FEATURE

Renewable energy applications in the Indian subcontinent

By Roy Szweda, Contributing Editor Hot and arid countries are all too frequently beset with the many tragedies arising from poverty. A key aspect relating to poverty is the lack of low-cost sources of energy, other than that of locally scavenged organic materials such as wood. However, for the most part, even when they have installed such energy sources as power stations, lack of a complete national energy distribution system severely restricts efforts to escape the poverty trap. PV systems have been playing a key role in overcoming these drawbacks; none more so than in the countries of the Indian subcontinent. This article is an overview of developments which have been under way in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. It has been compiled from recent issues of the SAREP newsletters produced by Dr I. M. Dharmadasa (Dharme) in the School of Science & Mathematics at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. technologies by which solar PV, wind, small hydro and biomass can also be used as a substitute for modern forms of energy, such as electricity and petroleum products. This is being achieved through a host of changes, beginning with institutional alterations that started in the 1980s, and subsequently various governmentsponsored renewable energy programs targeting on-grid and off-grid energy provision. Solar power: Grid-interactive solar photovoltaic power projects aggregating 1890 kW have been installed, and projects totalling 950 kW capacity are under installation. Rural renewable energy: The Indian government has undertaken many programs focusing on technology improvements for servicing the cooking and other requirements of rural households. Notable among these are the program for biogas development and the improved chulha (cookstove) program. Despite these achievements, a massive challenge lies ahead in fulfilling the energy demands of a growing population while aiming for both environmental and energy sustainability. Renewables, as proven worldwide, offer tremendous opportunities in servicing the energy requirements of rural India. Meeting this challenge, however, requires addressing various issues related with technology diffusion.

Energy in Pakistan
Pakistans population is estimated to be about 145 million. Currently, the nation, despite the enormous potential of its natural and human resources, remains energy-deficient and has to rely on imports to meet its ever-increasing demand for energy. Like elsewhere in South Asia, energy is extracted from a variety of traditional and commercial sources. The total primary energy consumption in Pakistan is currently estimated at around 60 million tonnes of oil equivalent. The primary commercial consumption of 41.7 million tonnes of oil equivalent is largely based on the use of hydrocarbons. The primary commercial energy supplies are given in Table 1. Oil supply from indigenous resources has been the weakest link in the energy supply system in Pakistan. The remaining oil reserves are estimated at 221 million barrels which, on the average production rate of 57 000 barrels per day, will be exhausted in about 810 years.

The situation in India

The quadrupling of world oil prices in 1973/74 gave rise to concerns regarding the worlds dependence on hydrocarbons as the main source of energy. Awareness of environmental problems including climate change, which are brought about by the combustion of hydrocarbons, have added further importance to the need for a shift to renewable forms of energy, which in general produce no harmful environmental impacts. In the wake of the two oil price shocks of 1973/74 and 1979/80, India has been at the forefront in harnessing renewable forms of energy and disseminating technologies that would increase the use of these sources. India, like many developing countries, has a high dependence on biomass energy sources. Of the 2 billion people in the world dependent on biomass energy (wood, dung and agriculture crop residues) for cooking and heating, some 700 million live in India alone. Also, there are many remote and far-flung places in the country where extension of the grid for provision of electricity is not economically viable. Given these two facts, government policy and public support are now targetting improvements in the efficiency of using traditional sources of biomass fuels, as well as the dissemination of

Table 1. Primary energy supplies in Pakistan, by source (199899). Sources of commercial energy Gas Oil Coal Hydro Nuclear & other Primary energy supplies (%) 38.61 42.8 5.2 13.0 0.2

Source: Renewable energy in South Asia. World Energy Council, 2000 (Chapter 2.6, Country reports Pakistan). Available online at www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/renewable/introduction/ introduction.asp

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SAREP South Asia Renewable Energy Programme

SAREP is jointly initiated by the UKs Commonwealth Science Council, the Applied Physics Division in the School of Science & Mathematics at Sheffield Hallam University in the UK, the British Council and in-country counterparts to promote and accelerate the use of renewable energy technologies. Its aims and objectives are: To train young scientists in renewable technology areas through postgraduate programs. To enhance the awareness of renewable energy applications among entrepreneurs, policy makers and the general public. To facilitate entrepreneurs in Asia to develop trade and investment relations with partners in other parts of the world, including Africa, Australia, Canada, Europe, Japan and the US. To start CARES (Centres for Applications of Renewable Energy Sources) centres as large demonstration projects in rural areas that greatly need development, to contribute to reducing poverty.

