Cognitivism and Its Implication in the Second Language Learning Abstract This paper aims to elaborate cognitivism and

its implications to the second lan guage learning. Cognitive theory or approach views the learner as a thinking be ing and an active processor of information. Thus, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to analyze the situations where the application of t he rule would be appropriate and to make sense of data. In other words, we learn by thinking about and trying to make sense of what we see, hear and feel. In o rder to get a clear picture of the cognitive theory in relation to second langua ge learning, other related theories were also described briefly from the histori cal points of view. In general cognitivism can be grouped under the innatist mod el which is also known as nativist. mentalism (thinking as rule-governed activity), r ationalism. The implications of cognitive theories can be revealed in the basic teaching techniques which cover activities such as problem-based solving activi ty, discovery learning, cognitive strategies, project-based learning, etc. Key words : cognitive, second language, acquisition, innatist, problem-solving, behaviorist A. Introduction Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man how to fish and you feed him for a lifetime. (Chinese proverb) The entry point for all language teaching should be an understanding of how peop le learn, but as a matter of fact the learning factors are the last to be conside red. In the past the research only focused on the language analysis and learning factors were , to a large extent, still ignored; only after the language system ization has been done, learning factors were incorporated in the domain of lang uage teaching and learning. In the sixteenth century Comenius (1592-1670), a C zech theologian and educator, conducted empirical observations in language learn ing, and some guidelines for the Direct Method at the end of the 19th century ( Stern, 1983), but no relevant theory of learning appeared until the establishmen t of psychology as a notable field of study in scientific enquiry in the early 2 0th century. (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987: 39) From a historical point of view there are three major scientific research tradit ions in the second language acquisition: (1) Behaviorist, (2) Cognitive, and (3) Dialogical. Behaviorist is generally related to the work of Pavlov in the So viet Union and of Skinner in the United States. This theory emphasizes a mechani cal process of habit formation and proceeds by means of the frequent reinforcem ent of a stimulus-response sequence. (Hutchinson & Waters 1987 : 40) Meanwhile, the term cognitive refers to the course of intellectual development in a child th rough various stages. (Piaget in Brown, 1994:58), learners as thinking beings ( Hutchinson & Waters, 11987:43), and the learner to be an active processor of inf ormation. (Ausubel et al, 1978) And the term dialogical, the last tradition, can be associated to the following names : discursive (Harree and Gillet 1994), herm eneutic (Young 1999; Markee 1994; Ochsner 1979), hermeneutic-dialectical (Rommet veit 1987), dialogically based social-cognitive (Rommetveit 1992), and cultural (Bruner 1996). (see Johnson 1954:9) This essay will elaborate the second tradition (Cognitive theory) with its im plication in the second language learning. In order to get a clear picture abo ut the two domains, I will also describe briefly some key words such as the ter ms first and second language, first and second language acquisition, concepts of l anguage learning, and finally some implications of cognitive theories in the sec ond language learning. B. First and Second language When we talk about language teaching or learning, we should be familiar with the terms such as first language, second language, foreign language, mother tongue, bilingual. Those terms are sometimes ambiguous and confusing, even for some la nguage practitioners. In this regard, Stern (1983:9) makes a tabulation of the two sets of terms as follows : Table 1 : First language and Second language

L 1 L 2 First language Native language Mother tongue Primary language Stronger language Second language Non-native language Foreign language Secondary language Weaker language The two sets of terms above can be compared to the pair words such left and right, I/we and you, or at home and abroad. Those terms are always relative to a person or a group of persons. They show a subjective relationship between a language and a n individual or a group. For the two sets of terms above, Stern (1983: 11-12) g ives illustration as follows : The L1 terms are used to indicate, first of all, that a person has acq uired the language in infancy and early childhood (hence first or native) and genera lly within the family (hence mother tongue). For example, the expressions such as E nglish is my mother tongue; I am a native speaker of French; His first language was Hungarian all suggest this particular way of acquiring a language at this parti cular time in life. The concept of L2 (non-native language, second language, foreign language) i mplies the prior availability to the individual of an L1; in other words, it is some form of bilingualism. Again, the use of the L2 set of terms has a dual fu nction: it indicates something about the acquisition of the language and somethi ng about the nature of the command; for instance : Were learning French in school; Im trying to learn Singhalese; Our Danish aur pair girl has been sent by her parents t o England to learn English in our family. She has no lessons. A certain language can be grouped as a second language when it is a non-native language which is learnt and used within one country; on the other hand, it