou-m -e/ou-ns gen. -u-os -u-om abl. -u-(o)s, -(e)t -u-yos dat. -u-ei -u-mus loc. -u-i -u-su ins. -u- -u-bhi Laryngeal H1 Stems (e) HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -pont--s -pont--es acc. -pont--m -pont--ns gen. -pnte-os -pnte-om abl. -pnte-(o)s, -(e)t -pnte-yos dat. -pnte-ei -pnte-mus loc. -pnte-i -pnte-su ins. -pnte- -pnte-bhi Laryngeal H2 Stems (a) HD

Sing. nom./voc. acc. -m gen. -os abl. -(o)s, dat. -ai loc. -ai ins. -

Plural -a -s -ns -om -(e)t -ayos -amus -asu -abhi

Laryngeal iH Stems and uH Stems HD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -iH -iH-es acc. -ieH-m -ieH-ns gen. -iH-os -iH-om abl. -iH-(o)s, -(e)t -iH-yos dat. -iH-ei -H-mus loc. -iH-i -iH-su ins. -iH- -iH-bhi The uH stems are completely parallel. The only difference is that before the la ryngeal (H) there should be a u instead of an i. For example, the nom. sing. wo uld be uH, the acc. pl. would be iuH-ns, etc. The Proterodynamic Inflection U- and I-Stems PD nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins. Sing. -u-s -eu -u-m -ou-s -ou-s -eu-i -u -u-e Plural -eu-es -eu-es -u-ns -eu-om -eu-yos -u-mus -u-su -u-bhi

The PD i-stems are completely parallel. Use this same chart but everywhere you see a -u- put an -i-. For example, the nom. sing. would be -i-s, the gen. pl. w ould be -ei-om, etc. H2-Stems PD There is only one word known with the suffix - (-eh2-) which has the PD inflection , namely the word for woman (Beekes 185): nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins. Sing. Plural gen-a gen-a-s gen-a gen-a-s gen-a-m gen-a-ns gn--s gn--m gn--s, -t gn--yos gn--i gn--mus gn-a gn-a-su gn- gn--bhi

YA-Stems (-ih2) PD

nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins.

Sing. -ya -ya -ya-m -y-s -y-s, -y-i -ya-i -y-i

Plural -ya-s -ya-s -ya-ns gn--m -t -y-yos -y-mus -y-su -y-bhi

S-Stems PD Sing. Plural nom./voc. -os -s-a acc. -os-m -s-ns gen. -s-os -s-om abl. -s-(o)s, -(e)t dat. -s-ei -s-mus loc. -s-i -s-su ins. -s- -s-bhi N-Stems PD Sing. nom./voc. acc. -mn-m gen. -men-s abl. -men-s, dat. -men-ei loc. -mn ins. -men- R/N-Stems PD Sing. nom./voc. acc. -n-m gen. -n-s abl. -n-s, dat. -n-ei loc. -n-i ins. -n- Plural -r -r-es -n-ns -n-om -t -n-yos -n-mus -n-su -n-bhi Plural -mn -mn -mn-ns -men-om -t -men-yos -men-mus -mn-su -men-bhi

-s-yos

These are neuters in which the stem has -r in the nom. but -n in the other cases . The Static Inflection Sing. nom./voc. acc. mtr-m gen. mtr-s abl. mtr-s, dat. mtr-ei loc. mtr-i ins. mtr- Plural mtr mtr-es mtr-ns mtr-om -t mtr-yos mtr-mus mtr-su mtr-bhi

Static inflection is rare, but has been used for the words for mother, night, wa ter (which has a special inflection) and knee.

O-Stems Which are Thematic, Static. This means that the accent on any o-stem word will be on the root, not on the ending. Static nouns always have full grade of the r oot. nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins. Sing. -os -e -om -os -d -i -oi - Plural -s - -ons -om -oyos -omus -oisu -is

Neuter O-Stems nom./acc. -om; pl. nom./acc. -a The Dual nom. masc./fem. Consonant Stems - U-Stems -e O-Stems -e A- (eh2) Stems -ye nom. neuter Consonant Stems -ye O-Stems -ye gen. -/s loc. -ow dat. -me/, bhye ins. -bhye abl. -me/, bhye Verbal Noun These are nouns derived from the root of a verb, for example, the killing of a ma n. The object must be in the genitive. A verbal adjective can be formed by addin g a dative ending to the root of a verb. Adjectives Masc. and Neut. Consonant Stem Adjectives masc. sing. nom./voc. -s, 0 acc. -m -m, 0 gen. -(o)s -om abl. -(o)s; (e)t dat. -(e)i -mus loc. -i, 0 -su ins. -e, -bhi neut. sing. -m, 0 -es -ns -a, 0 -yos masc. pl. -a, 0 neut. pl.