For more details on PV research and the bimonthly online newsletter eSAREP, go to: www.shu.ac.uk/schools/sci/teaching/as1/ SCResearch.html
For more information, contact: Dr Ken Lum (Director, Science & Technology Division) or Ms Ritu Kumar, Commonwealth Science Council (CSC), Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5HX, UK. Tel: +44 20 7747 6220, Fax: +44 20 7839 6174, Email: k.lum@commonwealth.int or ritu.kumar@commonwealth.int, Web: www.commonwealthknowledge.net/ subnetw/sarep.htm or www.comsci.org Dr I. M. Dharmadasa, Principal Lecturer/Reader, Division of Applied Physics, School of Science & Mathematics, City Campus, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK. Tel: +44 114 225 4067, Fax: +44 114 225 3066, Email: Dharme@shu.ac.uk, Web: www.shu.ac.uk Mr Peter Lane, DSL Consultants Ltd, 2 London Wall Buildings, London EC2M 5UU, UK. Tel: +44 20 7448 5060, Fax: +44 20 7448 5222, Email: Pjtlane@hotmail.com, Web: www.dslconsultants.com

Consequently, it appears that Pakistan will remain a net importer of crude oil and refined oil products unless a major discovery of crude oil is made, although from time to time one hears of possibilities in Baluchistan, Sindh and Pothowar. The gas reserves, although largely used in domestic and small service areas, are likewise dwindling. Pakistan has appreciable coal reserves of 1.7 billion tonnes of oil equivalent. Consequently, about 70% of total demand for crude oil is being met through imports from the Middle East. It costs about US$2.5 billion every year to import about 18 million tonnes of oil as both crude and refined products, representing a massive burden on Pakistans foreign exchange resources. Pakistans geographical location makes it ideal to harness unlimited solar energy. During the last two decades Pakistan has begun to develop its potential in PVs. The National Institute of Silicon Technology (NIST) under the Ministry of Science & Technology has developed the know-how and technology to fabricate solar cells, modules and systems. PV technology is particularly suitable for small power requirements and remote area applications. In the early 1980s, eighteen PV stations in different parts of the country were set up for village electrification, with a total installed capacity of nearly 440 kW. Currently, solar technology is being used in Pakistan for rural telephone exchanges, repeater stations, highway emergency telephones, cathodic protection of pipelines, refrigeration for vaccine and medicines in the hospitals etc. Solar water pumping units have also been installed in different parts of the country. Both the private and public sectors are playing increasing roles in the popularization and upgrading of PV activities across the country. A number of companies are not only involved in trading PV products and appliances, but also in manufacturing various components of PV systems. They are selling PV modules, batteries, regulators and invertors, as well as practical low-power devices for load shedding such as photovoltaic lamps, battery chargers, garden lights etc.

Bangladesh
Bangladesh, with a current population of 130 million and a population growth rate of 1.5% per annum, has a very high population density of 876 per square km. Only 30% of the population has electric power from the national grid the rest of the population is living without electricity. This huge fraction of the population is starving for energy for their development. Situated in a hot, humid, sunny region and with its landmass criss-crossed by numerous rivers and streams, Bangladesh is endowed with a plentiful supply of renewable sources of energy.

