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Theory might also represent attempts to develop explanations about reality or ways to classify and organize events, or even to predict future occurrences of events. Some say ideas and theory must come before empirical research theory before research model this has been described by Karl Popper (1968) who suggests that one begins with ideas (conjectures) and then attempts to disprove or refute them through tests of empirical research (refutation).
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Some say that research must come before theory research before theory model this has been described by Robert Merton (1968) who says that research goes beyond the passive role of verifying theory. Research plays an active role: it performs at least four major functions which help shape the development of theory. It initiates, it reformulates, it deflects, and it clarifies theory. In other words research suggest new problems for theory, require theoretical innovation, refine existing theories, or serve to verify past theoretical assumptions
2. Literature Review
After developing a rough idea for research, you begin to examine how others have already thought about and researched the topic. The next step is to visit the library to get started on a literature review. You can consult any of a number of available cumulative indexes both text form or computer based. The next task is to begin to creatively think about subject topics related to your research idea or question and to search for this topic in the indexes. It is important to develop a number of different subject areas to search. Some will be more fruitful than others, and some will yield little information
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The next step you begin reading some of these references and you need to continue to expand this literature search you can do this by locating several recent articles and consult their reference pages. You must keep records o the references and take notes of what each says. After studying what others have said about your research topic you will need to explain what makes your research different from the works of others. This establishes originality of the research.
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You must frame this idea as a problem statement with researchable questions These questions do not just happen spontaneously and they must be influence by the literature. You have to also think about what issues are important and how those issues might be measured. This requires you to consider various concepts and definitions and perhaps to develop operationalized definitions.
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How much will the project cost in time and money and how much you can actually afford? What population will best serve the studys purposes? Are the data-collection strategies appropriate for the research questions being asked? What will the data look like once they have been collected? How will the data be organized and analyzed? Researchers in the social sciences conduct research on human subjects. It is during the design stage that you must consider whether ethical standards are met.
1. Interviewing
Interviewing is usually defined as conversation with a purpose. The purpose is to collect data. Types of Interviews : i. The standardized interview
The standardized interview uses a formally structured schedule of interview questions. The interviewers are required to ask subjects to respond to each question. We have to offer each subject the same stimulus so that responses to the questions will be comparable.
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You will have to solid ideas about the things you want to uncover during the interview. The questions scheduled in your interview instrument must be comprehensive to elicit information relevant to the study topic. In sum, standardized interviews are designed to elicit information using a set of predetermined questions that are expected to elicit the respondents thoughts, opinions, and attitudes about the study related issues
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Ethnography is the science of cultural description It is a process that attempts to describe and interpret social expressions between people and groups The central component of ethnographic research is the enthnographic account. Providing such narrative accounts of what goes on in the lives of the study people derives from having maintained complete, accurate, and detailed field notes over a relatively long period of time.
3. Historiography
Historiography is an examination of elements from history. Historiography involves retelling of facts from the past. Linking together pieces of information found in diaries, letters or other documents. It is descriptive, factual and fluid Historical research extends beyond a mere collection of incidents, facts, dates or figures. It is a study of the relationships among issues that have influenced the past, continue to influence the present and will certainly affect the future. It involves a process that examines events or combinations of events in order to uncover accounts of what happened in the past.
4. Oral Histories
Oral histories allow you to escape some of the deficiencies of residual and official presentations in documentary records. This involves history within living memories. It can provide researchers a means of reaching as far back as perhaps 100 years. Older people hold a gamut of facts and memories and this information may be unavailable anywhere else. Oral histories also can be useful for providing background and social texture to your research. It provides increased understanding and a living context to the otherwise one-dimensional information offered by documents.
5. Content Analysis
Researchers examine artifacts of social communication These are written documents or transcriptions of recorded verbal communications. Content Analysis is any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages. Objective analysis of messages (written or oral) is accomplished by means of explicit rules called criteria of selection which must be established before the actual analysis of data.
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The criteria of selection used in any given content analysis must be sufficiently exhaustive to account for each variation of message content and must be rigidly applied so that other researchers looking at the same messages would obtain the same or comparable results. In developing these criteria - it should reflect all relevant aspects of the messages and retain the exact wording used in the statements.
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Qualitative researchers look at social life as qualitative in nature and they the following stand:
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qualitative data are not imprecise or deficient but are meaningful instead of converting social life into numbers and variables they borrow the ideas from the people they study and place them within the context of a setting they examine motifs, themes, distinctions, and ideas instead of variables they adopt the inductive approach of grounded theory. Qualitative data are empirical It involves documenting real events, recording what people say (with word, gestures and tone), observing specific behaviours, studying written documents, or examining visual images.
2. Grounded Theory
A qualitative researcher develops theory during the data collection process. This inductive method means that theory is built from data or grounded in the data. Conceptualization and operationalization occur simultaneously with data collection and preliminary data analysis. Qualitative research is flexible and lets data and theory interact. Qualitative researchers are willing to change the direction or focus of a research project in the middle of a project. A qualitative researcher builds theory by making comparisons.
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Attention to social context means that a researcher notes what came before or what surrounds the focus of study. It also implies that the same events or behaviours can have different meanings in different cultures or historical eras. Qualitative researchers place parts of social life into a larger whole. Otherwise the meaning of the part is lost.
4. Bricolage
Qualitative researchers are bricoleurs, they learn to be adept at doing many things, drawing on a variety of sources, and making do with whatever is at hand. The qualitative style emphasizes developing an ability to draw on a variety of skills, materials, and approaches as they may be needed. A bricolage technique means working with ones hands and being pragmatic at using an assortment of odds and ends in an inventive manner to accomplish a specific task. Qualitative researchers use a mixture of diverse materials and apply disparate approaches.
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Rich detail and astute insight into the cases replace the sophisticated statistical analysis of precise measures across a huge number of units or cases found in quantitative research. The passage of time is important in qualitative research. They look at sequence of events and pay attention to what happens first, second, third and so on. So the researchers can detect process and causal relations.
6. Interpretation
The word interpretation means assigning significance or coherent meaning. Qualitative research reports rarely include tables with numbers. A researcher weaves the data into discussions of their significance. The data are in the form of words, including quotes or descriptions of particular events. Any numerical information is supplementary to the textual evidence. A qualitative researcher interprets data by giving them meaning, translating them, or making them understandable.
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The meaning he or she gives begins with the point of view of the people being studies. He or she interprets data by finding out how the people being studies see the world, how they define the situation, or what it means for them. The first step in qualitative interpretation, whether in examining historical documents or the text of spoken words or human behaviour is to learn about its meaning for the people being studies.
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