Fem. Consonant Stem Adjectives (only for U-Stems and PD Inflection) Sing. nom./voc. acc. -m-y Plural -, -y -es-y -ns-y

gen. abl. dat. loc. ins.

-os-y -(o)s, -ei-y -i-y --y

-om-y -(e)t-y -yos-y -mus-y -su-y -bhi-y

U-Stems have - added on the the adjectival suffix, while the PD inflection has y ad ded on. The example here is for the PD inflection; when decline a U Stem, only add -. HD inflection and Consonant Stems other than U have no separate form from the masc. Masc. and Neut. O-Stem Adjectives nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins. masc. sing. -os -om -e -om -om -om -os -om -d -oyos -i -omus -oi -oisu - -is neut. sing. -s -a - -a -ons -a masc. pl. neut. pl.

Fem. O-Stem Adjectives nom. voc. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. Sing. - - -m -s -d -i -i Plural -s - -ns -m -yos -mus -isu

Comparison masc./fem. neut. comparative -ies- -iossuperlative -isto- -istoComparative and superlative forms were added on to the root, and were followed b y the case endings. They had DH inflection. Verbal Adjective This is an adjective which is not derived from a tense stem but from a root. So me examples are sewn, stretched, known, arrived. Add -to- or -no- onto the root . Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns (meaning this, that) Singular masc. nom. so acc. tm gen. (to)sio abl. tosmd dat. tosmi fem. s tm (t)ess tesii neut. tod tod -

loc. ins. Plural nom. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins.

tosmi toi masc. toi tons tesom toios toimus toisu toibhi

tesii toi fem. si tns tesom tmus tsu tbhi neut. t t -

Interrogative Pronouns Singular nom. ke, kid ko, kod, k acc. kim kom gen. keso koso abl. ked kosmd dat. kesmei kosmi loc. kesmi kosmi ins. kei koi Pl ral nom. acc. gen. abl. dat. loc. ins.

There was only one form for both masculine and feminine. Personal Pronouns 1st Person Singular I Plural we nom. (, m) uei acc. m, me nsm, ns gen. mne, moi ns(er)o-, nos abl. med nsmed dat. mhio, moi nsmei, ns loc. mo nsmi ins. mo ? 2nd Person Singular you Plural you all nom. tu iu acc. tu usm, vs gen. teue, toi ius(er)o-, vos abl. tued usmed dat. tbhio, toi usmei loc. to usmi ins. to ? 3rd Person Sing. he nom. ya acc. im yam gen. so ss abl. smd masc. id id fem. neut.

kei, kia koi, ka, ks kins kons kesom kesom keies koios keim s koim s keis kois keibhi koibhi

dat. loc. ins.

smi smi i

sii sii -

masc. fem. neut.

3rd Person Plural They nom. i ys ya acc. ins yans ya gen. so(m) abl. ios dat. imus loc. isu ins. ibhi Reflexive Pronouns acc. gen. dat. se seue, sei sebhio, soi

Possessive Pronouns my your his our their mos tuos suos nsos usos

Numerals Decline like adjectives? (Look up) While 11-19 cannot be reconstructed for PIE, there are enough similarities between the number systems of Sanskrit, OCS, Lith . Greek, Latin, Olr. and Germanic to reconstruct a working system. Cardinal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1000 Ordinal 1st prawoinos dw treies ket r penke (s)uks sptm o t nun d mt 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 oinos-d mt dw-d mt treies-d mt ket r-d mt penke-d mt (s)uks-d mt sptm-d mt o t-d mt nun-d mt duid mti