Of the various renewable energy sources, solar, biomass, wind and hydro power are being used in Bangladesh. The country, situated between 20.34 and 26.38 latitude north, is in a very favorable position in respect of solar energy. The total potential is estimated as approximately 20 1013 kWh per year. A fraction of one per cent of this energy is more than the total energy used in Bangladesh at the present time. Two-thirds of the present total energy consumption is attributed to biomass, namely fuel wood, cow dung, straw, bagasse etc. Deforestation is reaching alarming proportions, because of population growth and other reasons. Widespread use of improved stoves can help to significantly reduce biomass use. The estimate of hydropower stands at 1300 MW, of which only 230 MW is being harnessed. However, the prospects of significant increases in hydro power are limited for many reasons. From existing information, wind energy appears to have some potential in Bangladesh. This source may be used for agricultural irrigation or for electric power generation. In biomass, solar and wind technologies a fair amount of research, development and dissemination activities have been undertaken in Bangladesh. With a view to experimenting with PV solar technology under the climatic and socioeconomic conditions in Bangladesh, the rural electrification board has completed a project for supply of solar electricity in some islands of the Meghna river in the Narsingdi district. This was a 62.5 kWp pilot project based on a French financial grant of US$1.1 million and a Bangladeshi government contribution of US$0.5 million. Under this project, PV systems have been installed at health clinics and battery charging stations. The project started in 1996 and by 1998, there were 795 stand-alone systems installed in the islands. Since then, PV systems have been installed in cyclone shelters, and solarwind hybrid systems have been installed in different parts of the country. Renewable energy market penetration is slow in Bangladesh when compared to neighboring countries like India and Sri Lanka. However, it is an encouraging sign to see private companies like Rahim Afroz, Microelectronics Ltd, ARMCO and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working together with the Bangladeshi government to add renewables for the production of energy in the country.

PV comes of age in Sri Lanka

The PV business in Sri Lanka has come a long way from the time the Ceylon Electricity Board

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(CEB) first began selling small systems in 1986 from its back-room operation at the Alternative Energy Unit (AEU). The late B.P. Sepalage, Shavi Fernando and Upali Daranagama of the CEB-AEU would never have thought that businesses such as Shell Renewables Sri Lanka, Selco Solar Sri Lanka, Alpha Thermal Systems and Access Solar would be profitable ventures in 2002, selling solar PV systems to rural households. So far, about 30 000 solar PV systems have been sold in Sri Lanka, and the credit must go to pioneers who toiled to establish the market. In 1988, Power & Sun (Pvt) Ltd, later called Solar Power & Light Company, was established by Pradip Jayewardene, Viren Perera and Lalith Gunaratne to assemble solar PV modules and balance-of-system items under the name Suntec. This company was encouraged by the likes of Sir Arthur C. Clarke, Dr Ray Wijewardene (a pioneer solar PV user for water pumps and lighting) and Prem Sumanasekera of Vidya Silpa (who was the ARCO Solar agent in the 1980s). The company built on the foundation of the CEB sales, established a network of dealers and agents, and trained rural youths who would sell and install systems. Another company, Sunpower Systems Ltd, joined the foray to concentrate on institutional sales. The 1000-home Pansiyagama project sponsored by the Sri Lankan and Australian governments was promoted by Sunpower Systems and BP Solar Australia. This was followed by a project where 72 large systems were installed at rural hospitals and health centers. The BP modules used in these systems were manufactured by Power & Sun at its Negombo facility, under license from BP Solar Australia. The Energy Services Delivery (ESD) project was established by the Sri Lankan government, the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) in 1997, and brought in US$55 million to commercially develop a host of renewable energy technologies over the following five years. As the five-year period ends, this has been one of the most successful such projects in the world, where most of the funds have been used to develop markets for solar PV and off-grid micro-hydro as well as gridconnected mini-hydro systems. The off-grid developers benefit from a GEF grant of US$100 per solar PV system and US$400 per kW for micro-hydro. This project had funded close to 15 000 solar PV systems by January 2002, and was expected to install 20 000 by the project close in July 2002. This would bring the total number of solar PV household systems in Sri Lanka to about 30 000. As a result of the success of this project, the government and the World Bank are developing a follow-on program, called Renewable Energy for Rural Economic Development (RERED). In keeping with the new policies of the Sri Lankan government and the World Bank, there is an added emphasis on rural economic and social development. Developers are also looking at expanding the market to over 1 million households, even if the CEB grid electrifies 80% of the 5 million homes in the country. Over a period of nearly two decades, true publicprivateNGO partnerships have laid a strong foundation for solar PV development in Sri Lanka. Exponential growth of the market is expected as solar PV becomes a mainstream business capable of meeting the nations electricity needs in both rural and urban areas.

