Lecture Bundle

5/25/2012
1
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
Integrated Optical Micro Systems (IOMS)
slide 1
Lecture "Vibrations and Waves":
EM Waves, Polarization
Feridun Ay
MESA+ Institute
University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
http://ioms.ewi.utwente.nl
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 2
1600 William Gilbert's De Magnete describe the behavior of magnets.
1729 Stephen Gray discovers electrical conduction.
1784 Pierre Laplace introduces concept of electric potential.
1785 Charles Coulomb announces his law of electrostatics.
1820 Hans Oersted demonstrates electromagnetism.
1821 Michael Faraday demonstrates the principle of the electric motor.
1865 Maxwell's Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field.
1888 Heinrich Hertz demonstrates the existence of radio waves.
1916 Einstein's general theory of relativity.
1948 John Bardeen, William Brattain and William Shockley produce
the transistor.
1948 Feynman introduces his diagrams for quantum electrodynamics.
Introduction (brief history)
Feynman 1-28
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 3
Introduction (unification of physical theories)
Force Symbol Strength Range
Strong nuclear force a
s
1/3 10
-15
m
Weak nuclear force a
W
1/30 10
-16
m
Electromagnetic force a
EM
7x10
-3
Infinity
In the beginning: electricity and magnetism are independent phenomena
beginning of 19th century: unification of electricity and magnetism
after 1900: Electricity, Magnetism and optics: one unified theory
Four Forces:
1. Strong force
2. Electromagnetic force
3. Weak Force
4. Gravity
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 4
in addition (Lorentz force)
c
0
1
= V E
0 = V B
t c
c
= V
B
E
t c
c
+ = V
E
J B
0 0 0
c
) ( B v E F + = q
(i) (Gausss law)
(ii) (Gausss law for magnetism)
(iii) (Faraday's law)
(iv) (Amperes law with correction of Maxwell)
(always valid, problem bound charges and currents)
Maxwells equations with E and B
c
0
1
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
E
y
E
x
E
z y x
Feynman 2-18
5/25/2012
2
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 5
(now only dependent on free charges and currents)
Maxwells equations with E, D, B and H
0 = V B
t c
c
= V
B
E
) ( B v E F + = q
f
= V D
t
J
f
c
c
+ = V
D
H
B H E D
c
1
= =
with ) ( ) ( B H H E D D = =
in linear case P E D + =
0
c
(i) (Gausss law)
(iii) (Faraday's law)
Feynman 2-18
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 6
8.1.1 The continuity equation:
global and local conservation of charge
J V =
c
c
t
8.1.2. Poyntings theorem (1)

} |
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
V
em
d B E U t
c
2
0
2
0
1
2
1
total energy stored in EM field:
Question: How much work, d W, is done by the electromagnetic forces
acting on these charges in the interval dt. Using Lorentz force law, the
work done on a charge q is:
Conservation laws
Feynman II-27, Griffiths 8
}
=
= =
= + = =
V
d
dt
dW
d q met
dt q dt q d dW
t
t
) (
; ;
) (
J E
J v
v E v B v E l F
E J: work done per unit time, per unit volume
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 7
( )
}
} }
=

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
S
em
S V
d
dt
dU
d d B E
dt
d
dt
dW
a S
a B E
0
2
0
2
0
1 1
2
1
c
Poynting vector: ( ) B E S
0
1
Poyntings theorem in differential form:

(compare with the continuity eqn: )
( ) S V = +
c
c
em mech
u u
t
momentum stored in the EM field:
momentum per volume:
}
=
V
em
dt c S p
0 0
S
0 0
c =
em
p
J V =
c
c
t
Poyntings theorem
Feynman II-27
Griffiths 8.1-2
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 8
classical wave equation
2
2
2 2
2
1
t
f
z
f
c
c
=
c
c
u
with a general solution in the form: f(z,t) = g(z u t) + h(z + u t)
specific solution: f(z,t) = A cos [k(z u t) + o] = A cos (kz - e t -o)
with e = 2 t v = k u ; v: frequency, k: spatial frequency, = 2 t /k wavelength
Rewrite using Eulers formula:
A e A t z f
t kz i
~
;
~
) , (
~
) ( e
)] , (
~
Re[ ) , ( t z f t z f = phasor, actual wave function:
}

= dk e k A t z f
t kz i ) (
) (
~
) , (
~
e
General expression
of the actual wave:
Wave equation in general
Griffiths: 9,
Feynman II, 20
5/25/2012
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f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 9
0 = V B
t c
c
= V
B
E
(i) (Gausss law)
(iii) (Faradays law)
Feynman II,18
(no charges and currents, vacuum)
Maxwells equations in vacuum
0 = V E
t c
c
= V
E
B
0 0
c
0 = F
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 10
Maxwell equations in vacuum
( )
2
2
0 0
2
) ( ) (
t t t c
c
= V
c
c
= |
.
|
\
|
c
c
V = V V V = V V
E
B
B
E E E c
E satisfies the wave equation
2
2
2
2
1
t c
c
= V
E
E
u
0 0
1
c
u = = c
because of symmetry of Maxwells equation similar expression can be derived for B
t c
c
= V
B
E
t c
c
= V
E
B
0 0
c
EM waves in vacuum: wave equation
0 = V E 0 = V B
Feynman II-20;
Griffiths 9.2
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 11
Possible solution: plane waves
( )
( )
( ) 0
: e furthermor
~
1 ~ 1
,
~
on vector polarizati :
~
) , (
~
0
) (
0
= = =
=

k n E k n k r B
n n r E
r k
r k

c
e E
c
t
e E t
t i
t i
e
e
EM waves in vacuum: Polarization
Griffiths: 9
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 12
http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=TvfZP3C2pBI&NR
( )
( )
( ) E k n k r B
r k
~
1 ~ 1
,
~
0
= =

c
e E
c
t
t i e
n r E
r k

) (
0
~
) , (
~
t i
e E t
e
=
5/25/2012
4
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 13
( )
( )
( ) E k n k r B
r k
~
1 ~ 1
,
~
0
= =

c
e E
c
t
t i e
n r E
r k

) (
0
~
) , (
~
t i
e E t
e
=
The polarization vector n defines the plane of
vibration.' Because the waves are transverse n is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation:
In terms of the polarization angle,
Thus, the can be considered a superposition of
two waves-one horizontally polarized, the other
vertically.
Griffiths: 9
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 14
Classification of Polarization
Light in the form of a plane wave in
space is said to be linearly polarized.
If light is composed of two plane waves
of equal amplitude by differing in
phase by 90, then the light is said to
be circularly polarized.
If two plane waves of differing
amplitude are related in phase by 90,
or if the relative phase is other than 90
then the light is said to be elliptically
polarized.
http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 15
Linear Polarization
A plane electromagnetic wave is said
to be linearly polarized. The
transverse electric field wave is
accompanied by a magnetic field
wave as illustrated.
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 16
Circular Polarization
Circularly polarized light consists of two
perpendicular electromagnetic plane waves
of equal amplitude and 90 difference in
phase. The light illustrated is right-
circularly polarized.
5/25/2012
5
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 17
Elliptical Polarization
Elliptically polarized light consists
of two perpendicular waves of
unequal amplitude which differ in
phase by 90. The illustration
shows right- elliptically polarized
light.
.
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 18
Polaroid Sunglasses
The polaroid material used in
sunglasses makes use of
dichroism, or selective
absorption, to achieve
polarization.
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 19
(zie Ulaby hoofdstuk 7)
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1
E E H H E E
c
E
k
B
q
c
c
e
= = = = = =
0
: impedance of vacuum = 120 = 377 [Ohm]
o j
y y x xo
jkz
y
jkz
x y x
e a E a E
e E e E z E z E z
= =
+ = + =

0
0 0
;
) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
y x y x E
polarized waves
linearly polarised, =0 of =
circulair polarization:
2 / 2 /
;
t o t o = =
=
of en
a a
y x
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 20
medium (ether) paradox:
all well-known waves such as water waves, sound waves, undulations on a
string: move with a certain speed with regard to. the propagation medium
electromagnetic waves don't: there is no ether-wind
source w.r.t.
still medium moving medium
wavelength
constant dependant on direction
Electromagnetic waves: medium paradox
5/25/2012
6
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 21
Fig. 1-15 from F.T. Ulaby, Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall 1999
The electromagnetic spectrum
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 22
wavelength : 632.8 nm
wavenumber k: K = 2 / ~ 10
7
/m = 10/m
Frequency v: v = c/ ~ 475 THz
laser 2 mW:
# fotons/s: N= P/() = 7.5 x 10
15
/s
I/c; I = 1 mW/mm
2
=> P = 0.3 x 10
-5
N/m
2
field: E
2
= 2 I/(c
0
)=2 x 10
3
/(3 x 10
-3
) = 0.6 x 10
6
=> E ~ 8000 V/m
field in an atom:
E= 1/(4
0
) Q/(4 x 10
-20
)
~ 4 x 10
10
V/m

E
2
-E
1
=
Helium Neon laser
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 23
Feynman II,18
(now only dependent on free charges and currents)
Maxwells eqs. in linear materials, no
f
, J
f
0 = V B
t c
c
= V
B
E
0 = V D
B H E D
c
1
; = = ) ( ); ( B H H E D D = = P E D + =
0
c
t
t
c
c
= V
c
c
= V
E
B
D
H
c
(i) (Gausss law)
(iii) (Faradays law)
f.ay@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 24
Griffiths 9.3
Inside matter, but in regions where there is no free charge or free current
r
n
n
c
c
c
c
c
u ~ = =
0 0
1
( )
2
0
2
1
;
1
E I u c
= = B E S
( )
( )
( ) 0
: e furthermor
~
~ 1
,
~
on vector polarisati :
~
) , (
~
0
) (
0
= = =
=

k n E k n k r B
n n r E
r k
r k
u u
e
e
t i
t i
e E t
e E t
Electromagnetic waves in materials
2
2
2
2
1
t c
c
= V
E
E
u
Impedance:
0
1
q
c
q
n
~ =
M.Pollnau@ewi.utwente.nl
slide 1
Refraction and Dispersion
Markus Pollnau

MESA+ Institute
slide 2

1. Retardation
2. Refractive Index
3. Dispersion
4. Absorption
Content
slide 3
A field originating in point r with a phase

is retarded in time by

The retardation is a combination of:

1. starting point r
2. angular frequency e
Retardation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
Distance
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
( ) c r t + = e o |
( ) c r t t = A e
slide 4
An electromagnetic wave that travels through a
material forces the atoms in the material to oscillate.

The oscillation is an oscillation of the electron clouds
around their nuclei.

All oscillations occur parallel to the driving force, i.e.
parallel to the electric field E
s
of the travelling wave.

The oscillating atoms emit an additional wave, i.e.,
they create an additional field E
A
.

This phenomenon can be described macroscopically
by the refractive index n of the material.

The result is a retardation of the travelling wave.
Refractive Index
slide 5
Assume a thin plate of thickness Az with refractive
index n slightly larger than 1.

Incoming field from source
located at -z:

Field travels more slowly through the plate:

Retardation time due to refractive index n:

Outgoing field after plate located
at point P:
Refractive Index
( ) | | c z t i E E
S
/ exp
0
= e
E
S
E
S
+E
A

Point P
( ) c z n t / 1 A = A
c z n t
plate
/ A =
( ) ( ) | | c z n c z t i E E
out
/ 1 / exp
0
A = e
slide 6
Retarded field:

Phase shift due to retardation:

Use Taylor expansion for small x:

Rewrite equation for retarded field:
Refractive Index
( ) | | ( ) | | c z n i c z t i E E
out
/ 1 exp / exp
0
A = e e
( ) ( ) | | c z n c z t i E E
out
/ 1 / exp
0
A = e
( ) c z n / 1 A = e |
( ) x x + ~1 exp
( ) | |
( )
( ) | | c z t i E
c
z n i
c z t i E / exp
1
/ exp
0 0

A
~ e
e
e
=
S
E
A
E
slide 7
The additional field due to oscillating atoms

is orthogonal to the
incoming field E
S

(because of factor -i)
and leads to a retardation:
Refractive Index
E
S

E
A

real axis
imaginary
axis
E
P
=E
S
+E
A

( )
( ) | | c z t i E
c
z n i
E
A
/ exp
1
0

A
= e
e
slide 8
More intuitively,

the incoming energy is absorbed by the atoms.
As a result, the atoms start to oscillate.
The absorbed energy is re-emitted.
Since the atoms oscillate with the same frequency as
the driving field and emit the energy from the same
point where it was absorbed, the outgoing field looks
like the incoming field.

The time it takes to absorb and re-emit the energy,
leads to a retardation.
Refractive Index
slide 9
Assume that the electrons are harmonic oscillators
driven by an external field:

The solution is:
Refractive Index
( ) t i E q x
dt
x d
m
e e
e e exp
0
2
0
2
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
( )
( ) t i
m
E q
x
e
e
e
e e
exp
2 2
0
0
=
m
e
= electron mass
q
e
= electron charge
e = frequency of radiation
e
0
= resonant frequency of
electrons in an atom
slide 10
Field of a plane of q oscillating charges q per unit area:

The velocity of the electrons is

The resulting additional field by the atoms is
Refractive Index
( )
( ) | | c z t i
m
E q
i
dt
dx
v
e
e
charges
/ exp
2 2
0
0
= = e
e e
e
( ) c z t t v
c
q
E
charges plane
/
2
0
=
'
=
c
q
( )
( ) | | c z t i
m
E q
i
c
q
E
e
e e
A
/ exp
2
2 2
0
0
0
= e
e e
e
c
q
slide 11
Comparison of

with

results in

Number N of electrons per unit volume is

Refractive index
Refractive Index
( )
( ) | | c z t i
m
E q
i
c
q
E
e
e e
A
/ exp
2
2 2
0
0
0
= e
e e
e
c
q
( )
( ) | | c z t i E
c
z n i
E
A
/ exp
1
0

A
= e
e
( )
( )
2 2
0 0
2
2
1
e e c
q
= A
e
e
m
q
z n
z N A =q
( )
2 2
0 0
2
2
1
e e c
+ =
e
e
m
Nq
n
slide 12
The refractive index varies with the frequency of light:
Dispersion
( )
2 2
0 0
2
2
1
e e c
+ =
e
e
m
Nq
n
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
e-e
0
r
e
f
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

i
n
d
e
x
slide 13
Example:
Most gases and other transparent substances (glass):
e
0
is in the ultraviolet region, therefore
e
0
>> e of visible light, and n is nearly constant.

Nevertheless,
n increases slowly with the frequency of light.

This phenomenon is called dispersion.

Application:
Prism monochromator
Dispersion
slide 14
Another example: In the stratosphere, UV light
produces free electrons with density N.

Since free electrons have no restoring force, e
0
= 0,
and it follows that n < 1.

I.e., the light at a specific frequency travels at speed
c/n, which now becomes > c. (A better picture is that
the electron oscillation is advanced in phase
compared to the driving field.)

However, this does not mean that a signal can be
transmitted at a speed >c, because a single sine wave
has no start nor end, it does not transmit information.
Dispersion
slide 15
A more complete picture of dispersion:

1. Assume damped oscillation, i.e., the denominator
changes from to

2. Assume several resonance frequencies (even H
with a single electron has several of them), i.e., the
equation for n changes to
Dispersion
2 2
0
e e e e e i
2 2
0
( ) e e e c
k k
k
k
e
e
i
N
m
q
n

+ =

2 2
0
2
2
1
slide 16

At most of the e,
the slope is positive (normal dispersion).

Only at a few e,
the slope is negative (anomalous dispersion)
Dispersion
( ) e e e c
k k
k
k
e
e
i
N
m
q
n

+ =

2 2
0
2
2
1
-5
1
7
0
e
r
e
f
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

i
n
d
e
x
slide 17

n has now become a complex number:

Rearrange the outgoing field after the plate

such that
Absorption
( ) | | ( ) | | c z n i c z t i E E
out
/ 1 exp / exp
0
A = e e
( ) e e e c
k k
k
k
e
e
i
N
m
q
n

+ =

2 2
0
2
2
1
im re
in n n =
( ) | | | | ( ) | | c z n i c z n c z t i E E
re im out
/ 1 exp / exp / exp
0
A A = e e e
slide 18

The additional field due to
oscillating atoms is not
orthogonal to the
incoming field anymore.
Absorption
| | ( ) | | ( ) | | c z t i E c z n i c z n E
re im out
/ exp / 1 exp / exp
0
A A = e e e
E
S

E
A

real axis
imaginary
axis
E
P
=E
S
+E
A

slide 19
The first term is new.

It arises due to the fact that we have added the term
to the denominator.

This term possesses a real and negative exponent,
i.e., it describes a decrease in amplitude with
increasing length Az of the material.

As a result, part of the energy of the wave is
absorbed.

If e is close to one of the e
k
, then absorption of light
becomes the dominant phenomenon in
Absorption
| | c z n
im
/ exp A e
e e e
k k
i
2 2
e i
slide 1
Interference and Diffraction
Markus Pollnau

MESA+ Institute
slide 2
1. Interference of two waves
2. Young's double-slit experiment
3. Interference of multiple waves
4. Transmission through a pinhole
5. Diffraction at a sharp edge
6. Interference of multiple wavelengths
7. Beat frequency
8. Michelson and Mach-Zehnder interferometers
9. Diffraction gratings
10. Short light pulses
Content
slide 3
Maxwell's equations without sources (q=0; J=0)
are symmetric in E and B.

A possible solution is an electromagnetic wave, in
which E and B generate each other and are
orthogonal to each other and to the propagation
direction of radiation. Therefore, electromagnetic
waves are transverse waves. Transverse waves are
polarized.

For the E-field, the solution reads:
Repetition
2
2
2
2
1
t
E
c
E
c
c
= V
&
&
slide 4
Sinusoidal waves:

Angular frequency:

Period:

Wave number:

Wavelength:

Phase:
Repetition
e
e
t 2
= T
cT
c
k
= = =
e
t t
2 2
( ) c r t + = e o |
c
k
e
=
( ) ( ) { } | e = t r k i E n t r E
&
&
& &
&
exp ,
0
( ) ( ) | e = t kx E t x E cos ,
0
slide 5
Huygens principle:
Each element of a wave-front may be regarded as the centre of a
secondary disturbance which gives rise to spherical wavelets; the
position of the wave-front at any later time is the envelop of all such
wavelets.

Fermats principle:
A beam travels from point A to point B on the shortest optical path.
Huygens' and Fermat's Principles
slide 6
Plane wave: Spherical wave:
Huygens' Principle
slide 7
Phase:

Interference of two waves:
Phase shift A| at detection point r = 0
(for simplicity, assume same frequency in figure)

is a combination of:

1. starting points r
i

2. starting phases o
i

3. angular frequencies e
i

Interference of Two Waves
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
Distance
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
A|
( ) c r t + = e o |
slide 8
Two sinusoidal waves with same amplitude and
frequency but different phase:

Use:

Solution:
( ) ( )
2 1
cos cos | e | e + + + = t A t A R
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
(
=
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
1
cos
2
1
cos 2 | | e | | t A R
( ) ( )
(
+ = + C B C B C B
2
1
cos
2
1
cos 2 cos cos
slide 9
Angular Frequency:

Amplitude:

Interference term:
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
(
=
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
1
cos
2
1
cos 2 | | e | | t A R
2 1
2
1
2
1
| | e + + t
( )
(
2 1
2
1
cos 2 | | A
( )
(
2 1
2
1
cos | |
slide 10
Vector diagram:
(for different amplitudes)

Intensity:
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
(
=
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
1
cos
2
1
cos 2 | | e | | t A R
2
R I =
e
|
R

A
1

A
R

A
2

|
2

|
1

slide 11
Constructive interference:
A| = 0

Destructive interference:
A| = t
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 5 10 15 20
Distance
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 5 10 15 20
Distance
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
slide 12
Two sinusoidal waves with same frequency but
different amplitude and phase:

Intensity:

Solution:
( ) | | ( ) | |
2 2 1 1
exp exp | e | e + + + = t i A t i A R
( )
1 2 2 1
2
2
2
1
cos 2 | | + + = A A A A I
| | | | ( ) | | t i i A i A e | | exp exp exp
2 2 1 1
+ =
| | | | ( ) | | | | ( )
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
i exp i exp exp exp | | | | + + = A A i A i A I
slide 13
Examples: Two nearby dipoles oscillating
perpendicular to the plane with same frequency and
amplitude but adjustable phase:

Far-field intensities R
2
for:
d = /2; A| = 0 d = /2; A| = t d = /4; A| = t/2
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
(
=
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
1
cos
2
1
cos 2 | | e | | t A R
d d
0
0
4 4
2
2
2
2
4
4
0 0
2
2
2
2
4
0
2 2
slide 14
Interference In Thin Films
Optical path length difference:
Breaking distances into parts:
( ) AD n BC AB n
f 0
+ = A
( ) ( ) BF EB n AD n FC AE n
f f
+ + + = A
0
slide 15
Using
we obtain
t f i
n n u u sin sin
0
=
( )
t t
AC AG AE u u sin 2 / sin = =
i
AC AD u sin =
f i t t
n n AD AD AC AE / sin / sin sin 2
0
= = = u u u
( ) FC AE n AE n AD n
f f
+ = = 2
0
( ) EB n BF EB n
f f
2 = + = A
slide 16
Finally, we arrive at
For normal incidence
The corresponding phase difference is
The net phase change should also include the
phase differences that arise from reflections!!
(normal incidence)

t f
t n u cos 2 = A
0 = =
t i
u u t n
f
2 = A
( )A
0
/ 2 t
2 1
2 A + A + = A t n
f net
slide 17
Thus we can rewrite the interference equations as:
,where
film
=
0
/n
2
(normal incidence)
2 1
2 A + A + = A t n
f net
slide 18
Example: A soap bubble of 250 nm thickness is illuminated by white light. The
index of refraction of the soap film is 1.36. Which colors are not seen in the
reflected light? Which colors appear strongly in the reflected light? In which
color does the soap film appear at normal incidence?
(destructive)
slide 19
d << L, difference in path length r
1
- r
2
= d sin u

Maxima at d sin u = m

Minima at d sin u = (m+1/2)

For y << L sin u ~ y/L

Maxima at y ~ mL/d

Minima at y ~ (m+1/2)L/d

Use particle beam instead of light
same effect, = De Broglie wavelength
Young's Double-Slit Experiment
slide 20
Interference of Multiple Waves
Multiple sinusoidal waves with same amplitude and
frequency and equal phase difference:

Example: n = 6
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | | | e | e | e e n t t t t A R + + + + + + + = cos ... 2 cos cos cos
( )
( ) 2 / sin
2 / sin
|
| n
A A
R
=
( )
( ) 2 / sin
2 / sin
2
2
0
|
| n
I I =
0
12
24
36
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n|/(2t)
I

/

I
0
slide 21
Interference of Multiple Waves
Line source consisting of n equally spaced emitters
which emit in phase,
observed in direction u from the normal:

Phase:

Maxima at:

Condition:

m = order of the maximum

Intensity pattern like on previous page.
u t | / sin 2 d =
t | 2 m =
u m d = sin
d
n d sinu
slide 22
Interference of a large number of emitters is called
diffraction.

Many equally spaced scratches in a glass (hundreds of
lines per mm) scatter light and can therefore be
considered as emitters.
Shine light through a tiny slit on this diffraction grating
and the same different diffraction orders will occur as
with the emitters arranged in a line.
Different wavelengths are diffracted at different angles,
i.e., we can separate and measure wavelengths.

Shape of individual lines = sawtooth
first-order diffraction to the left has highest intensity.
Diffraction Gratings
slide 23
grating
incoming beam
with
1
,
2

first-order maximum
of outgoing beam
with
1

first-order maximum
of outgoing beam
with
2

slide 24
Resolving power of a diffraction grating
(Rayleigh's criterion):

Two peaks can be resolved if the minimum of one is
at the maximum of the other.

Solution:
( ) nm / 1 / = A
0
12
24
36
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
n|/(2t)
I

/

I
0
slide 25
d
n d sinu
u m d = sin
u t | / sin 2 d =
u u
t
| d d d cos
2
=
Condition for constructive interference,
i.e., when phase difference | = 2mt
The closest minimum to the peak occurs
for a phase change of A| = 2t/n = d|
Using the equation for phase:

u m d = sin u u md d d = cos
t t
md
n
2 2
=
nm
1
=
A
slide 26
Keep the length of the emitter line constant but add
more and more emitters in between existing emitters
slit (1D) or pinhole (2D).
Only one maximum with
many small side maxima
occurs (diffraction)
Transmission Through a Pinhole
0
12
24
36
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
n|/(2t)
I

/

I
0
0
64
128
192
256
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
n|/(2t)
I

/

I
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
n|/(2t)
I

/

I
0
n=6
n=16
n=50
slide 27
Fresnel diffraction (near-field diffraction):
Far
from
the
slit
z
Close
to the
slit
Incident
plane wave
Slit
slide 28
slit size >>
slit size >
slit size ~
Effect of slit size:

With smaller slit size
diffraction increases
slide 29
Edge

Light passing by
an edge

Electrons passing by
an edge
Diffraction at a Sharp Edge
x
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

slide 30
Superpose two beams with similar frequency:

Oscillation of resulting wave:

Beat frequency:
Interference of Multiple Wavelengths
( ) | | ( ) | | 2 / cos 2 / cos 2 cos cos
2 1 2 1 2 1
e e e e e e + = + = A A A R
( )
2 1 2 1
2 / e e e e e ~ << =
beat
( )
2 1 2 1
2 / e e e e e ~ ~ + =
osc
slide 31
Beat signal:
Beat Frequency
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 1 2 3 4
time
s
i
g
n
a
l
slide 32
Applications:

Generation of a signal of very low frequency
compared to the two original waves

Measurement of the absolute difference between two
very large frequencies without the need to measure
the frequencies themselves

Police radar:
The interference between outgoing and reflected
radar wave creates a beat signal, which determines
the speed of the suspicious car.
Beat Frequency
slide 33
Principle of interferometry:

Split a wave into two, recombine these two waves
after they have travelled certain distances, and
detect their interference, which is a measure of the
difference in optical path length between the two
waves.

