00.02.

04 - 020

Process control

Measuring instruments
Automatic control
Control is the continuous measurement of a parameter and intervention when the actual value deviates from the setpoint. As control often takes place within closed systems, we speak of a control loop. The control loop consists of the process, the measuring instrument, the controller and a corrective device. In this lesson we will look at these various components and the basic concepts of the control loop.

Contents of the lesson

1 2 3 4 5 Control loop Process control systems Basic concepts Thermometers Thermowells

The copyright in this material is vested in Shell Global Solutions International B.V., The Hague, The Netherlands and Shell Netherlands Raffinaderij B.V. All rights reserved. Neither the whole or any part of this document may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means (electronic, mechanical, reprographic, recording or otherwise) without the prior written consent of the copyright owner.

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

Lesson
1. Controlloop
Before we take a look at the operations and constructions of the various types of controllers, some insight into the concept of a controlloop is needed. Figure 1 shows a block diagram of a controlloop.

5812-020-001-P

Figure 1 Block diagram of controlloop

- sensors

A variety of instruments are used to measure the various quantities. We measure the process variables with the aid of sensors. In most cases the comparator and the control device are combined into one unit: the controller. If in a process the pressure, temperature or another variable is to be kept constant, action has to be taken if the controlled variable deviates from the setpoint. In other words, if the measured value deviates from the setpoint, a correction has to be taken. The comparison of the measured value with the setpoint takes place in the comparator of the controller. Depending on the result of this comparison, the controller delivers a signal to the corrective device. In many instances the corrective device is a control valve. Question 1 Name the various components that make up a control loop. Question 2 What is meant by a setpoint in a control process?

- controller - setpoint

- control valve

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

2. Process control system

Within the process control system we can distinguish a number of functions: - measuring; - controlling; - adjusting; - monitoring; - safeguarding. Measuring Measurement serves to determine the magnitude of the process variable. A measurement system produces measured values, but does not take any action. Controlling Controlling goes further than simply measuring. Controlling is continuously measuring a parameter and, whenever necessary, intervening in the process in order to eliminate a deviation. Control takes place within closed systems. In that situation measurements are made in a process, the measured value is compared with the setpoint and, if necessary, action is undertaken within the same process (measurement, comparison, correction) Adjusting With adjustment the system is not necessarily closed, but can also be open. The measuring device here does not determine the same variable as the one affected by the corrective device. The result of adjustment can be measured, but has no influence on the adjustment. Adjustment is hence performed in response to a command, but in contrast to controlling, the result of the adjustment is not compared with that command. Monitoring If a measured value exceeds the setpoint, an alarm signal is generated. So, if one of the process variables goes beyond an upper or a lower limit, the operator is warned by an alarm. The monitoring system itself does not take any action and only generates a warning signal. Safeguarding Safeguarding goes a step further than monitoring. The safeguarding system itself takes action to influence the quantity that has generated the alarm. In practice, a safeguarding system intervenes if after the alarm the measured value exceeds the setpoint even more. Usually, an automatic safeguarding valve is actuated or a device tripped .

- measured values

- closed systems

- open systems

- monitoring systems

- safeguarding systems

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

Examples - Controlling: a valve is opened, the flow rate is measured and the valve is set to deliver 20 litres per minute. - Adjustment: the valve is opened, it is left as it is and the rate at which the water flows from the valve is measured with the water meter. - Monitoring: if the flow rate is higher than 30 litres per minute, the alarm is raised. - Safeguarding: if the wash basin threatens to overflow, the water runs away through the overflow pipe. The overflow pipe protects the wash basin from overflowing. Now we take an example from the process industry, where a liquid stream flows to a storage tank. The flow rate is measured. The measured value can be processed further. It can be sent to a monitoring device, which raises the alarm if the value is too high or too low. It is also possible to control the water flow rate to the tank on the basis of this value. For example, we want 300 kg/h, we measure 400 kg/h. Then we adjust it until we have 300 kg/h. Question 3 Describe the difference between controlling and adjustingt. Question 4 Describe the difference between alarming and safeguarding.

3. Basic concepts
- sensors Sensors (measuring instruments) should only react to the quantity to be measured and not to any external influences. The sensor consists of a measuring element and a transmission mechanism. The connection between the sensor and the measurement system is referred to as the measuring line. Sensors must also be able to follow rapid changes in the measured value, in other words they should have a short response time. The response times can be shown in a curve. For good process control it is important that the measurement should be transmitted rapidly and accurately. Instruments can measure between defined minimum and maximum limits. The distance between these limits is called the range. If only a small section of this range is used, we call this section a span. The span is therefore always either the same as or smaller than the range. A transmitter can measure from 0 bar to 100 bar. We adjust the meter such that it measures between 5 bar and max. 15 bar. On the measurement scale a minimum value of 5 bar and a maximum value of 15 bar are indicated. In such a case the range is 100 bar and the span is 10 bar.

- response time

- range - span

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

4. Thermometers
In this section we will discuss three temperature measuring instruments and their response times. The instruments are: - Bimetal thermometers; - N2 (gas) in steel thermometers; - Glass liquid-filled thermometers.

a. Figure 2 Thermometers

b.
5812-020-007-P

Bimetal thermometers (see figure 2a) The bimetal thermometer consists of two strips of metal with different coefficients of expansion attached to each other (for example Invar and copper) Sometimes the strips are riveted together, but more usually they are soldered or rolled together. The material with the higher coefficient of expansion expands the most on heating, but is hindered by the other metal. The result is that deformation occurs. The deformation is proportional to the change in temperature, so that this construction is very useful for temperature measurements. To obtain a large deflection use is not made of a lever transmission, but a strip of bimetal is rolled up to form a spiral. Such spirals are available in many types, a flat spiral, a cylindrical spiral, a combination of these two types or a conical spiral. In all these types the total deformation is greater, and the end of the spiral can be directly linked to the pointer. Gas-in-steel thermometers (see figure 2b) This thermometer consists of a capillary tube that is linked to a Bourdon tube. The entire tube is filled with gas (N2 ). When the temperature rises, the gas will expand and the Bourdon tube straighten out. A pointer is attached to the Bourdon tube via a transmission mechanism. The gas-in-steel thermometers are robust and are therefore suitable for use in process technology. The gas filling usually has a pressure of about 150 bar. Mercury is used less and less frequently. It is being replaced by nitrogen.

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

5812-020-008-S

Figure 3 Thermometer

Glass liquid-filled thermometer (see figure 3) The thermometer consists of a glass bulb which is melted to a capillary tube. The liquid in the bulb will, when it expands due to an increase in temperature, form a thin liquid thread in the capillary tube. The length of this thread is then a measure of the prevailing temperature. The space above the liquid only contains saturated vapour of the liquid. The following liquids are the most frequently used as the liquid filling. mercury : - 35 to 280 C vacuum mercury (gas-filled) : - 35 to 750 C pentane : - 200 to 20 C alcohol : - 110 to 50 C toluene : - 70 to 100 C

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

The cross-section of the capillary tube is not completely circular. When mercury is not used, then usually a dye is added to the liquid to make it better visible. Glass thermometers are very accurate and are mainly used in laboratories.

5. Thermowells
Temperature sensors may not always come into direct contact with the process medium (gas, liquid). This is true, in particular, if the medium is aggressive, in which case we use protective covers or thermowells. A second reason for using thermowells is that they allow replacement of the temperature sensor without needing to shut down and drain the process pipes. One disadvantage of a thermowell is the poorer heat transfer between process medium and the temperature sensor. This drawback can be reduced to acceptable proportions by correct fitting and positioning in the process, for instance with a sufficiently large insertion depth, and by providing the thermowell with a contact liquid internally. Question 5 A thermometer can determine temperatures between -70 and 140 C. On the readout scale the lowest temperature is -5 C and the highest temperature 105 C. What is the range and what is the span in this case?

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

Summary
Control is continuously measuring a parameter and intervening when the actual value deviates from the setpoint.. The control loop consists of : - the process; - the measurement device; - the controller; - the corrective device. The relationship between the various components of a control loop is shown in figure 1. Measurement serves to determine the magnitude of a process variable. A measurement system therefore produces measured values, but does not undertake any action. Control is continuously measuring a parameter and, whenever necessary, intervening in the process, in order to eliminate a deviation. Control takes place within closed systems. With adjustment the measuring device does not determine the same quantity as the one influenced by the corrective device. The result of the adjustment can be measured, but has no influence on the action of the adjustment. With monitoring an alarm signal is generated when the measured value exceeds the setpoint. The alarm system itself does not undertake any action and only gives a warning signal. Safeguarding goes a step further than simple monitoring. The safeguarding system itself takes action to affect the quantity that has caused the alarm. The sensor consists of a measuring element and a transmission mechanism. The connection between the sensor and the measurement system is called the measuring line. The speed with which a sensor follows a change in the measured value can be slow or fast. This time lapse is called the response time. The distance between the minimum and maximum measured values is called the range. If only a limited part of the range is used, then we call this part the span.

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

Test
Exercises
Do not send in your answers for correction 1. What is meant by a measuring line? 2. Which parts of a controlloop are combined in a controller?

Answers to the questions in the lesson

1. The controlloop consists of: - the process; - the measuring device; - the controller (comparator combined with control device); - the corrective device.

2. The setpoint of a controlprocess is the desired value of the quantity that is being controlled. In other words this is the value that the quantity should havecontinuously. 3. Controlling is continuously measuring a parameter and, if necessary, intervening in the process, to eliminate any deviations. This means that the process is measured, the measured value is compared with the setpoint and, if necessary, an intervention is made within the same process. With adjustment the measuring device does not determine the same variable as the one affected by the corrective device. So, adjustment is performed in response to a command but, in contrast to control, the result of the adjustment is not compared with that command. 4. With monitoring, an alarm signal is generated when the measured value exceeds a certain limit. The alarm system itself does not undertake any action and only generates a warning signal. Safeguarding goes a step further than simply monitoring. The safeguarding system itself takes action to affect the quantity that has caused the alarm. In practice a safeguarding system intervenes if, after an alarm signal has been generated, the measured value exceeds the setpoint still further. 5. The distance between the minimum and maximum measured values is called the range. In the example in the lesson the range is equal to 140 + 70 = 210 C. If only a limited part of the range is used, we call this part the span. The distance between the lowest and the highest read-out values in the example equals 105 + 5 = 110 C.
9

Process control / 00.02.04 - 020

Answers to the exercises

1. The measuring line is the connection between the sensor and the measuring system. 2. The controller consists of the comparator and the controlling device.

10