Research Trends
Texturization of multicrystalline Si wafers for solar cells by RIE through colloidal masks
New research at the Institute of Semiconductor Electronics, RWTH Aachen, Germany describes the texturing of multicrystalline silicon solar cells by reactive ion etching (RIE). This is shown to be an attractive solution for lowering of reflectance. A suitable sequence of processes has been developed to exploit the advantage of RIE in combination with natural lithography based on colloidal masks. Homogeneous particle coverage on 4-in monocrystalline wafers and 100 100 mm2 multicrystalline wafers was achieved. Texture was obtained by RIE patterning. The paper reports data on optical properties, showing that a significant lowering of the reflection of textured wafers compared to untextured was achieved for all states of solar cell production. W.A. Nositschka, C. Beneking, O. Voigt and H. Kurz: Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 76(2) 155166 (1 March 2003).

Current transport in CIGS solar cells comparing mesa diodes to full cell
In this University at Buffalo research mesa diodes were fabricated on CdS/CIGS/stainless steel solar

cells to investigate current transport when edge leakage and spot defects are avoided. Current conduction mechanisms in the device were determined from I-V and I-V-T characteristics. A combination of tunneling and space-chargelimited (SCL) current in the ballistic regime is suggested because of the weak temperature dependency and approximation to I V1.5. For the reverse bias region where V < 0.2 V, the device exhibited either SCL current in the velocity saturation regime or tunneling based on the unity I-V relation and weak temperature dependency. A previous report on full size CIGS cells indicated a higher degree of tunneling for V < 0.2 V. Thus, the mesa diodes show some difference in mechanism compared to good full cells and great difference compared to poor full cells. Forming mesa diodes on CIGS solar cells eliminated the effects of edges and localized defects. It revealed the devices fundamental current conduction mechanisms. For V > 0.6 V, SCL current in the mobility regime with exponential distribution of trap levels dominated the current conduction mechanism based on I Vm, where m > 2. In the range 0.2 V < V < 0.6 V, the data fitted the ShockleyReadHall recombination process. The quite symmetrical semi-log plot for 0.2 V < V < 0.2 V indicated tunneling and/or SCL current in the ballistic regime based on I V1.5. For V < 0.2 V, SCL current in the velocity-saturation regime or tunneling dominated, evidenced by the unity IV dependency and weak temperature dependency.

The mesa diodes offer greatly improved performance over the original, intentionally poor CIGS cells. This indicates that edge effects and localized defects are major contributors to the inconsistent quality of some CIGS solar cells. Conduction mechanisms in mesa diodes are similar to those formed in the better CIGS solar cells, but with a smaller tunneling or shunt component. J.-H. Tan and W.A. Anderson: Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 77(3) 283292 (30 May 2003).

Effects of temperature and light concentration on GaInP/GaAs multijunction solar cell performance
This paper reports on monolithic Ga0.49In0.51P/ GaAs cascade solar cells with a p+/n+ GaAs tunnel junction grown by metallorganic vapor epitaxy (MOVPE). Variation of the photovoltage, photocurrent, fill factor, efficiency, IV characteristics and spectral response at different temperatures (2575C) and light intensity values (140 suns) were investigated experimentally. The open-circuit voltage of the multijunction cell was found to decrease with increasing temperature at a rate of 5.5 mV/C. However, the efficiency of the cascade structure under investigation increased with increasing light concentration up to a point where the series resistance and tunnel junction effects become significant. M.Y. Feteha and G.M. Eldallal: Renewable Energy 28(7) 10971104 (June 2003). 9

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Photovoltaics Bulletin