ca n be grouped as a foreign language when it is a non native language which is lea rnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territori al boundaries. In addition, it can be a foreign language when it is undertaken w ith different purposes of mind, e.g. travel abroad, communication with native s peakers, reading of a foreign literature, etc. Other requirements of being a sec ond language are (1) the language becomes the official language or one of two or more recognized languages; (2) the language is needed for full participation i n the political and economic life of the nation (Paulston 1974:12-13); (3) the la nguage is needed for education. (Mackwardt 1963); and (4) the language has offi cial status or a recognized function within a country which a foreign language h as not. (Sterne, 1983: 15-16) C. First and Second Language Acquisition 1. First language acquisition Language acquisition which is a multi-faceted and complex phenomenon can be simp lified into three major crucial issues by Rice (1986) as follows : (a) The natur e of language, (b) The role of the child, and (c) The role of the environment. a. The nature of language Issues of the nature of language is quite abundant to explore and to discuss, es pecially the aspects which are closely related to the first language acquisition . For instance, language can be seen as a set of grammar or syntactic rules or h ow these rules are processed internally, and another issue which is equally esse ntial is pragmatic aspects of the language or how the language is used in commun ity. From the illustration above, language basically contains three aspects : f orm, meaning, and use. b. The Role of the Child To elaborate the issues of the childs role in the first language acquisition cove ring the questions whether the child becomes active or passive receiver of the te aching from adults, or whether there is an innate linguistic knowledge, I will re fer to two influential figures - Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piagetian View of Cognitive and Language Development

According to Piaget (1959) cognitive development and language acquisition are cl osely interrelated processes. During the childhood the abstract knowledge about the world can be gained through seeing objects around them and by observing ho w the objects function and interact each other. This stage of development lasts from birth to 18 months, called the sensorimotor period. In Piagets view cognitiv e knowledge about the world, without cognitive development language acquisition will not take place, even if it does the children will only gain little. This k ind of view is often labeled as cognitive determinism - the development of langua ge forms is governed by cognitive growth, i.e. cognitive development before lang uage. In other words, the sequence of development within language learning is g overned by the stages of cognitive growth. (See Figure 1) Figure 1: Cognitive Determinism Vygotskyan View of Cognitive and Language Development Vygotskys (1962) cognitive view in language development was inspired by Piagets a t least in two ways : (i)) the important relation between cultural and social en vironment and language learning; (ii) cognition closely related to language is c onsidered not static manner but dynamic one since the childrens cognition will im prove along with their interaction with the people around (e.g. parents, siblin gs, neighbors). The childs language acquisition is obtained through daily convers ation with adults such as naming objects. In other words, the adult people teac h the children about the world around and appropriate behavior. According to V ygotsky, language is a means of influencing later cognitive development. In thi s context, by getting along with the people around them and practicing their own language, the children will learn to interpret new experiences which will furt her develop their thinking competence. For an illustration, as the children who have grown bigger and mastered certain aspects of language will be more critica l by asking some questions about the things they see and hear. They also start t o enjoy listening to stories and describing the characters in the stories. The c hildrens interaction with the world around can be seen in the following figure. Figure 2 : Changing Relationships between Cognitive Development and Language The Role of the Environment The third component of language acquisition which contribute s to the childrens c ognitive competence is both social and linguistic environment. Social environme nt is a setting where the children are nurtured and learn things about the world . Whereas linguistic environment is a situation in which the children use lang uage in their interaction with adults. In their interaction, they will get input and direct or indirect feedback on their language use. Special terms referring to the kind of language used by adults to the children are motherese, caregiver/ caretaker language and child-directed language. Another issue about the environm ent in relation to adults behaviors and strategies during play and caregiving are called joint referencing and joint action. Joint referencing refers to an act o f communication which often covers naming or describing; whereas joint action is related to a shared action sequence by adult and child, such as rolling a ball, laying peek-a-boo or round and round the garden. (Goh, 2004 :14-16) Theoretical Models There are three theoretical model which are very influential in language acquisi tion, especially in relation to three main issues : the way language, the child and the environment interact to each other. These models are known as behavioris t, innatist (also nativist) and interactionist. They are broad models which rep resent different views on and approaches to the understanding of language acquis ition. The Behaviorist Model The model was very popular in the forties and fifties owing to the work of Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, John Watson, and Edward Thorndike. It is also related to the empiricist school due to its concern with the physical and the observable. In this view, the main focus in learning is change of behavior through habit for mation, and the existence of stimuli and response. For several decades this scho ol of thought was very dominant in various areas of learning, including language

