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CHAPTER 8
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Natural gas produced from several wells in a given area is collected and brought to field separation and
processing facilities via a system of pipes known as a gathering system. Processed or a partially processed gas is
then sent to the trunk lines that transport the gas to consumers. Gas is often distributed via pipeline grids that
introduce a lot of complexity into the flow computations. This chapter briefly describes gathering systems and the
transport of gas through pipeline networks.
8.1 GATHERING SYSTEMS
The surface flow gathering system consists of the section of pipe and fittings that serve to transmit the produced
fluid from the wellhead to the field treatment facilities. The two basic types of gathering systems are radial, and
axial. In the radial system, flowlines emanating from several different wellheads converge to a central point where
facilities are located. Flowlines are usually terminated at a header, which is essentially a pipe large enough to
handle the flow of all the flowlines. In the axial gathering system, several wells produce into a common flowline.
For larger leases, the two basic systems are modified a little. The well-center gathering system (Figure 8.1) uses a
radial gathering philosophy at the local level for individual wells, as well as at the global level for groups of wells.
The common-line or trunk-line gathering system uses an axial gathering scheme for the groups of wells (Figure
8.2). The trunk-line gathering system is more applicable to relatively large leases, and no cases where it is
undesirable or impractical to build the filed processing facilities at a central point.
The choice between the gathering systems is usually economic. The cost of the several small sections of pipe used
in the well-center system is compared to the cost of a single large pipe for the trunk-line system. Technical
feasibility may be another criterion. The gathering system may have to be buried a few feet beneath the surface,
favoring one system over another in terms of cost and ease of maintenance. The production characteristics of the
field are also important to consider. These include current and estimated future production distribution over the
wells in the field, wellhead flowing pressures, future development of the field, and the possibility of the
development of underground storage operations.
8.2 STEADY-STATE FLOW IN SIMPLE PIPELINE SYSTEMS
The term "simple" is used here to indicate the gas pipeline systems that can be handled with minor modifications
to the flow relationships which will be presented in the following section. The one feature for simplicity is that gas
flows in at one end, and flows out at the other end; no flow occurs at any other point in the piping system. Such a
system is often used for increasing the throughput of a pipeline while maintaining the same pressure and pressure
drop (such as when new gas wells have been developed that must use the existing pipeline) or for operating a
pipeline at a lower pressure while maintaining the same throughput. The latter may be required when the pipeline
has "aged" or corroded.
The three possible ways of handling these requirements are to replace a portion of the pipeline with a larger one,
place one or more pipelines in parallel along the complete length of the existing line, or place one or more
pipelines in parallel only partially along the length of the existing line. For each of these systems, relationships
will be derived here, based upon the basic equation by Weymouth for steady-state flow of gas through pipes,
that reduce the set of pipelines to a single pipeline that is equivalent to the set in terms of the pressure drop and
flow capacity.
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8.2.1 Gas Flow Equations
All fluid flow equations are derived from a basic energy balance which, for a steady-state system, can be
expressed as (on a unit mass basis):
dU +
d v
2 g
+
g
g
dz+d(pV)+dQ- d w =0
2
c c
s
(8.1)
where;
U = internal energy
v = fluid velocity
z = elevation above a given datum
p = pressure
V = volume of a unit mass of the fluid
Q = heat added to the fluid
ws = shaft work done by the fluid on the surroundings
g = gravitational acceleration
gc = conversion factor relating mass and weight.
This basic relationship can be manipulated in several ways. Commonly, it is converted into a mechanical energy
balance using the well-known thermodynamic relations for enthalpy (h):
dU +d(pV) = dh = Tds+Vdp (8.2)
where;
h = specific fluid enthalpy
T = temperature
s = specific fluid entropy
Equation 8.1 now becomes:
Tds+Vdp+
d v
2 g
+
g
g
dz+dQ- dw =0
2
c c
s
(8.3)
For a reversible process, ds = -dQ/T. Since no process is reversible ds > -dQ/T, or:
Tds = -dQ+dl
w
(8.4)
here lw is the lost work due to irreversibilities such as friction. On these further substitutions, Equation 8.1
becomes:
Vdp+
d v
2 g
+
g
g
dz+d l - dw =0
2
c c
w s
(8.5)
Neglecting the shaft work ws , and multiplying throughout by the fluid density, :
dp+
d v
2 g
+
g
g
dz+ d l =0
2
c c
w

(8.6)
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All the terms in Equation 8.6 have units of pressure. Assuming horizontal, steady-state, adiabatic, isothermal
flow of gas, with negligible kinetic-energy change Equation 8.6 becomes:
dp+ d l =0
w
(8.7)
Frictional losses for a length dL of pipe are given by:

d l =(
f v
2 g d
)dL
w
2
c
(8.8)
Substituting for frictional losses:
dp+(
f v
2 g d
)dL=0
2
c

(8.9)
Substituting for gas density:
=
pM
zRT
(8.10)
and gas velocity v:
v = q (
zTp
pT
)(
4
d
)
sc
sc
sc
2

(8.11)
we obtain:
- dp =(
f
2 g d
)(
pM
zRT
)(
16 q
Z T
p
p
T d
)dL
c
sc
2
2 2
sc
2
2
sc
2 2 4

(8.12)
or
-
p
Z
dp =
8 fMTp q
R d
g
T
dL
sc
2
sc
2
2 5
c
sc
2

(8.13)
Note that T is constant since isothermal flow is assumed. Otherwise, an average temperature, Tav, is commonly
used instead of T in the previous relationship. Integrating over the pipe length from 0 to L and pressure p1 to p 2,
Equation 8.13 becomes:
-
( p - p )
2
=(
(8)(28.97) p
R g
T
)(
q
Z TfL
d
)
2
2
1
2
sc
2
2
c
sc
2
sc
2
g
av
5

(8.14)
or,
sc
2 c
sc
2
sc
2
1
2
2
2
5
g
av
q =(
R g
T
46.9644 p
)(
( p - p )d
Z TfL
)

(8.15)
Any consistent set of units can be used in Equation 8.15. Thus,
93
( )
q
T
P
P P d
Z TfL
sc
sc
sc g av

_
,

1
]
1
1
5635
1
2
2
2 5
0 5
.
.

(8.16)
where
qsc = gas flow rate measured at standard conditions, Mscfd
psc = pressure at standard conditions, psia
Tsc = temperature at standard conditions,
o
R
p1 = upstream pressure, psia
p2 = downstream pressure, psia
d = diameter of pipe, in
g = gas gravity
T = flowing temperature,
o
R
Zav = average gas compressibility factor
f = Moddy friction factor
L = length of pipe, ft
Equation 8.16, attributed to Weymouth, is the general equation for steady-state isothermal flow of gas through a
horizontal pipe. Implications of the various assumptions made in the development of Equation 8.16 are as
follows:
1. No mechanical work 2. Steady-state flow
3. isothermal flow 4. Negligible kinetic energy change
5. Constant (average) gas compressibility factor 6. Horizontal pipeline
The Weymouth equation (Equation 8.16) can be written as:
q = K
d
fL
1
5

1
]
1
0 5 .
(8.17)
where K1 is a constant, given by
1
sc
sc
1
2
2
2
g av
K = 5.635
T
p
p - p
(TZ)

_
,

1
]
1
1
( )
.

0 5
(8.18)
Equation 8.17 can be written as:
L=
Kd
f q
5
2
(8.19)
Consider two pipelines A and B, of lengths LA and LB, and diameters dA and dB, respectively. We can equate
these lines by using Equation 8.19. For example, the length LeBA of a line of diameter dA that will have the same
pressure drop as line B of length LB and diameter dB is given by
eBA B
B
A
5
A
B
L = L
f
f
d
d

_
,

_
,
(8.20)
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Alternatively, the equivalent diameter deBA of line B may be used:
eBA B
1
5
A
A
B
B
d = d
( f
L )
( f
L )

1
]
1
(8.21)
where deBA is the diamter of a pipe of length LA and friction factor fA equivalent to the line B of length LB,
diameter dB, and friction factor fB.
8.2.1 Series Pipelines
Consider three pipelines A, B, and C connected in series as shown in Figure 8.3. The inlet and outlet presures
for the system are p1 and p2, respectively. For this system, the flow rates through each of the pipe legs are equal:
A B C t
q = q = q = q (8.22)
where the subscript t indicates the total for the system. The pressure drops through the pipe legs, however, are not
equal. The total pressure drop is equal to the sum of the pressure drops in each of the pipe legs. Thus,

A B C
P P P (8.23)
and

t A B C
p = p + p + p (8.24)
From Equation 8.16, we know that the pressure drop p in a pipe section is proportional to the length L, all other
factors being the same. Substituting in Equation 8.24,
e A eBA eCA
L = L + L + L (8.25)
where
Le = equivalent length of the total system
LA = length of segment A
LeBA, LeCA = equivalent lengths of segments B and C, respectively.
Therefore, the three lines A, B, and C in series are equivalent to a single line of diameter dA and length Le given
by Equation 8.25.
8.2.2 Parallel Pipelines
Consider pipelines A, B, and C in parallel, as shown in Figure 8.4. The inlet and outlet pressures for this system
are p 1 and p2, respectively. Because the pipelines are in parallel with a common inlet and outlet, the pressure drop
through each of them is the same, but the flow rates are not. The total flow rate, however, is the sum of the flow
rates through each of the pipe legs. Thus,

A B C t
p = p = p = p (8.26)
A B C
q q q (8.27)
and
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t A B C
q =q +q +q (8.28)
Let the length and diameter of the pipeline equivalent to the three lines A, B, and C parallel be Le and de,
respectively. Then, substituting for q in Equation 8.28 from Equation 8.17:
0.5
e
5
e
e
0.5
A
5
A
A
0.5
B
5
B
B
0.5
C
5
C
C
d
f
L
=
d
f
L
+
d
f
L
+
d
f
L

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1
(8.29)
In Equation 8.29, any value may be assumed for two of the three unknowns, de, fe, and Le, and the third
calculated. Equation 8.31 can laso be expressed as, choosing de = dA :
e
2
0.5
e A
A
0.5
B
5
e
A
5
B
B
0.5
C
5
e
A
5
C
C
L =
1
( f / f
L ) +( d
f / d
f
L ) +( d
f / d
f
L )

1
]
1
1
(8.30)
Assuming LA = LB = LC, Equation 8.30 reduces to:
e
2
A
0.5
0.5
e A
0.5
B
5
e
A
5
B
0.5
C
5
e
A
5
C
L =
L
( f / f ) +( d
f / d
f ) +( d
f / d
f )

1
]
1
1
(8.31)
8.2.3 Looped Pipelines
A looped pipeline is one in which only a part of the line has a parallel segment. The original pipeline is looped to
some distance with another line to increase the flow capacity. In the looped line shown in Figure 8.5, the original
line having two segments A and C of the same diameter is looped with a segment B. A looped system may be
considered to be a combination of series and parallel sections. For the two lines A and B in parallel, Equation
8.30, and 8.31can be used. The resultant equivalent pipe for the total segments A and B is then combined in series
with the segment C. The equivalent length for the parallel section of a case when the loop-line B has the same
length as A, (Le)AB, can be determined using Equation 8.31. Then, the equivalent length for the total system, Le,
becomes:
e C AB
e L = L +( L ) (8.32)
8.2.4 Extensions to Commonly Used pipeline Equations
f =
d
0032
1 3
.
/
(8.33)
The expressions for series, parallel, and looped pipelines described contain the friction factors for the individual
legs. Most non-iterative equations for gas flow, such as Weymouth, assume a friction factor correlation that
simplifies the flow calculations.
8.3 STEADY-STATE FLOW IN PIPELINE NETWORKS
Gas transmission systems often form a connected net, flow through which is almost always unsteady. Most
design and operation control problems, however, can be solved reasonably well assuming flow to be steady-state.
The basic model considers the transmission system to be a pipe-line network with two basic elements: nodes and
node connecting elements (NCE's). Nodes are defined as the points where a pipe leg ends, or where two or more
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NCE's join, or where there is an injection or delivery of gas. The NCE's include pipe legs, compressor stations,
valves, pressure and flow regulators, and underground gas storages.
Before constructing a model for the pipeline network, it is necessary to describe the mathematical models for high
pressure and low pressure pipe legs.
High pressure pipe leg : The characteristic equation for a high pressure pipe, according to Equation 8.16, is as
follows:
1
2
2
2
1
2
p - p = k
q (8.34)
or
q =
p - p
k
0.5
1
2
2
2
1

