Locomotor Skills

I. Walk
A. Proficient Walking Patterns
1. Children usually achieve the developmental changes in walking early; by age 2 most of the have the essential ingredients of an advanced walk. 2. The rhythm and coordination of a childs walk improve observably until age 5 or so, but beyond this age pattern improvements are subtle and probably not detectable to the novice observer.

B. Characteristics of proficient walking

1. Absolute stride length increases, reflecting greater application of force and greater leg extension at push-off. As children grow, increased leg length contributes to a longer stride. 2. Planting the foot flatly on the ground changes to a heel-then-forefoot pattern which results from an increase range of motion. 3. The individual reduces out-toeing and narrows the base of support laterally to keep the forces exerted in the forward-backward plane. 4. The skilled walker adopts the double knee-lock pattern. In this pattern, the knee extends at heel strike, flexes slightly as the body weight moves forward over the supporting leg, and then extends once more at foot push-off. Because the knee extends twice in one step cycle, we call this pattern a double knee-lock. 5. The pelvis rotates to allow the full range of leg motions and oppositional movement of the upper and lower body segments. 6. Balance improves and forward trunk inclination is reduced. 7. The skilled walker coordinates oppositional arm swing (with the arms extending at the sides) with the movement of the legs. This is consistent with the principle of action and reaction; that is, the opposite arm and leg move forward and back in unison.

C. Rate Controllers
1. Rate controllers in early walking are muscular strength and balance.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

II.

Run
A. Proficient Running
1. Like walking, proficient running requires an effective use of biomechanical principles. 2. As Children grow, observed changes in running pattern, together with increased body size and strength and improved coordination, typically result in improved quantitative measures of running speed and time in flight. 3. Not ever individual achieves all of the improvements in running pattern during childhood.

B. Developmental changes for beginning runners.

1. Stride length increases, indicating that the runner is applying greater force. As greater force is used, several characteristics of mature running emerge:
a) Rear leg is fully extended at push-off. b) The heel is tucked close to the buttocks and the thigh swings forward with greater acceleration. c) Before foot strike, the thigh has come parallel to the ground.

2. The runner eliminates lateral leg movements so that forces are kept in the forward-backward plane. 3. For extended running, each foot strikes the ground heel first, then forefoot, or it strikes the ground in an approximately flat pattern. 4. The runner eliminates out-toeing and narrows the base of support. 5. The runners support leg flexes at the knee as the bodys weight comes over the leg. 6. Trunk rotation increases to allow for a longer stride and better arm-leg opposition the trunk leans slightly forward. 7. The arms swing forward and back, with the elbow approaching right angles, and move in opposition to the legs.

C. Rate Controllers
1. Rate controllers in early running are strength and balance.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

III.

Jog
A. See Above in Run.

IV.

Hop
A. Definition of Hopping
1. Hopping requires taking off and landing on the same leg.

B. Developmental Sequence for Hopping

1. Children may move through the levels of arm action and leg action at different rates.
LEG ACTION Step 1 Momentary flight. The support knee and hip quickly flex, pulling (instead of projecting) the foot from the floor. The flight is momentary. Only one or two hops can be achieved. The swing leg is lifted high and held in an inactive position to the side or in front of the body. Step 2 Fall and catch; swing leg inactive. Body lean forward allows minimal knee and ankle extension to help the body "fall forward of the support foot and, then, quickly catch itself again. The swing leg is inactive. Repeat hops are now possible. Step 3 Projected takeoff; swing leg assists. Perceptible pretakeoff extension occurs in the hip, knee, and ankle in the support leg. There is little or no delay in changing from knee and ankle flexion on landing to extension prior to takeoff. The swing leg now pumps up and down to assist in projection. The range of the swing is insufficient to carry it behind the support leg when viewed from the side. Step 4 Projection delay; swing leg leads. The weight of the child on landing is now smoothly transferred along the foot to the ball before the knee and ankle extend to takeoff. The support leg nearly reaches full extension on the takeoff. The swing leg now leads the upward-forward movement of the takeoff phase while the support leg is still rotating over the ball of the foot. The range of the pumping action in the swing leg increases so that it passes behind the support leg when viewed from the side. Note. This sequence has been partially validated by Halverson and Williams (1985). ARM ACTION Step 1 Bilateral inactive. The arms are held bilaterally, usually high and out to the side, although other positions behind or in front of the body may occur. Any arm action is usually slight and not consistent.

Step 2 Bilateral reactive. Arms swing upward briefly then are medially rotated at the shoulder in a winging movement prior to takeoff. It appears that this movement is in reaction to loss of balance.

Step 3 Bilateral assist. The arms pump up and down together, usually in front of the line of the trunk. Any downward and backward motion of the arms occurs after takeoff. The arms may move parallel to each other or be held at different levels as they move up and down.