learning. In Verbal Behavior B.F. Skinner (1957) argued that language acquisiti on was a form of operant conditioning, directly resulting from adult modeling an d reinforcement, imitation, practice and habit formation on the part of the chil d. Another main feature of the behaviorist view is the existence of reinforcemen t - both positive and negative. A child will be given praise and physical reward s when he gives a correct utterance. On the other hand, if the utterance is not correct, the reward will be suspended. The Innatist Model This model is also known as nativist, mentalism or rationalism. In this model, languag e is seen not as a behavior learned through imitation and conditioning, but is rule-based and generative in nature, processed and produced through complicated cognitive processes and mechanism. There are two underlying assumptions in this model. The first assumption proposed by Chomsky, the severest critic of behavior ism, stated that human beings possess an innate mental capacity for language. It is a special language mechanism in which individuals are hard-wired with synt actic principles, or rules about grammar. It is also believed, in this view, tha t the language has a universal nature so that any one can learn any language the y are exposed to. The second basic assumption is concerned with the language development which is directed by a biological and chronological program. In this model, Eric Lenneber g (1967) proposed a hypothesis known as the Critical Period Hypothesis - a critical point for language acquisition occurs around puberty and beyond this point, peo ple who try to learn a language will not acquire it fully. This hypothesis was su pported by natural experiments in which children fail to acquire a language norm ally during their childhood. The well known evidences are the wolf boy, Victor, in France and Genie, the girl from California. Other main features of this model refer to an innate mechanism called the Langu age Acquisition Device (LAD) which was pre-programmed with syntactic rules or pr inciples about language that enabled the child to generate and understand senten ces, and Universal Grammar (UG) which assumes that all languages in the world sh are common features, such as plurals, signaling, temporal or spatial distinctio ns and negating a proposition. The Interactionist Model This model is closely related to Vygotskys Zone Proximal Development (ZPD) which is defined as the distance between a childs current state of cognitive capacity and the level of potential development. In other words, it is what the child can manage on his or her own compared with what they can only manage with assi stance from adults. The emergence of the interactionist model was also due to th e dissatisfaction with Chomskys transformational grammar which only focuses on th e competence of the ideal speaker-listener in a homogenous speech community instead of examining the way language is actually used in society. Dell Hymes (1971) al so proposed a model of communicative competence. This competence will make perso ns able to express and interpret messages appropriately in specific communicativ e contexts. (Goh, 2004 : 17-22) The main features of the three models can be seen in the following table (Goh, 2 004: 25): Table 2 : Key features of Behaviorist, Innatist and Interactionist Approaches Behaviorist Innatist Interactionist Concerned with learning in general Important linguistic input from the environment Modeling Imitation Practice Reinforcement Habit formation Concerned with specific aspects of language learning Degenerate input from the environment Biological program (CPH) Special language learning ability Universal Grammar (UG) Linguistic rule extraction

 Hypothesis testing Natural order of acquisition Concerned with social and psychological aspec of language learning Meaningful linguistic input from the environment The importance of communicative contexts Childs pragmatic intentions Adults rich interpretation and feedback Conversational adjustments Childs capacity for learning Interdependence of cognitive and language developments 2. Second Language Acquisition The description of second language acquisition (SLA) will also refer to the thre e broad models : behaviorist, innatist, and interactionist. And each model which is applied in the second language acquisition will be elaborated below. Behaviorism and SLA There is no significant difference between the behaviorist model applied in L1 and L2 learning. The same principles are still used in L2 learning such as imi tation, practice, reinforcement/feedback and habit formation following a stimulu s- response model. This model assumes that all learning is similar; there is no different treatment between L1 and L2. The child, or learner of any age for SL A should imitate, repeat, practice and receive feedback in order to establish goo d habits and avoid bad habits. In this model of learning, it is also relevant to mention the Contrastive Analys is Hypothesis (CAH) (Lado (1957) which assumes that all elements in L1 and in L 2 which are similar will be easier to learn; on the other hand, any elements whi ch are different in L1 and in L2 will be more difficult to learn. Implementation of the behaviorist ideas are reflected in the teaching method /ap proach known as Audiolingualism (coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in 1964) whic h stresses on the systematic presentation of grammatical forms from the easiest elements to the most difficult ones. The main features in this practice are rep etitive drills, no translation, no explanation of grammatical rules, word meanin g learned in context, more spoken practices. Accordingly, there is extensive use of dialogue memorization, repetition and drills. Innatism and SLA Similar to the behaviorist model, the principles of innatist model for first la nguage acquisition and SLA are basically the same. In this model, there is an i nnate mental capacity for language learning which is different from other learni ng. Language learning is based on discovering the underlying abstract represe ntations (or rules) of the specific language from among all possible rules of la nguages universally. According to Chomsky, these universal rules are called Univ ersal Grammar (UG) which provides a kind of blue print that the child is born wi th. In this kind of learning, there are two major issues which are closely related t o SLA. First, it is called an access issue which covers three possibilities. Fir st possibility is the learner accesses UG in the same way for both first and sec ond language learning (full access); second possibility is the learner does not access UG directly for second language learning but must go through the first l anguage ( no access); and third possibility is the learner has a partial, but i ncomplete, access to UG for SLA. The mechanism of UG access can be seen in the following figure (Figure 3): Figure 3: UG Access and SLA Second issue in the innatist model is concerned with age. With regard to this, some research on learning and age is used to determine whether UG really is a bi ological attribute. Lennenberg (1967) proposed a learning theory called Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) which assumes that in fact there is a critical period for language learning. According to CPH, learning second language after puberty is not so efficient as learning before puberty. In other words, the learner will not achieve a complete mastery of second language after puberty. The implicatio ns of Innatist model can be seen in the practice of Natural Approach proposed by

Terrell (1977), and this approach to classroom teaching is an effort to inser t naturalistic learning into classroom situations. (Goh, 2004 : 32-35) Interactionism and SLA Interactionist model is closely related to the views of sociolinguistics and lan guage use for communication. Second language acquisition for adolescents (over 2 0+ years) pays attention to the interaction between second language learners and native speakers. Preliminary studies of this interaction was largely focused on the comprehensible input (meaning) which was then related to innatist models. However, some other researchers argued that learning process covers not only und erstanding (comprehensible input) but also communication (language use). Thus, t he ideal learning situation is combination of both factors. Such a situation is often connected to the linguistic environment - the way(s) that language is used , with and around the learner. The research has tried to explore possible roles for input, negotiation, output and interactional feedback in second language lea rning. The implications of Interactionist model can be seen in the practice of C ommunicative Language Teaching Approaches (CLTAs) which cover various topics or activities such as functional-notional, thematic, content-based, task-based, etc .(Goh, 2004 : 41-42) The following is a summary of Basic Theories and Models for SLA. Table 3 : Basic Theories and Models for SLA Behaviorist Modeling, practice and reinforcement from proficient L2 languag e user. Habits formed in first language can interfere with L2 learning Instructional approach: Audiolingualism. Innatist UG is accessible for first and second language acquisition or UG is only available for first language learning or UG is partially available for second language learning - an unresolved question. If UG is biological, there may be an optimal time period for second lang uage acquisition (prior to puberty) because the adult mind learns language diffe rently. Instructional approach: The Natural Approach Interactionist Input, negotiation, output and international feedback may be nec essary for L2 learning. Other sociocultural aspects may also need to be considered. Instruction approach : CLTAs A. Concepts of language learning If we talk about the concept of second language learning, it is unavoidable to u se psychological concepts since our thinking on learning is influenced by the p sychological knowledge that is part of the common on understanding of human beha vior in our culture. The psychological terms such as remembering, forgetting, skil l, motivation, frustration, inhibition, etc. are adopted in the process of second lang age learning. In this section, the two key concepts for a language teaching theo ry, i.e. language and learning will be reviewed in terms of general psychology s o that we can have a clear picture about the underpinning of second language lea rning. 1. Language in psychology Language has always played a certain role in the history of psychology. Accordi ng to Stern (1983: 291) psychology can be defined as the science of the mental life and behavior of the individual. Psychology studies the behavior , activiti es, conduct, and mental processes. Since speech is one of the features that di stinguishes man most clearly from other species, it becomes an object of psychol ogical enquiry. From about 1900 the objects of psychological studies paid atten tion to not only the learning, memory, thinking and intelligence (the higher men tal processes), but also to the emotions, personality, psychological growth of t he child, and the measurement of individual differences. Wundt (1877), the founder of modern scientific psychology, included a study of l anguage in the first volume of his monumental study of ethnic psychology. Word as sociation experiments which showed the subjects instant response to the verbal s timuli was done by Galton (1883). While in the area of emotions, some research h as been undertaken by Freud with his treatment of slips of the tongue or the pen