1
]
1
(8.35)
where
1
2
sc
sc
g av
5
k = 0.031489
p
T
(TZ) fL
d

1
]
1

(8.36)
Low pressure pipe leg : For a low pressure pipe leg, with pressure close to atmospheric, Zav = 1, and
1
2
2
2
1 2 1 2 sc 1 2
p - p =( p + p )( p - p ) 2 p ( p - p ) _ (8.37)
Thus, the flow relationship simplifies to
1 2
2
2
p - p = k
q (8.38)
or
q =
p - p
k
0.5
1 2
2

1
]
1
(8.39)
where
2
sc g av
sc
2 5
k =0.015744
p (TZ) fL
T d

(8.40)
With these relationships for the components of a gas transmission system, a model can be constructed for the
system using the analogy of Kirchoff's laws for the flow of electricity in electrical networks to gas flow in pipeline
networks. According to Kirchoff's first law, the algebraic sum of gas flows entering and leaving any node is zero:
i=1
m
i
q =0 (8.41)
where
m = number of NCE's meeting at the node
q = flow rate, positive for flow into the node, negative for flow of gas out from the node.
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By Kirchoff's second law, the algebraic sum of the pressure drop (taken with consistent signs) around the loop is
zero. Thus, if n is the number of NCE's in the loop, then for a high pressure pipeline:
i=1
n
i
1
2
2
2
( p - p ) =0 (8.42)
A pipeline distribution system may either be loopless, or contain one or more loops.
Loopless Systems : A loopless pipeline system, defined as one where the NCE's joined by nodes form no closed
loop, is shown in Figure 8.6. There are n pipe legs, and n+1 nodes. Gas enters through node 1 and leaves through
nodes j, for j = 2,3,...,n+1.
If one of the terminal pressures, inlet or outlet pressure, is given and the other is to be calculated for a given set of
pipeleg parameters and the flow rates into or out of the nodes, then the calculation procedure is quite
straightforward. If the inlet pressure, p1, is known, the pressure at any node j can be computed using Equation
8.34 summed over the applicable pipelegs in the system:
j
2
1
2
i=1
j -1
i
i
2
p = p - k
q
(8.43)
The problem requires a trial and error type of solution if the maximum throughput through the line at the outlet is
desired for a given set of terminal pressures and flow rates into or out of the intermediate nodes. The problem can
be solved by apply ng the following procedure.
1. Guesstimate the maximum throughput of leg 1.
2. Calculate the throughputs for individual pipe legs, using Equation 8.41.
3. Using Equation 8.43, calculate the outlet pressure for the system.
4. If the calculated outlet pressure differs from the given outlet pressure by a value greater than the
prescribed tolerance, then correct the throughputs for the individual pipe legs determined in Step 2 using:
1
(i+1)
1
(i)
q =q + q (8.44)
where

q =
[ p ] - p
2 k
q
n+1
(i) 2
n+1
2
i=1
n
i
i
(1)
(8.45)
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until convergence within a specified tolerance is reached.
Looped Systems: There are two types of looped pipe systems: single loop (Figure 8.7) and multiple loop (Figure
8.8).
Consider first the single loop system shown in Figure 8.7. In a typical problem, the flow rate q1 and pressure p1
are known, and it is required to find the flow rates and pressures at all the other nodes. For a looped system, the
direction element for flow is important.
The problem requires a trial and error solution scheme. An initial value for flow rate in pie leg 1 is assumed. If the
assumed value, q1
(1)
, differs from the actual throughput by Dq, then by the node law of Equation 8.42 for steady-
state flow:
i=1
n
i
i
(1)
i
(1)
k ( q + q)|q + q|=0 (8.46)
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where
n = number of pipe legs in the single loop system.
Solving Equation 8.46 for D, and assuming that Dq << qi, we get:

q =
- k |q |q
2 k |q |
-
i=1
n
i
i
(1)
i
(1)
i=1
n
i
i
(1)
(8.47)
The gas throughputs for the next iteration, qi
(2)
, are computed as before:
i
(2)
i
(1)
q = q + q (8.48)
This procedure is repeated until for an iteration k, Dq is less than or equal to a specified tolerance. After this k-th
iteration, the node pressures can be calculated using the relationship 8.43 for a high-pressure network, where ki
for pipe legs are calculated using Equation 8.36 for high-pressure lines.
For a multiple loop system, an individual Dq is computed for each loop, and the flow corrections are done for the
pipe legs lopp by loop. A pipe leg that is common to two loops can be handled in two ways:
Correct the flow rate using the correction for the first loop, then correct it again using the correction for the
second loop (Cross, 1936). Thus, the flow rate is effectively corrected twice at every iteration for any line
common to two loops. Note that the flow rate through this common line will be equal in both the loops.
1. Use the sum of the Dq's for the two loops to which the pipe leg is common as the effective flow correction for
the pipe leg. The Dq values are computed by solving the n linear equations in the n throughput correction
unknowns obtained using Equation 8.44 for each of the n pipe legs in the network. These values are then
used for updating the pipe leg throughputs. The procedure is repeated until convergence.
Stoner (1969, 1972) has presented an effective method for handling looped networks with all kinds of NCE's. In
this method, the equation of continuity is used to express the flow at each node in the system. The solution to the
system of equations is complex, but the method offers the ability to compute any set of unknowns. It thus
overcomes the limitation of the Cross method that can only be used to generate throughput or pressure solutions.
See Figure 8.9.
For any node j, the continuity equation (Equation 8.41) expresses the fact that the sum of the inflows and
outflows at the node is zero:
j i=1
n
i, j
F = q =0 (8.49)
where qi,j is the flow from node i to j. Flows into the node are considered positive, flows out of the node are
negative. Fj thus represents the flow imbalance at the node and will be equal to zero when the system is in
balance. For example, consider node 22 that receives gas from pipe leg (23,22), and delivers gas to pipe legs
(22,19) and (22,21), and consumer supply attached directly to node 22. Equation 8.49 for node 22 can now be
written as:
22
23,22 22,21 22,19 22
F =q - q - q - q (8.50)
99
Similar equations are written to all the other nodes in the system. Consider a system of n nodes and m NCE's.
Steady state flow through his system of n nodes is mathematically represented by a system of n non-linear
equations. There are a total of (2n+m) variables,
- for each node, there is one pressure and one node flow rate variable.
- for each NCE there is a constant ki defining the flow resistance through it.
Thus, we can use this model consisting of n equations in (2n+m) variables to solve for any n variables,
given the value of the remaining (n+m) variables.
j 1 2 n
F ( x , x ,......., x ) =0 for j =1,2,...,n
Newton-Raphson iterative technique can be used to solve this non-linear system of equations.
In designing and operating transmission systems, it may be useful to ascertain the effect of varying the several
different parameters that influence the system, such as pipeline diameters, operating pressures, and so on, and
determine the optimum design and operating condition that maximizes the pipeline utility at the lowest cost and
satisfies all the requirements. This is known as sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis requires generating a large
number of solutions using the computer model for all the possible system configurations, entailing very high
computational and associated expenses.
REFERENCES
Cross, H., (1936) " Analysis of Flow in Networks of Conduits or Conductors", Bulletin of the Univ. of Illinois,
pp. 286.
Stoner, M.A., (1969) "Steady-State Analysis of Gas Production, Transmission and Distribution Systems", paper
SPE 2554, presented at the SPE 44th Ann. Fall Meeting, Denver.
Stoner, M.A., (1972) "Sensitivity Analysis Applied to a Steady-State Model of Natural Gas Transportation
Systems" SPEJ, 12 (2, April), pp.115-125.
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