Step 4 Semi-opposition. The arm on the side opposite the swing leg swings forward with that leg and back as the leg moves down. The position of the other arm is variable, often staying in front of the body or to the side. Step 5 Opposing assist. The arm opposite the swing leg moves forward and upward in synchrony with the forward and upward movement of that leg. The other arm moves in the direction opposite to the action of the swing leg. The range of movement in the arm action may be minimal unless the task requires speed or distance. Reprinted from Roberton and Halverson 1984.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

C. Proficient Hopping
1. To hop, especially repeatedly, one must project and absorb body weigh with just one limb and maintain balance on the small base of support that one foot provides.
a) Complex sport and dance skills often incorporate these movement abilities.

2. To become proficient hoppers, children need to make the following improvements:

a) The swing leg must lead the hip. b) The support leg must extend fully. c) The hopper must use the arms, which should move in opposition to the legs. d) The hopper must flex the support leg at landing to absorb the force of the landing and to prepare for extension at the next takeoff.

D. Rate Controllers for Hopping

1. Rate Controllers for Hopping depend on the postural systems ability to balance the body on one limb and the ability to generate force.

V.

Jump
A. Definition of Jumping
1. In Jumping, individuals propel their bodies from a surface with either one or both feet and land with both feet.

B. Types of Jumps Arranged by Progressive Difficulty

1. Jump down from one foot to the other foot. 2. Jump up from two feet to two feet. 3. Jump down from one foot to two feet. 4. Jump down from two feet to two feet. 5. Run and Jump forward from one foot to the other. 6. Jump forward from two feet to two feet. 7. Run and jump forward from one foot to two feet. 8. Jump over object from two feet to two feet. 9. Jump from one foot to same foot rhythmically. Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

C. Developmental Sequence for Jumping

1. Developmental Sequence of the Standing Long Jump for the Whole Body
a) The whole-body approach describes all characteristic positions of various body components within a step. Step 1 Vertical component of force may be greater than horizontal; resulting jump is then upward rather than forward. Arms move backward, acting as brakes to stop the momentum of the trunk as the legs extend in front of the center of mass. Step 2 The arms move in an anterior-posterior direction during the preparatory phase but move sideward (winging action) during the "inflight" phase. The knees and hips flex and extend more fully than in Step 1.The angle of takeoff is still markedly above 45 degrees. The landing is made with the center of gravity above the base of support, with the thighs perpendicular to the surface rather than parallel as in the reaching position of Step 4. Step 3 The arms swing backward and then forward during the preparatory phase. The knees and hips flex fully prior to takeoff. Upon takeoff the arms extend and move forward but do not exceed the height of the head. The ~nee extension may be complete, but the takeoff angle is still greater than 45 degrees. Upon landing, the thigh is still less than parallel to the surface, and the center of gravity is near the base of support when viewed from the frontal plane. Step 4 The arms extend vigorously forward and upward upon takeoff, reaching full extension above the head at "liftoff." The hips and knees are extended fully with the takeoff angle at 45 degrees or less. In preparation for landing the arms are brought downward and the legs are thrust forward until the thigh is parallel to the surface. The center of gravity is far behind the base of support upon foot contact, but at the moment of contact the knees are flexed and the arms are thrust forward to maintain the momentum to carry the center of gravity beyond the feet. Note. Degrees are measured from horizontal. Adapted from Seefeldt, Reuschlein, and Vogel 1972.

2. Developmental Sequence of the Standing Long Jump Takeoff for Body Components
a) The component approach follows each separate body component through whatever number of steps accounts for the qualitative changes observed over time. LEG ACTION COMPONENT Step 1 One-foot takeoff. From the beginning position the jumper steps out with one foot. There usually is little preparatory leg flexion. Step 2 Knee extension first. The jumper begins to extend the knee joints before the heels come off the ground, resulting in a jump that is too vertical to achieve maximum horizontal distance.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

Step 3 Simultaneous extension. The jumper extends the knees at the same time the heels come off the ground. Step 4 Heels up first. The jump begins with the heels coming off the ground, then the knees extend; the jumper appears to start the takeoff by tipping forward ARM ACTION COMPONENT Step 1 No action. The arms are stationary. After takeoff they may "wing" (shoulder girdle retracts). Step 2 Arms swing forward. The arms swing forward at the shoulder from a starting position at the sides. The arms also might swing out to the side (abduct at the shoulder). Step 3 Arms extend, then partially flex. The arms extend back together during leg flexion, then swing forward together at takeoff. Arm swing never reaches a position overhead. Step 4 Arms extend, then fully flex. The arms extend back together during leg flexion, then swing forward to a position' overhead.