(the emotional dynamics of verbal behavior), by Jungs (1918) verbal associations as a diagnostic tool to uncover emotional complexes. In this regard, Jung theor ized that someone with emotional problems will easily deviate from the common verbal associations of his speech community. In the studies of mental development of the child, nature or nurture became hotly debated issues. Some experts tended to support nature meaning the mental developm ent of the child obtained by maturation (biological and nativistic), while som e others favored nurture meaning the mental development was mainly gained through social or environmental interaction. Such a debate had finally come to a compr omise in 1940s, called biosocial compromise: the division between the two points of view became less rigid. In other words, there was no a clear-cut solution, an d the question was on the proportion for each view: how much biological growth, heredity, innate disposition, and maturation could contribute to the childs ment al development; and, similarly, what proportion of environmental influences cou ld increase its mental development. In this issue, intelligence as bio component was considered stronger than social aspect. Another major issue about language in psychology for many decades was the relat ionship between language and thought. The Swiss psychologist Piaget, in his ma jor work on language and thought in childhood (1923) proposed the thesis that l anguage development and functional use of language in childhood reflect the ment al development of the child. Later, such thesis led to the theory, for instance by Cameron (1947) who stated that the individuals view of the world and his ent ire cognitive system were shaped by the verbal symbols given to each one of us b y society as we learn our native language. (Stern, 1983: 291-294) 2. The psychology of learning Learning has been approached in two main ways: (a) through theoretical and exper imental studies and (b) through empirical studies in education setting. The two together constitute the psychology of learning. a. The theoretical and experimental study of learning This school of thought can be divided into two groups. The first, deriving from the British associationist school of philosophy (Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and H ume), refers a largely environmentalist view of man. A further development of th is school can be found in Pavlovs studies of conditioning, Watsons behaviorism, Th orndikes connectionism, and Skinners operant conditioning. Theories in this school of thought, so-called S-R theories, focus on externally observable responses ( R) to specific stimuli (S), an empirical and experimental approach, and the avo idance of subjective or mentalist concepts. What they agree in this tradition is they disregard the mental process of the learners. In other words, they do no t pay attention to the intentions, the thinking, the conscious planning, and int ernal processes of the learner. The second group, so-called cognitive approaches to learning, was initially repr esented by Gestalt psychology. It emphasizes on innate organizing principles in human perception, cognition, sensorimotor skills, learning, and even in social c onduct. Gestalt theory ignores repetition or practice, the mechanical stamping in or Thorndikes laws of learning or Skinners shaping, as characteristic of human learn ing. Other features of Gestalt psychology also cover concepts such as whole and part, integration and differentiation, figure and ground, field, structure, and org on. (Stern, 1983: 307) Other figures who advocated a cognitive theory of learning are Ausubel (1967:10) who stresses on meaningful learning, meaning being understood not as a behavioral response, but as a clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious ex perience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts, or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individuals cognitive structure . Ausebel gives two significant contributions in the development of language learn ing since his theories have been developed from research in main stream cognitiv e psychology. His firs contribution is the notion of advance organizer - a device or a mental learning aid to help us get a grip on the new information. His second contribution is the active nature of reception learning. He distinguishes betw een rote and meaningful learning. The point here is how to make reception learn

ing as meaningful as possible. In this approach, the students need to be active in learning by underlining, by completing missing words, by rewording sentences, or by giving additional examples. (http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/lynda-abbott/ cognitive.html) Different from Ausubel who absolutely rejected the behaviorism, Bruner and Gagne have tried to be more moderate, that is trying to combine both schools. In t heir view certain kinds of learning can be appropriately achieved by a behaviori st stimulus-response theory, but conceptual learning or the learning of principl es require a cognitive theory. Bruners cognitive theory (1960/1977, 1966) gave a significant contribution to the curriculum development in the sixties, especi ally in the natural sciences, social sciences, and mathematics, but its relevanc e to language teaching was delayed until much later. As an advocate of discover y learning, Bruner was more popular, at least schools, than Ausubel and Gagne si nce his ideas about learning were more acceptable. In his work Toward a Theory o f Instruction, Bruner elaborated how his ideas can be easily translated into teac hing practice in the classroom. The key point of his teaching principles is the word structure. When we teach a subject, we should also pay attention to its stru cture. He introduced a real process of a particular subject to the students. F or instance, when learning history, the student should examine a bridge, a build ing, or a head stone in a cemetery, then using the information acquired to trace records of various kinds in order to answer the questions generated about the o rigins, purposes, and history of that structure, or the life of the person conce rned. The three stages in Bruners theory of intellectual development are: Enactive where a person learns about the world through actions on objects. Iconic where learning occurs through using models and pictures. Symbolic which describes the capacity to think in abstract terms. Bruners three stages can be explained as follows : underlying principle for teach ing and learning is that a combination of concrete, pictorial then symbolic acti vities will lead to more effective learning. The progression is: start with a co ncrete experience then move to pictures and finally use symbolic representation. (http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/lynda-abbott/cognitive.html) Meanwhile Robert Gagne, who spent early time as an instructional psychologist fo r training airforce personnel, proposed the importance of task analysis and the correct sequencing of instruction. In addition, he argued that learning is lik e to a building process which utilizes a hierarchy of skills that increase in co mplexity. Gagns theory of learning hierarchies could be said to be a teaching the ory, which is easy to apply in some circumstances, but is not easily applied in other circumstances. Many of his ideas are readily transferable to computer-assi sted instruction and no doubt at least some readers will be familiar with his id eas, even if not with Gagn himself as their advocate. The concept of Gagns knowled ge hierarchy leads to the assumption that it is important to present all the nec essary lower-level facts before proceeding to teach at higher levels. Related to this is the concept that people can reason with higher-level concepts if they h ave learned all of the prerequisite lower-level information. (http://teachnet.e db.utexas.edu/lynda-abbott/cognitive.html) Gagne (1977) in his latest interpretation of varieties of learning distinguishes five types: learning intellectual skills, concepts, and rules; learning problem solving or cognitive strategies; verbal information learning; motor skill learn ing, and the learning of attitudes. According to Gagne, in order to be successfu l in learning, both behavioral (S-R) and cognitive concepts should be applied in learning. In short, any concrete learning task, such as learning a language, mi ght involve several kinds of learning. (Sterne, 1983: 308) b. The empirical study of learning in education settings. Besides theoretical and experimental study of learning, learning problems from t he applied side in practical learning situation have also been investigated. For instance, the learning school subjects, especially reading and mathematics; th e learning problems of children with educational or emotional difficulties; ques tions of work training in industry; problems of rehabilitation and re-education of individuals requiring remedial treatment; and the theory of programmed instruc tion.

Some critics regretted the wide gap that has developed between classroom learning theory and the theoretical and laboratory study of learning. In this regard, Cag e (1963) states that research on teaching would fill the gap between learning th eory and educational practice. Others tend to disregard all the debates about the psychology of the learning and teaching process. And some others indicated that due to the uncritical acceptance of learning theory the development of usef ul psychology of learning has been in disorder. The psychology of learning in the textbooks of educational psychology are usuall y taken from two sources: the theoretical and experimental studies of learning a nd the applied investigations of specific learning problems. Categories of the psychology of learning refer to (a) characteristics of the learner and individu al differences among learners (abilities, personality, attitudes, and motivation , (b) different kinds of learning, (c) the learning process, and (d) outcomes of learning. (Sterne, 1983: 308-9) E. Some implications of the cognitive theories Whereas the behaviorist theory of learning portrayed the learner as passive rece iver of information, the cognitive view takes the learner to be an active proces sor of information (see Ausubel et al., 1978). Learning and using a rule requir e learners to think, that is, to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable generative rule from the mass of data presented, and then to analyze th e situations where the application of the rule would be useful or appropriate. Learning, then, is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense o f data, and learning can be said to have taken place when the learner has manage d to impose some sort of meaningful interpretation or pattern on the data. This may sound complex, but in simple terms