triad omta ket rpenkeeksseptm o toneund mtm hes-l-

Adverbs PIE Adverbs are formed by using regular nouns or adjectives with specific case e ndings which render the desired adverbial meaning. Also, the preverbs and prepo sitions of the later languages were adverbs in PIE. Verbs New verbs could be derived from existing verbs or nouns by adding the -ei-e suff ix, for example, wosn-eie, to buy, to sell. This suffix could also be used to for m causatives from roots which had an -o- or zero-grade vowel. In normal HD type verbs, accent is mobile, and the vowel in the root alternates between full grade and zero grade. The Static verbs have the accent fixed on th e root, and full grade in the root vowel unless the root was monosyllabic, in wh ich lengthened grade occurred. Most verbs are HD type with mobile accent. Stat ic verbs include the S-Aorist, and the 2nd and 3rd person of the injunctive. Unlike Athematic verbs, thematic verbs have -e- or -o- before the ending (pher-omen vs. phamen). Athematic singular (for the present or aorist) has a full grade v owel with accent on the root, while plural has zero grade of the root with accen t on the ending. For example, bhbhermi vs. bhibrms. Athematic Primary Thematic Secondary 1st sing. I -mi -m 2nd sing. you -si -s 3rd sing. he -ti -t 1st pl. we -ms -me 2nd pl. you all -t 3rd pl. they -nti -nt Athematic Secondary - -i -e -omom -te -o -om -es -et -omo/e -ete -ete -ont Thematic Primary

Present Indicative indicates what is happening now, and uses the Athematic and T hematic primary endings. The Aorist indicates an action which took place in the past without indicating w hether it was repeated or continued. The Aorist uses the secondary endings. Th ere are three types of aorist: 1) the root aorist consisted of the root without suffix, plus athematic secondary endings, and has accent on the root in the sing ular and the ending in the plural. 2) The Thematic aorist had the root in zerograde and the thematic inflection; the accent was on the ending. 3) the S-Aoris t has an s before the ending in the 1st person. The S-Aorist has lengthened grade in the root of the indicative and full grade everywhere else. The accent of the S-Aorist always remained on the root, and the vowel of the root was lengthened in monosyllables. Past Tense indicates an action which took place in the past. It uses the second ary endings with the augment prefix, e-, which took the accent.

2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th

antero-? trikt rpnkkss(e)ptmo townund(e) mt-

Moods The Injunctive describes an action which is neither in the present nor the past, and can therefore be used to indicate intention, and is used with prohibitions. It uses the secondary endings. The accent of the 2nd and 3rd person of the in junctive is static: fixed on the root. The Subjunctive expresses will, expectation, and indicates what would be. It uses the Thematic Primary endings, and always has full grade in the root: accent is on the root. The Optative expresses a desire. It uses Athematic Secondary endings. The root has a full grade vowel: the accent is on the root except in the 3rd pl. which h ad zero-grade in both the root and suffix, where the accent is on the ending. T he Middle Optative uses intransitive middle endings. Reduplicated Optatives hav e zero-grade of the suffix. The Imperative 2nd 3rd 2nd 3rd Athematic I sing. 0, -dhi sing. -tu pl. -te -td pl. -entu ? Athematic II -td -e -td -etu -ete -etd -ontu ? Thematic I -etd -etd Thematic II

Imparative is used with commands. Type I in both athematic and thematic are the regular forms. Type II in both athematic and thematic indicate that an action in the near futur e must take place: then you must indicating from then onwards. Accent is on the root . Thematic -e stem is in the full grade. Imperative Middle 2nd 3rd 2nd 3rd Trans. sing. sing. pl. -dhwe pl. -nto? Intrans. -swe? ? -to? -o? ? -td -ro? ? II ? -td

Perfect and Middle The perfect tense is used to show an action or state of thought as being complet ed. It has no suffix, only the ending. It often has reduplication of the first consonant, after which an -e- or -o- is added: dork-e reduplicates as de-dork-e . The perfect has an accented -o- in the root in the singular, and on the endin g in the plural with a zero-grade root in the indicative plural (other plurals h ave -e-). The perfect tense has no middle, and usually has intransitive meaning . Intransitive middle is related to the perfect as the present is to the aorist . The Middle voice indicates that the subject is closely involved with the action: for example: he washed himself. PIE probably used the middle voice instead of re flexive pronouns. The Intransitives are verbs which do not take a direct objec t, (such as belong, go, seem,) while the transitive verbs take a direct object (such a s bring or raise). The middle forms have zero grade of the root in the normal (mobi le) inflection, in which the accent is on the ending. In the static inflection they have full grade with accent on the root. Perfect Middle Intrans. Middle Trans. 1st sing. wid-a -a -ma

2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd

sing. wid-ta sing. wid-e pl. wid-m -medha pl. wid- dhwe pl. wid-r/r

-to -sto -o -to -me(s)dha -tdhwe -ro -ntro

The Dual Primary we two you two they two Participles PIE would have relied intensively on participles, especially if there were no su bordinate clauses in PIE. The active present and aorist participle were formed with -ent- and declines as HD or Static -NT-Stems. It is the equivalent of the MnE -ing ending, ex. bharant, carrying. Thematic participles have no ablaut; they are always -ont-. The active perfect participle was formed with the suffix -wes-, which declined l ike the substantiative. Middle participles were formed with the suffix -mno-. The Verb To Be To be in PIE is es-and conjugates with the Athematic Primary endings. In the singul ar, accent is on the root, and in the plural, accent is on the ending. I am s-mi you are (sing) s-si he is s-ti we are es-ms you are (pl) es-t they are es-nti Suffixes -er- indicates kinship, as in swsor, sister. -ro- forms primary adjectives as in augr, strong. -ter-, -tr- indicates kinship as in pater, father and nomina agentis, as in gentr, co nceiver. -tro- used for neuters indicating the instrument, arotrom, plough. -en- often used as a secondary suffix -no- forms adjectives as in ayes-n-, bronze. Used also for nouns. -na- the same function as -no- but for nouns, kwoi-na- price. -en-, -en- indicates a person; both as a primary and secondary suffix, men-tro-n m an of mantras, poet. -ro-, -u- for adjectives which occur beside a neuter s-stem noun. -(t)mo- used for normal comparative purposes. -tero- used with comparative adjectives when comparing a binary contrast (ex. ma sculaine-feminine). -ies- comparative adjective suffix. These adjectives have a stem in -i- when the first member of a compound. -isto- superlative adjective suffix. These adjectives have a stem in -i- when t he first member of a compound. -went- possessing, rich in. -ei-e- 1. derives now verbs from existing verbs or nouns. 2. Forms causatives wi th -o- in the root: wortie, to cause to turn. 3. To form non-causatives with zero g Secondary -wes -we -te/os -tom -tes -tm Middle -wedha -(e)te? -(e)t?

rade root: lukie, to shine. -ie- forms intensive verbs: dei-dik-ie, to display. -e- expressed a situation (to throw, to lie, to go lie down). -sk- (always thematic and zero grade root) makes causatives or indicate the begi nning. -mno- makes middle participles -wes- active perfect suffix -no- -to- -eno- -ono- verbal adjective suffixes Compounds When a compound is formed, nd in the zero grade, such as -o- in the place of -ee are two broad categories the last morpheme of the first element is usually fou as Sanskrit nr-hn- man-killing. The 2nd element often h because the second element was often unaccented. Ther of compounds:

Endocentric: the referent is either the first or second element, as in vis-pati, lord of the clan. Exocentric: the referent is outside of the compound, as in ugra-bahu, with strong arms. The three types of compounds are: 1. Bahuvrihis: having a lot of rice, (exocentric) which indicate that the refer ent has or is something. 2. Determinative: the referent is identical with the 2nd element of the com pound (endocentric), as in Lat. Signi-fer banner-carrier; the rerferent is carrier. The second element is often a verbal root which sometimes takes -t-: sacerdo-tis, he who lays [down] the sacrifice, priest. 3. Governing compounds: the referent is identical with the first element (e ndocentric) trasa-dasyu, bringing fear to the enemy. 4. Dvandas: rare co-ordinating compounds, such as indra-vayu, which indicat e the totality of the two elements. Each element was in the dual form, each wit h its own stress. Syntax PIE syntax is a fairly extensive and complicated subject. Here, only some basic general rules will be summarized. 1. PIE was probably an Object-Verb (OV) language, meaning that the verb cam e after the object of a sentence. Verbs most often came at the end of the sente nce, unless they were emphasised in speech, in which they were placed initially. 2. The subject of a sentence was often omitted altogether unless necessary for clarity. This was because the subject was taken for granted or assumed when ever such was possible. 3. Adjectives preceded nouns. 4. Genitive nouns preceded nominative nouns. 5. Prepositional phrases (using dative, locative and instrumental cases) pr eceded the object of the sentence but came after the subject (if one was include d rather than assumed). 6. Conjunctions are placed after their conjoined nouns. Often a conjunctio n like kwe and was used twice, once after each of the nouns. 7. Preverbs, pre-positions and adverbs either preceded or followed the verb; p repositions often stand behind the case form they govern and are thus actually po stpositions. 8. Relative clauses precede nouns and main clauses. 9. Predicate substantives often omitted the verb: the father is good would just be father good. 10. When there are two verbs she gives to drink the personal one (give) comes last.

11. Comparatives come before the verb or before the noun they modify. 12. adjectives were preferred to genitives (the Nestorian ship over Nesters s hip). 13. in marked order (an emotional or emphatic utterance or one requiring suppl ementation by another clause) the verb is initial. 14. enclitics (particles, pronouns, verbs??) fell in the 2nd position of a s entence and were treated as unaccented parts of individual words 15. Particles nu, so and to, were used to introduce clauses but do not agree in gender with the nouns of the sentence. 16. Syntactic pattern for relative clauses was Subject, (Relative Object,Rel ative Verb), Primary Object, Primary Verb. The shared noun may occur in either the main or relative clauses, but it is more common in the latter. The relative particle comes: 17. In marked constructions the adjectives can be post-posed. 18. Any word in a sentence that was emphasised could be placed at the beginning of t he sentence. Relatives There are two kinds of relative clauses: 1) Determined Relative Clause: also known as the definate, and as non-restrictive. This type refers to a definate item. For example, Dyeus, who is the origin of li ght, Dyeus is a definate item. The relative particle used for this type is *iowhich is inflected the same way as *so, *to-, and *kwo-. The clause in which th is occurs is placed after the main clause. The relative particle is placed at t he end of its clause. (give examples in NE and PIE) 2) Non-Determined Relative Clause: also known as the indefinate and as restrictive. This type refers to an indefinate item, for example, when the relative particle refers to a demonstrative pronoun, such as _________ in the following example: ________ Such a demonstrative will occur when the main clause has no definate it em (such as Dyeus, in the previous example) for the relative particle to refer t o. Often, the definate item will not be in the main clause, because it is inste ad in the relative clause. The relative particle used for this type is *kwi- wh ich is inflected the same way as *so, *to-, and *kwo-. (give chart). The claus e in which this occurs is placed before the main clause. The relative particle is placed at the beginning of its clause. (give examples in NE and PIE) Laryngeal Conversion Chart h1=e: disappears initially or between consonants. Is always overpowered by conj unct vowels h2=a: turns e or o vowels into as, becomes a vowel initially, finally or between consonants h3=o: turns nearby e vowels into os, disappears between consonants eh1= eh2= eh3= oh1= oh2= oh3= h1e=e h2e=a h3e=o h1o=o h2o=o h3o=o eh2e= eh2o=ao oh2e= oh2o= eh2i=ai h2ei=ai

There are some general rules to keep in mind regarding laryngeals:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

e or h1 is overpowered by everything else it comes in contact with. h2 overpowers everything accept o o or h3 overpowers everything. e is weaker than any laryngeal (H) h1 is weaker than any vowel vowel + H always = long vowel

Accent Summary Compounds The last morpheme of the 1st element had zero grade, ex. nrhn. If the 1st elemen t is only one syllable, the accent falls on the second element. However, the se cond accent was often unaccented, so if the 1st element has more than one morphe me, the 1st syllable gets takes accent, and the 2nd element receives a kind of s econdary accent. In bahuvrihis type compounds the accent was not on the final syl lable of the first element, but on the syllable prior to it. Nouns Histerodynamic (HD) nouns, and Proterodynamic nouns (PD) have mobile accent whic h can fall on either the root or ending depending on the case: nom. has initial accent, acc. and loc. have accent on the stem (the syllable containing the stem, such as -r, -m, -t, -us, etc. Gen./abl. dat and ins. have accent on the case e nding. Some stems have variations of this pattern, see charts for these details . Athematic nouns (with mobile stress) with zero grade in the nominative have init ial accent. -o- is more often stressed than -e-. Zero grade cannot occur between consonants which cannot be vocalic, such as p, d, and t, -e- replaces -o-. For example, pd m becomes peds. Many consonant-final suffixes such as -er, -ter, -on, -ont favoured stress mobil ity. The vocative case always has initial accent. Static nouns have full grade of the root, which is accented, and zero grade of t he suffix (not the ending). For the present and aorist, Athematic singular verbs have accent on the root whi le Athematic plural verbs have accent on the the ending. Pronouns Interrogative pronouns were stressed and indefinite pronouns were not stressed. Verbs In normal HD type verbs, accent is mobile, and the vowel in the root alternates between full grade and zero grade. The Static verbs have the accent fixed on th e root, and full grade in the root vowel unless the root was monosyllabic, in wh ich lengthened grade occurred. Aorists with -s- after the root have stress on the root. The verb augment (the e- prefix which indicates past tense) takes the accent.

The middle has a zero grade of the root in the normal (mobile) inflection. Stat ic middles have full grade of the root. The middle suffix -en- is in zero grade after a verbal noun ending in m. The perfect singular has an accented -o- in the root. The plural has an accente d ending with a zero grade root. The subjunctive mood always has full grade of the root. The optative root has full grade. 3rd plural has zero grade in ending and suffi x. Imperative normal had zero grade of the ending; Thematic -e stem is in the full grade.