Optical path length:

n = refractive index of material
Interferometry
( )dz z n
z
opt
}
=
=
"
"
0
slide 34
Mach-Zehnder interferometer (single wavelength )
with interaction section:

Output power:

Total phase shift:
Induced phase shift:
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
P
out
= P
in
{1 + cos (A|)}
| = |
m
+|
0
|
m
= 2/ n
eff
L
int
P
i
n
P
ou
t
A|

L
in
t

slide 35
Interferometric sensor:
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Sensing section
Measurand
slide 36
Michelson interferometer:

Use single wavelength,
move mirror:
Interference changes from
constructive to destructive
to constructive a.s.f.
Michelson Interferometer
Light Source
Sample
Detector
Mirror
Beam splitter
slide 37
Michelson interferometer: Use "white-light" source

Example: 11 wavelengths, center frequency 50,
frequency difference 1.5 between adjacent waves

Interference:
Large envelop
signal when all
waves are in phase

The more wavelengths,
the larger the signal

Resolution ~1/A
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-2 -1 0 1 2
time
s
i
g
n
a
l
slide 38
Michelson fiber interferometer:

Move mirror longitidinal scan
repeat by x-y pixel scan 3-dimensional picture
slide 39
Light source:

Luminescence bandwidth Interferometric resolution
138 nm ~ 2 m
slide 40
Optocal Coherence Tomography (OCT):

Ultrahigh resolution OCT
of an African Frog (Xenopus Laevis) Tadpole in vivo

A.M. Kovalewicz et al., Opt. Express 10 (2002) 349
skin
cell boundary cell nucleus
slide 41
Normal vs. ultrahigh resolution OCT imaging
(human retina along papillomacular axis)

W. Drexler et al., Nature Medicine 7 (2001) 502
A = 30 nm
A = 250 nm
slide 42
Short Light Pulses
Superposition of multiple wavelengths with locked
phase relation (you know this already ...)
Example: 11 wavelengths, center frequency 50,
frequency difference 1.5 between adjacent waves

Interference:
Large envelop
signal when all
waves are in phase

The more wavelengths,
the larger the signal

Pulse length ~1/A
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
time
s
i
g
n
a
l
Vibrations and Waves
The Fabry-Perot
resonator

University of Twente Advanced Technology
Integrated Optical MicroSystems (IOMS) Group Markus Pollnau
UT-EWI-IOMS 2012 Vibrations and Waves Fabry-Perot
2
The Fabry-Perot Resonator
What is it
How does it operate
Important characteristics
Transmission & reflection
Spectral shape:
Free Spectral Range
Full Width at Half Maximum
Finesse
Q-factor, relaxation time
Applications
Wavelength filter
Laser resonator
....
3
Fabry-Perot resonator
mirror
R
2
R r =
E
1
tE
1
rE
1
Superposition:
add field amplitudes
(accounting for phase)
E
in
E
R
E
F
E
B
E
T
r
1
r
2 L
1
L
tE e

=o+j|
incidence: t =1r
4
F-P transmission
E
in
r
1
, t
1 L
r
2
, t
2
1 2
L
in
E t t e

first transmission:
2
1 2
L
r r e

each roundtrip:
( )
2
1 2 1 2
0
i
L L
T
in
i
E
t t e r r e
E

=
=

Total transfer:
0
1
1
i
i
x
x
=
=
j o | = +
where:
1 2
2
1 2
1
L
L
e
t t
r r e

5
F-P as a feedback system
1 2
2
1 2
1
L
T
L
in
E e
t t
E
r r e
L
a e

=
1 2
L
b r r e

=
+
E
in
L
e

L
e

t
2
t
1
r
1
r
2
E
T
a
b
+
x z y
1
z ay
a
z
x
y x bz ab
=

=
`
= +
)
Feedback, general
6
1 2
2
1 2
1
L
T
L
in
E e
t t
E
r r e
j o | = +
Field response:
, with prop. constant:
F-P intensity response
2 4
1 2 1 2
(field) (intensity)
L L
r r e R R e
o o
1 2
( , , , ) A A R R L o
1 2
( , , , ) B B R R L o
2
2
2
1 sin
2
T
T
FP
in
in
E
I A
T
I
E
B

= =
| |
+
|
\ .
Intensity
transmission:
per roundtrip:
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
L aL j L
r r e r r e e
|
=
0
2
2 2 L Ln
t
|
= =
attenuation:
phase shift:
7
( )
2
1 2
2
2
1 2
(1 )(1 )
1
L
L
e R R
A
R R e
o
o
( )
2
1 2
2
2
1 2
4
1
L
L
R R e
B
R R e
o
o
2 L | =
where:
2
1 sin
2
FP
A
T
B

=
| |
+
|
\ .
F-P transfer functions
2
1 sin
2
FP
C A
A
B

=
| |
+
|
\ .
1
FP FP FP
T R A + + =
2
1
1 sin
2
FP
C
R
B

=
| |
+
|
\ .
( )
4
1 2
2
2
1 2
(1 )(1 )
1
L
L
R R e
C
R R e
o
o
m2t (m-1)2t
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

m2t (m-1)2t
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

m2t (m-1)2t
R
1
=R
2
= 0.9
oL = 0.01
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n

more lossy:
R
1
=R
2
= 0.7
oL = 0.2
8
Resonance
( )
2 2
2
2
2
(1 )
1
1 sin
2
L
FP
L
A e R
T A
Re
B
o
o
= = =
| |

+
|
\ .
At resonance: = m 2t
assume: R
1
=R
2
=R
no loss: o = 0 1, 0
FP FP
T A = =
At resonance:
all forward waves in phase
all backward waves in phase
except: direct reflection at first
mirror in antiphase with
transmitted wave from I
B
reflection exactly cancelled
1 0
FP FP FP FP
T R A R + + = =
energy conservation

+
I
I
L
R

I
F
I
T
R

I
B
R
FP
= 0 ?
9
Energy storage
At resonance: = m 2t
assume: R
1
=R
2
=R
no loss: o = 0
I
I
L
R

I
FP
I
T
R

(1 )
1
I
I T FP FP
I
I I R I I
R
= = =
Large enhancement for R 1

Resonance, I
FP
>> I
I

Energy stored inside cavity

T
FP
= 1, R
FP
= 0, A
FP
= 0
10
Intensity enhancement
Important for
lasers, optical amplifiers
other nonlinear optical interactions (An _
(3)
I )

resonance (e.g. in
Fabry-Perot)
R
1
=0.99 R
2
=0.99
o =0
F-P
100
input
I
I
~

small waveguide
cross-section
1 mm
1 m
6
10
channel
input
I
I
~
Approaches:
Intensity = Power / cross-section [W/m
2
]

11
Energy leaks from resonator due to
transmission through mirrors
absorption in medium
If energy supply is cut (input signal removed):
stored energy ( intensity) decays
Constant factor R
1
R
2
e
4oL
for each roundtrip
Exponential
decay
Relaxation time
FP
t
e
t
I
0
I

t
FP
0
I
e
t

1 2
1
1
2 ln( )
2
FP
n
c
R R
L
t
o
=

12
0
4 4
2 L n L n L
f
c
t
t
| = = =
F-P filter
Transfer functions determined by :
Note: n assumed constant

FWHM
2
f
c
FSR f
n L
= A =
Free Spectral Range, FSR,
in terms of or f:
2
2
FSR
n L

= A =
Finesse
2
FSR
F B
FWHM
t
= =
FWHM = Full Width @ Half Max.
13
2
F B
t
=
2
1
L
L
Re
F
Re
o
o
t

Finesse F & Peak width FWHM

FSR
FWHM
F
=
2
2
FSR
n L

=
( )
2
1 2
2
2
1 2
4
1
L
L
R R e
B
R R e
o
o
1 2
assume: R R R = =

R
F
o=0
0.01
0.1
1
( )
2 2
1
2
L
L
Re
FWHM
n L R e
o
o
=
14
Gain material in Fabry-Perot
( )
2 2
2
2
(1 )
1
L
FP
L
e R
T
Re
o
o
in resonance
( =m 2t)
R
1
=R
2
=R
F-P transmission
( )
2
2
(1 )
1
gL
FP
gL
e R
T
Re
Gain, not loss

our convention:
o field attenuation

g intensity gain
( )
2
0.5
1
2
gL
gL
Re
FWHM
n L R e
t

=
( )
1 0
gL
Re If
0 FWHM
FP
T unstable, oscillation
15
2 2
1 2
L L j
G r r e Re e
o
= =
1 2
( , 2 ) r r R L | = = =
Roundtrip gain G
Stability of Fabry-Perot
+
E
I
L
e

L
e

t
2
t
1
r
1
r
2
E
T
j o | = +
2
1 and 2
L
Re m
o
t
= =
System will oscillate at frequencies for which = m 2t
(starting from noise)
System becomes
unstable for G = 1:
2 ln( ) / g R L o = >
can happen for o < 0,
(with R < 1) if:
16
Realisations
Macroscopic
Integrated Optic
Mirrors
(dielectric multilayer
or thin metal layer)
2
2 1
2 1
n n
R
n n
| |
=
|
+
\ .
InP / GaAs (n ~ 4)
in air R ~ 0.36
Fresnel reflection at facets
R
1
R
2
Grating (Bragg reflector)
A
Wavelength
dependent:
0
2
eff
N
A =
17
Summary Fabry-Perot
Superposition of multiple reflections
multiple interference
Modeling as a feedback system
At resonance, without loss: T
FP
= 1, R
FP
= 0
Intensity enhanced inside cavity
Relaxation: t
FP
(L, R, o)
Filter: FSR(L), FWHM(R, o, L), F(R, o, L)
Gain and stability (positive feedback)
Integrated Optic realisations
slide 1
Resonators and Scattering
Markus Pollnau

MESA+ Institute
slide 2
1. Resonators
2. Scattering of light
Content
slide 3
The electric field of a charge with acceleration a at an
angle u from the axis of the motion at distance r is

The energy of an electromagnetic wave is
proportional to the average of its intensity, which
is the square of its electric field.
The energy per unit area per unit time
carried by an electromagnetic wave is

Energy of an Electromagnetic Wave
3 2
0
2
2 2 2
2
0
16
sin
c r
a q
E c S
c t
u
c
'
= =
( )
( )
r c
c r t qa
t E
2
0
4
sin /
tc
u
=
slide 4
Integrated over the whole sphere, this gives a
radiated power of

For an acceleration , i.e.,
we receive
Power of an Electromagnetic Wave
3
0
2 2
0
3
3
0
2 2
6
sin
8 c
a q
d
c
a q
SdA P
tc
u u
tc
t
'
=
'
= =
} }
t i
e x a
e
e
0
2
=
2
0
4 2
2
1
x a e =
'
3
0
2
0
4 2
12 c
x q
P
tc
e
=
slide 5
A charge set to oscillate and then left alone radiates
energy, i.e., it loses energy
(called energy damping or radiation damping).
The slower the oscillator loses energy, the higher is
its quality.
We define the quality factor Q of a resonator as its
total energy W at any time devided by the energy
loss per radian
(and using ):

The damping is
Quality Factor of a Resonator
P
W
dt dW
W
d dW
W
Q
e e
|
= = =
( ) ( ) ( ) e | | dt dW dt d dt dW d dW = =
( )
Q t
e W W W Q P dt dW
/
0
e
e

= = =
slide 6
Total energy of an oscillator:
Eigen frequency (e.g.,
yellow line of the sodium atom):

(Feynman lost a factor of in his final equation)
Quality Factor of an Oscillating Atom
7
2
2
0
3
0
2
0
4 2
2
0
2
10 5
3
12
2
1
~ = = =
e
c m
c x e
x m
P
W
Q
e
e
c
tc e
e e
e
2
0
2
2
1
x m W e =
nm
c c
590
2
~ = =
e
t
v
kg m
e
31
10 1 . 9

=
As e
19
10 6 . 1

=
s m c / 10 0 . 3
8
= Vm As / 10 6 . 8
12
0
= c
0
4tc
slide 7

I.e., an atomic oscillator will oscillate for 10
8
radians
or about 10
7
oscillations, before its energy falls by
a factor 1/e.
Since the oscillation frequency is ,
the luminescence lifetime is typically in the range
of a few ns (10
-8
s).
Lifetime of an Oscillating Atom
7
2
2
0
3
0
2
0
4 2
2
0
2
10 5
3
12
2
1
~ = = =
e
c m
c x e
x m
P
W
Q
e
e
c
tc e
e e
e
1 15
10 /

~ = s c v
slide 8
Mechanics and electronics:
, with , the resistance.

With ,
the spectral linewidth of such an atomic oscillation is

This equals
The lineshape is Lorentzian (Fourier transform of an
exponential temporal decay into frequency
space). For the equation of the lineshape, see
Feynman I-23-2.
Spectral Linewidth of an Oscillating Atom
e
0
= Q
e t / 2 c =
m Q Q c c c
14
0
2
0
10 2 . 1 / / 2 / 2 / 2

= = = = A = A e t e t e e t
MHz Hz 10 10 1
7
= = Av
slide 9
When the phase difference between two or more light
sources changes rapidly compared to the
detection system, the cosine function of the
interference term averages out, i.e., the
phenomenon of interference cannot be observed
anymore. In this case, the resulting light intensity
is just the sum of the intensities of the
overlapping beams.
The same accounts when the light sources are not
perfectly aligned with each other but are
randomly distributed.
Scattering of Light
slide 10
Since atoms in air excited by an incoming light beam
are radiating light as point sources in all
directions and these atoms are randomly
distributed, their light intensities are added up:
The light is scattered.
In addition, the atoms move randomly, i.e., even the
cosine term of light scattered from a single atom
over time averages out.
As a result of the scattering of sun light, the sun rise
and sun set appear red (the higher the air
pollution, the more beautiful is the sun set...) and
the sky appears blue.
Scattering of Light
slide 11
Incoming beam:

Amplitude of oscillating atom:

Total scattered power:
Scattering of Light
t i
e E E
e
0

=
( )
2 2
0
0
e e
=
e
e
m
E q
x
( )
2
2
0
2
4
4 2 2
0
2
4
2
0 0
2
3
0
4 2
16 3
8
2
1
12
e e
e
c t
t c
tc
e
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
c m
q
cE x
c
q
P
e
e e
slide 12

First term: total incident energy

Second term: cross-section for scattering

Classical electron radius:
(Feynman lost )
Scattering of Light
2
0 0
2
0 0
2
1
cE E c c c =
( )
2
2
0
2
4
4 2 2
0
2
4
2
0 0
2
3
0
4 2
16 3
8
2
1
12
e e
e
c t
t c
tc
e
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
c m
e
cE x
c
q
P
e
e
( ) ( )
2
2
0
2
4
2
0
2
2
0
2
4
4 2 2
0
2
4
3
8
16 3
8
e e
e
t
e e
e
c t
t o
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= r
c m
e
e
s
m
c m
e
r
e
15
2
0
2
0
10 82 . 2
4
= =
tc
0
4tc
slide 13

In air, the natural frequencies of the oscillators are
higher than the frequencies of visible light, i.e.

and the scattering of light increases with the fourth
power of the frequency of light.
This type of scattering is called Raleigh scattering.
Scattering of Light
( )
2
2
0
2
4
2
0
3
8
e e
e
t o
|
.
|
\
|
= r
s
4
0
4
2
0
3
8
e
e
t o r
s
|
.
|
\
|
~

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5/25/2012

8.1.2. Poyntings theorem (1)

Poyntings theorem in differential form:

UT-EWI-IOMS 2012 Vibrations and Waves Fabry-Perot

Large enhancement for R 1

UT-EWI-IOMS 2012 Vibrations and Waves Fabry-Perot

Finesse F & Peak width FWHM

Gain, not loss

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