what it means is that we learn by thinki ng about and trying to make sense of what we see, feel and hear. (Hutchinson & W aters, 1987 : 43) The basic teaching techniques associated with a cognitive theory of language lea rning may cover the following activities : (1) problem based learning (problem solving), (2) discovery learning, (3) cognitive strategies, (4) project based le arning, etc. 1. Problem based learning This activity is based on the problem exposure. The student conducts the researc h based on theories, concepts, various scientific principles. First, he/she ide ntifies the problem, collects the data, and analyzes the data. Finally, he/she s hould draw a conclusion or conclusions. The following tables (1 and 2) show the difference between the problem-based learning and the traditional learning as well as its strengths and weaknesses of the problem-based learning. Table 4 : Traditional and Problem-based Learning Traditional Learning Problem-based Learning o The lecturer decides the problemo The lecturers presents the infor mation and prepares the materials. o The students decide their own pr oblem.o The students look for information and relevant materials. Table 5 : Strengths and Weaknesses of the Problem-based learning Strengths Weaknesses o It focuses on the meaningfulness, not the facts.o It can improve t he students initiative.o It can develop the students skill in applying the s cience. o It can develop the students skills of interpersonal relationships and gro up dynamic. o It can improve the relationship between the students and the facilitator . o It can improve the students learning achievement. o The stud ents basic academic competence is different from each other.o It is time-co nsuming for its implementationo The change of role for the students and th e lecturer will take time. o In general it is not easy to formulate the problem. o The lecturer should be able to design an appropriate instrument for the students assessment. 2. Discovery learning

This activity is aimed to develop a research competence and to improve the learn ers appreciation toward science. It would rather focus on the learning process th an the learning product; in addition, discovery learning is designed to increase the students learning skills, including how to ask questions and how to evalua te strategies. 3. Cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in orde r to learn more successfully. These include repetition, organizing new language, summarizing meaning, guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorizat ion. All of these strategies involve deliberate manipulation of language to impr ove learning. Classifications of learning strategies distinguish between cogniti ve strategies and two other types; metacognitive strategies (organizing learning ), and social/ affective strategies (which enable interaction). For example, a l earner remembers new words by visualizing them represented in a memorable or rid iculous situation. This makes it easier and faster to recall these words. Activi ties in the classroom which can be described as cognitive strategies include mak ing mind maps, visualization, association, mnemonics, using clues in reading com prehension, underlining key words, scanning and self-testing and monitoring. Cognitive strategy is an organized internal competence which can lead the studen ts in their learning process, i.e. thinking process, problem solving, and decisi on making. It enables the students to think systematically and critically. In other words, it will make their thinking process unique. This uniqueness is cal led executive control - high level control (consciousness). (Dandan Supratmans Le cture Handouts) F. Conclusion From the elaboration in the previous sections, I can draw some points to consid er when using cognitive approach or theory in the second language learning : 1. Cognitive theory or approach can be grouped in the innatist model which focuses on the role of mental or psycholinguistic processes. This tradition is a lso known as mentalism (thinking as rule-governed activity), nativist, rationalism. 2. Cognitive code or approach which views the learner as a thinking being a nd an active processor of information can be applied to improve the learners inte lligence. In other words, the type of activities will make the learner to think more critically towards certain topics. 3. The teaching or learning process which is based on the cognitive approac h may cover activities such as problem solving, discovery learning, project base d learning, etc. 4. Apart from its strengths, cognitive approach (through proble m solving activity) has some limitations (time consuming, the learners unequal ba sic academic competence, the difficulty of problem formulation). G. References Ausubel, D.P. et al. (1978). Educational Psychology: A cognitive View. Holt, Rin ehart and Winston. Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles of LlanguageLearning and Teaching. New York: Pren tice Hall Regents. Goh , Christine C.M. & R.E. Silver. (2004). Language Acquisition and Development . Singapore: Longman. http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/lynda-abbott/cognitive.html Hutchinson, T. & A. Waters. (1987). English for Specific Purposes : A Learning-c entred Approach. Cambridge : CUP. Johnson, M. (1958). A Philosophy of Second language Acquisition. New Haven & Lon don: Yale University Press. Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley. Piaget, J. (1959/2002). The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge . Rice, M. L. (1986). Childrens Language Acquisition. American Psychologist, 44 (3) : 149-156. Stern. H.H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford : OUP. Supratman, D. (2009). Cognitive Theories. A lecture handout.