D. Proficient Jumping
1. Proficient jumpers do the following:
a) get into a preparatory crouch that will stretch the muscles and allow the legs to apply maximal force as they fully extend at the moment of liftoff, b) take off for a horizontal jump with the heels coming off the ground and both feet leaving the ground at the same time, and c) extend the arms backward, then initiate the takeoff with a vigorous arm swing forward to a position overhead.

2. In jumping for height, proficient jumpers do the following:

a) Direct force downward and extend the body throughout flight. If they are to strike an object or touch something overhead, the dominant arm reaches up and the opposite arm swings down. The person jumping gains height through a lateral tilt of the shoulders. b) Keep the trunk relatively upright throughout the jump. c) Flex the ankles, knees, and hips upon touchdown to allow the force of landing to be absorbed.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

3. In jumping for distance, proficient jumpers do the following:

a) Direct force down and back by beginning the takeoff with the heels leaving the ground before the knees extend. The trunk appears to tip forward. b) Flex the knees during flight, then bring the thigh forward to a position parallel with the ground. c) Swing the lower legs forward for a two-footed landing. d) Let the trunk come forward in reaction to the thigh flexing, putting the body in a jackknife position. e) Flex the ankles and knees when the heels touch the ground to absorb the momentum of the body over distance as the body continues to move forward.

E. Rate Controller for Jumping

1. The Rate Controller for Jumping is the ability to generate enough force to propel the body into the air from a still position.

VI.

Leap
A. Definition of Leaping
1. In Leaping, individuals propel their bodies upward and forward from one foot and land on the other foot.

VII.

Gallop
A. Definition of Galloping
1. Galloping is an asymmetrical gait that consists of a step on one foot, then a leap-step of the other foot. The same leg always leads with the step. In galloping, the individual moves forward.

B. Characteristics of Proficient Galloping

1. The arms are no longer needed for balance 2. The child can use the arms for another purpose during galloping, such as clapping. 3. Heel-forefoot or forefoot landing prevail. 4. The knees give on landing, remaining flexed while they support the bodys weight, and then extend at takeoff, especially when the child is traveling quickly.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

C. Developmental Changes in Galloping

1. Galloping is the first asymmetrical locomotor pattern a child learns. It develops after the child has firmly established the running pattern.

D. Rate Controllers for Galloping

1. Rate Controllers for Galloping are the ability of the neuromuscular system and the ability to use different amounts of force to perform different tasks.

VIII. Slide
A. Definition of Sliding
1. Sliding is an asymmetrical gait that consists of a step on one foot, then a leap-step of the other foot. The same leg always lead with the step. In sliding, the movement is sideways.

B. Characteristics of Proficient Sliding

1. The arms are no longer needed for balance 2. The child can use the arms for another purpose during galloping, such as clapping. 3. Heel-forefoot or forefoot landing prevail. 4. The knees give on landing, remaining flexed while they support the bodys weight, and then extend at takeoff, especially when the child is traveling quickly.

C. Developmental Changes in Sliding

1. Sliding is mastered after galloping, but in both galloping and sliding, the child develops the ability to lead with the nondominant leg much later than with the dominant leg.

D. Rate Controllers for Sliding

1. Rate Controllers for Sliding are the ability of the neuromuscular system and the ability to use different amounts of force to perform different tasks.

IX.

Skip
A. Definition of Skipping
1. Skipping is an asymmetrical gait that consists of a step and a hop on the same foot, with alternating feet: step-hop on the right foot, step-hop on the left foot, step-hop on the right foot, and so on. The movement is usually forward.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

B. Characteristics of Proficient Skipping

1. The arms are no longer needed for balance 2. The child can use the arms for another purpose during galloping, such as clapping. 3. In skipping, arms swing rhythmically in opposition to the legs and provide momentum. 4. Heel-forefoot or forefoot landing prevail. 5. The knees give on landing, remaining flexed while they support the bodys weight, and then extend at takeoff, especially when the child is traveling quickly.

C. Developmental Changes in Skipping

1. Skipping is usually the last of the locomotor patterns to emerge, usually between 4 and 7 years of age. 2. A beginning skipper uses a high hip and knee lift. The skip appears jerky. 3. Eventually, the child partially extends the leg on the hop and uses a lower but smoother knee lift. 4. Beginners use the arms inconsistently. 5. The beginner swings one or both arm up to the side. 6. Then Skippers begin to use the arms bilaterally, wining them sometimes forward and back in circles, sometimes forward and down. 7. Skilled skippers can use their arms in opposition to their legs.

D. Rate Controllers for Skipping

1. The Rate Controller for Skipping is the ability of the neuromuscular system to coordinate the two limbs as they alternately perform asymmetric tasks.

Haywood, K. M., & Getchell N. (2001) Life span motor development. In J.P. Wright, and M. Feld, et al (Eds.), Development of human locomotion (pp. 121-142).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics