THE HISTORY OF PV

The following is a chronological listing of events in the history of the development and application of PV and the PV industry. If you have any items to add to this list, please use the form at the bottom of this page to submit the information.

1839-1953 - 1954-1964 - 1965-1974 - 1975-1980 - 1981-1985 - 1986-1990 - 1991-1995 - 1996-current

1839 Edmund Becquerel, the French experimental physicist, discovered the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with an electrolytic cell made up of two metal electrodes placed in an electricity-conducting solution--generation increased when exposed to light. (E. Becquerel, Comptes Rendues 6 (1839) 561.) E. Bacquerel, 'On electron effects under the influence of solar radiation.' Comptes Rendues 9, 561. 1873 Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity of selenium. 1877 W.G. Adams and R.E. Day observed the photovoltaic effect in solid selenium. Made first selenium cell. Published 'The action of light on selenium,' in "Proceedings of the Royal Society, A25, 113.

1883 Charles Fritts, an American inventor, described the first solar cells made from selenium wafers. 1887 Hertz discovered that ultraviolet light altered the lowest voltage capable of causing a spark to jump between two metal electrodes. 1904 Hallwachs discovered that a combination of copper and cuprous oxide is photosensitive. Einstein published his paper on the photoelectric effect (along with a paper on his theory of relativity). 1914 The existence of a barrier layer in PV devices was noted. 1916 Millikan provided experimental proof of the photoelectric effect. 1918 Polish scientist Czochralski developed a way to grow single-crystal silicon. 1921 Albert Einstein wins the Nobel Prize for his theories (1904 paper) explaining the photoelectric effect. 1930

B. Lang, 'New photovoltaic cell,' "Z. Phys." 31, 139. Work on cuprous oxide/copper cells. W. Schottky, 'New Cuprous oxide photoelectric cells,' "Z. Phys." 31, 913. 1932 Audobert and Stora discover the photovoltaic effect in CdS. 1933 L.O. Grondahl, 'The copper-cuprous oxide rectifier and photoelectric cell,' "Rev. Mod. Phys." 5, 141. 1951 Grown p-n junction enabled the production of a single-crystal cell of germanium. 1953 Dan Trivich, Wayne State University, makes the first theoretical calculations of the efficiencies of various materials of different band gap widths based on the spectrum of the sun. 1954 Report of the PV effect in CdS. Primary work by Rappaport, Loferski, and Jenny, at RCA. January: Paul Rappaport, RCA Laboratories, Princeton, NJ, paper, 'The Electron-Voltaic Effect in p-n Junctions Induced by Beta Bombardment,' published in Physical Review. January 11: Chapin, Fuller, Pearson, AT&T paper, submitted to the Journal of Applied Physics. March 5: Chapin, Fuller, Pearson, AT&T, patent "Solar Energy Converting Apparatus," submitted. April 12: AT&T demonstration of solar cells in Murray Hill, NJ.

April 26: AT&T demonstration of solar cells, at the National Academy of Science Meeting, Washington, DC. May: Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ, researchers D.M. Chapin, C.S. Fuller, and G.L. Pearson published the results of their discovery of 4.5-percent efficient silicon solar cells--raised to 6-percent only a few months later (work team included Mort Prince)--in the "Journal of Applied Physics," entitled 'A New Silicon p-n Junction Photocell for Converting Solar Radiation into Electrical Power.' U.S. IEEE Semiconductor Device Conference, papers on equations governing maximum power and maximum efficiency of p-n junction PV/electron voltaic cells presented by W. van Roosbroek, Bell Laboratories, and J.J. Loferski, RCA. October: D.C. Reynolds, G. Leies, L.L. Antes, and R.E. Marburger, of the U.S. Air Force Aerospace Research Laboratory, Dayton, OH, published the paper 'Photovoltaic Effect in Cadmium Sulfide' in the journal Physical Review. 1955 U.S. Signal Corps assigned the task of providing power supplies for the first U.S. Earth satellites. Western Electric began to sell commercial licenses for silicon PV technologies. Early successful products included PV-powered dollar bill changers and devices that decoded computer punch cards and tape. October 4: Bell System demonstration of type P rural carrier system, in Americus, GA, begun. November: International Conference on Solar Energy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Hoffman Electronics-Semiconductor Division announced a commercial PV product, 2-percent efficient, priced at $25/cell, at 14 mW each, or $1785/W (1955 dollars). November: E.D. Jackson, Texas Instruments, presents a paper at the Int'l Conf. on Solar Energy, Tucson, AZ, proposing increased conversion efficiency byemploying stacked, multijunction cells. 1956 William Cherry, U.S. Signal Corps., approaches RCA Labs' Paul Rappaport and Joseph Loferski about developing PV cells for proposed orbiting Earth satellites (RCA, because of its work on radiation damage to p-n devices). March: Bell System demonstration of type P rural carrier system, in Americus, GA, terminated.

March: P. Rappaport, J.J. Loferski, and E.G. Linder, 'The electron voltaic effect in germanium and silicon p-n junctions,' RCA Rev. 17, 100. 1957 Hoffman Electronics achieved 8-percent efficient cells. February 5: Chapin, Fuller, Pearson, AT&T, patent #2,780,765, "Solar Energy Converting Apparatus," issued. 1958 T. Mandelkorn, U.S. Signal Corps Laboratories, fabricates n-on-p silicon PV cells (critically important for space cells; more resistant to radiation). Hoffman Electronics achieves 9-percent efficient PV cells. March 17: Launch of Vanguard I, the first PV-powered satellite, in cooperation with the U.S. Signal Corp. This satellite power system (0.1 W, approximately 100 cm2, powering a 5-mW backup transmitter) operated for 8 years. Explorer III satellite launched. Vanguard II satellite launched. Sputnik-3 satellite launched. 1959 Hoffman Electronics achieves 10-percent efficient, commercially available PV cells. Hoffman Electronics also learned to use a grid contact, reducing the series resistance significantly.

August 7: Explorer VI satellite launched, with a PV array of 9600 cells, 1 cm x 2 cm each. October 13: Explorer VII satellite launched. 1960 Hoffman Electronics achieves 14-percent efficient PV cells. Silicon Sensors, Inc., Dogeville, WI, founded. Produces selenium and silicon cells. 1961 UN conference on Solar Energy in the Developing World. March 7: Meeting of the Solar Working Group (SWG) of the Interservice Group for Flight Vehicle Power (IGFVP, under DoD and NASA), Philadelphia, PA, at which attendees decided on a broader meeting that was to become the PV Specialists Conference. April 14: 1st PV Specialists Conference, Washington, DC, organized by the Institute for Defense Analysis (IDA); chairman, Nathan Snyder. 1962 February 27-28: 2nd PV Specialists Conference, Washington, DC, NASA Auditorium, Federal Office Building; chairman, Walter C. Scott. July 23: Telstar satellite launched; the first commercial telecommunications satellite; project of Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed in 1955 by John R. Pierce. Initial power, 14 W. 1963 Sharp Corporation succeeds in producing practical silicon PV modules.

Japan installs a 242-W PV array on a lighthouse, the world's largest array at that time. April 10-11: 3rd PV Specialists Conference, Statler Hilton, Washington, DC, jointly sponsored by the IEEE, AIAA, and NASA; chairman, Walter C. Scott. 1964 Nimbus spacecraft, with a PV array of 470 watts. June 2-3: 4th PV Specialists Conference (first conference officially named PV Specialists Conference and numbered), Cleveland, OH, NASA Lewis Research Center, sponsored by the IEEE, AIAA, and NASA; chairman, ?. 1965 Japanese Scientific Satellite Program initiated. Peter Glaser, A.D. Little, conceives the idea of the satellite solar power station. Tyco Labs developed the EFG process--first to grow crystal saphire (aluminum oxide) ribbons, later (1974) for silicon. October 18-20: 5th PV Specialists Conference, Greenbelt, MD, NASA Goddard, sponsored by the IEEE, AIAA, and NASA; chairman, Paul Rappaport. 1966 Orbiting Astronomical Observatory launched with a PV array of 1 kW. 1967 March 28-30: 6th IEEE PV Specialists Conference (first solely sponsored by the IEEE), Cocoa Beach, FL, Hilton; chairman, William R. Cherry.

1968 April 6: OVI-13 satellite launched with two CdS panels--operated until October 20, 1969. November 19-20: 7th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Pasadena, CA, JPL; chairman, Robert E. Fischell. 1969 Roger Little founds Spire Corporation. 1970 Solar Power Corporation founded August 4-6: 8th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Seattle, WA, Olympic Hotel; chairman, Joseph J. Loferski. 1971 1972 French install a CdS PV system in a village school in Niger, to run an educational TV. January: NSF/NASA Solar Energy Panel begins deliberations, convened by William Cherry (U.S. Signal Corp), F.H. Morse (Univ. of Maryland), and Lloyd O. Herwig (NSF), who formed the executive committee. May 2-4: 9th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Silver Springs, MD, APL; chairman, Martin Wolf. The first PVSC to include a session on terrestrial PV. December: Report, 'Solar Energy as a National Resource,' released by the NSF/NASA Solar Energy Panel.

1973 George Hamilton forms the Solar Power Company, to sell PV systems, in Washington, DC. Dr. Joseph Lindmayer and Dr. Peter Varadi form Solarex Corporation. University of Delaware builds 'Solar One,' one of the world's first PV residences. The system is a PV-Thermal hybrid. The roofintegrated arrays feed surplus power through a special meter to the utility during the day and purchased power from the utility at night. In addition to electricity, the arrays acted as flat-plate thermal collectors, with fans blowing the warm air from over the array to phase-change heat-storage bins. October 23-25: Cherry Hill Conference, Cherry Hill, NJ, organized by Richard Bleiden, for NSF. 134 attendees, at the Cherry Hill Inn. Five panels, addressing Single Crystal Silicon (chair, P. Rappaport, RCA); Polycrystalline Silicon (chair, T.L. Chu, SMU); CdS/Cu2S Thin Film Cells (chair, K. Boer, Univ. of Delaware); Other Materials and Devices (chair, J.J. Loferski, RCA); and Systems (chair, C.E. Backus, ASU). November 13-15: 10th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Palo Alto, CA, Ricky's Hyatt House; chairman, Richard L. Statler. 1974 Tyco Laboratories and Mobil Oil Corporation form Mobil Tyco. Japan formulates Project Sunshine. May 1: Tyco Labs grows first EFG, 1-inch (2.5-cm) wide, 18-inches (45.7-cm) long. 1975 Ishaq Shahryar founds Solec International.

Bill Yerkes starts Solar Technology International. Exxon assumes Solar Power Corporation. JPL institutes the Block I procurement by the U.S. government. January: U.S. government initiated a terrestrial PV research and development project, assigned to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), patterned after the recommendations of the Cherry Hill Conference. May 6-8: 11th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Scottsdale, AZ, Sunburst Conference Center; chairman, Denis R. Curtin. This is the first conference to use the sun-star logo. 1976 Multiple dates: 1976 through 1985 and from 1992 to 1995, the NASA Lewis Research Center (LeRC) project office installed 83 PV power systems on every continent except Australia. These systems provide the operational energy for such diverse applications as vaccine refrigeration, room lighting, medical clinic lighting, telecommunications, water pumping, grain milling, and classroom television. NASA LeRC installs a PV system to power a trail camp refrigerator, in Isle Royale, Michigan, USA. NASA LeRC installs a PV system to power a refrigerator on the Papago Indian Reservation, USA. NASA LeRC installs a PV system to power an electric vehicle recharging demonstration, in Washington, DC, USA. NASA LeRC installs a PV system to provide power for forest lookout towers (2 systems), USA. David Carlson and Christopher Wronski, RCA Laboratories, fabricate first amorphous silicon PV cells (efficiency 1.1 percent for 3.5cm2 area cell, and

2.4 percent for a 5 x 10-3 cm2 area cell). November 15-18: 12th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Baton Rouge, LA, Hilton; chairman, Americo (Mo) F. Forestieri. The first PVSC to have exhibits. 1977 Total PV manufacturing production exceeds 500 kW. Multiple dates, 1977-1978: NASA LeRC installs PV system to power 6 RAMOS weather reporting stations, at various locations across the USA. NASA LeRC installs PV system for Visitor center water cooler, in Lone Pine, California, USA. NASA LeRC installs PV system to power a highway dust warning sign, in Arizona, USA. NASA LeRC installs PV system to power U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Insect survey traps (4), in Texas, USA. May 24: George Hamilton issued Patent 4,025,786 for cell stacking design based on spacing to eliminate shading. July 5: Solar Energy Research Institute begins official operation, in Golden, Colorado, USA. First director is Dr. Paul Rappaport (19771979). November: Atlantic Richfield purchases Bill Yerkes' company Solar Technology International. 1978 June 5-8: 13th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Washington, DC, Shorham; chairman John V. Goldsmith. December: Dedication of the NASA LeRC-installed 3.5-kWp system on the Papago Indian Reservation, Schuchuli, Arizona--the world's first village PV

system. It was used to provide power for water pumping and 15 homes (residential lights, water pumping, refrigeration, sewing machine, washing machine) until 1983, when grid power reached the village, at which time the homes were hooked to the grid and the PV system was dedicated to pumping water from a community well. 1979 Solenergy Corporation founded. Denis Hayes replaces Dr. Paul Rappaport as director of the U.S. DOE's Solar Energy Research Institute (1979-1981). ARCO Solar builds world's largest PV manufacturing facility, in Camarillo, California. March: NASA LeRC completes 1.8-kWp array, for water pumping and grain grinding, for US AID, in Tangaye, Burkina Faso/Upper Volta. May: NASA LeRC system in Tangaye, Burkina Faso/Upper Volta, increased from 1.8 kW to 3.6 kWp. June: Mt. Laguna, California, 60-kW site, augmenting a diesel-electric plant for a radar station operated by the FAA, is completed. This was a cooperative program between the US DOD and US DOE, to demonstrate that a power system without energy storage could effectively and reliably augment a remote ac network. 1980 ARCO Solar is the first company to produce more than 1 MW of PV modules in one year. NASA LeRC installs two PV power systems at the Hawaii Volcano Observatory, in Hawaii, USA. British Petroleum (BP) enters the PV market, with an educational investment in Lucas Energy Systems.

January 7-10: 14th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, San Diego, CA, Town and Country; chairman, Charles E. Backus. January 7: First William R. Cherry Award, to Paul Rappaport. May: New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, selected to establish and operate the Southwest Residential Experimental Station (SW RES). June 7: 105.6-kWp system dedicated at Natural Bridges National Monument, Utah. The system used Motorola, ARCO Solar, and Spectrolab PV modules. 1981 Multiple dates: NASA LeRC supports the installation of vaccine refrigerator/freezer systems at 30 locations--1981 to 1984. Dr. "Hub" Hubbard replaces Denis Hayes as director of the U.S. DOE's Solar Energy Research Institute (1981-1989). Solar Challenger, PV-powered airplane, flies. BP buys out the remaining 50% of Lucas Energy Systems, renaming it BP Solar Systems Ltd (BPSS). March 17: 90.4-kW PV system dedicated at Lovington (New Mexico) Square Shopping Center, using Solar Power Corp. modules. April 13: 97.6-kW PV system dedicated at Beverly High School, Beverly, Massachusetts, using Solar Power Corp. modules. May: Dedication of the Carlisle house, in Boston, Massachusetts, with its roof-integrated 126 Solarex PV modules (72 cells per module) and a peak rating of 7.3 kW. Designed by Solar Design Associates. May 10: 8-kW Mobil Solar array-powered reverse-osmosis desalination facility dedicated in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

May 12-15: 15th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Kissimmee, FL, Hyatt; chairman Charles J. Bishop. Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Joseph Loferski. 1982 Worldwide PV production exceeds 9.3 MW. Solarex forms Solarex Aerospace division. NASA LeRC installs satellite earth station power system demonstration and an outdoor area light demonstration, at a conference in Vienna, Austria. Volkswagen of Germany begins testing PV arrays mounted on the roofs of Dasher station wagons, generating 160 W for the ingition system. Solarex dedicates its 'PV Breeder' production facility in Frederick, MD, with its roof-integrated 200-kW array. June: Release of the first issue of "Photovoltaics: The Solar Electric Magazine." Founding editor Mark Fitzgerald. July: Entech, Inc., installs the hybrid PV electrical/solar thermal concentrator system (27 kW electric/140 kW thermal) at the DallasFort Worth, Texas, Airport. September 27-30: 16th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, San Diego, CA, Town and Country; chairman, Henry W. Brandhorst, Jr. Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Martin Wolf. October: Dedication of the 70-kW (ac) Solar Power Corp. PV array (2200 modules) at the Universe of Energy pavillion, at EPCOT. December: ARCO Solar Hisperia, CA, 1-MW PV plant comes on line, with modules on 108 dual-axis trackers. 1983

Worldwide PV production exceeds 21.3 MW, and sales exceed $250 million. Specially built 1-kW, PV-powered car, the Solar Trek, drives across Australia, covering 4000 km in less than 20 days. The maximum speed was 72 kph, with an average speed for the trip of 24 kph. Later the same year, the car drove 4000 km, from Long Beach, CA, to Daytona Beach, FL, in 18 days. JPL Block V procurement. John Corsi named President and CEO of Solarex Corp. Solarex Corp. buys RCA amorphous silicon technology and establishes a pilot plant in Newtown, Pennsylvania. ARCO Solar dedicates a 6-MW PV substation in central California in the Carrissa Plain. The120 acre unmanned facility supplies the Pacific Gas and Electric Company utility grid with enough power for 2000-2500 homes. February: Solar Power Corporation completes the design and installation of four stand-alone PV village power systems in Hammam Biadha, Tunesia (29-kW village power system, 1.5-kW residential system, and two 1.5-kW irrigation/pumping systems), supported by NASA LeRC. February: 1.8-kW PV system installed in remote medical clinic in Waramuri, Guyana. The system provided power to a vaccine refrigerator, indoor lighting, doctor's examination light, and a radio. The system, part of a 5-system (Guyana, Ecuador, Kenya, and Zimbabwe) project, was designed and installed by NASA Lewis Research Center and Solarex. March: 4-kW PV system installed in remote medical clinic in Pedro Vincente Maldonado, Ecuador. The system provided power to a vaccine refrigerator, indoor lighting, doctor's examination light, a radio, and an air compressor for dental use. The system, part of a 5-system (Guyana, Ecuador, Kenya, and

Zimbabwe) project, was designed and installed by NASA Lewis Research Center and Solarex. April: Release of the first issue of "Photovoltaics International" magazine. Editor and publisher, Mark Fitzgerald. May: 1.8-kW PV systems installed in remote medical clinic in Kibwezi, Kenya; Ikutha, Kenya; and Chikwakwa, Zimbabwe. The systems provided power to a vaccine refrigerator, indoor lighting, doctor's examination light, and a radio (Kenya Systems). The systems, part of a 5-system (Guyana, Ecuador, Kenya, and Zimbabwe) project, were designed and installed by NASA Lewis Research Center and Solarex. July: Solar Design Associates completes the stand-alone, 4-kW (Mobil Solar), Hudson River Valley home. September: Entropy Ltd. purchases Solenergy Corporation. September: AFG Industries, Inc., and Chronar Corp., announce a joint venture for the construction and operation of a batch plant for the manufacture of amorphous silicon PV modules. September: Lane Garrett forms SunAmp Systems, Inc., in Scottsdale, Arizona. September: Laurence Jennings forms Photron, Inc., in Willits, California. September 16: Solarex Corporation, and its majority-owned subsidiary Semix Inc., merge with Amoco Solar Company, a subsidiary of Standard Oil Company (Indiana). December: Photocomm, Inc., acquires Photowatt International's sales organization and all existing inventory. December 9: The Photovoltaic Southeast Residential Experimental Station (Southeast RES) is dedicated in Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1984

The Sacramento Municipal Utility District commissions its first 1-MW PV generating facility. ARCO Solar releases its amorphous silicon "Genesis" module NASA LeRC supports the development and installation of 17 PV-power systems in four villages in Gabon, for school lights, TV/VCR, water pumping, outdoor lighting, and vaccine refrigerator/freezers. NASA LeRC-supported development and installation of a PV-power system on Utirik Atoll, Republic of Marshall Islands, to power village street lights, residential lights, medical refrigerator/freezer, and fans. BP Solar Systems, with the help of funding from the EEC, builds a 30 kW grid-connected system, at Marchwood, near Southampton, UK. February: Integrated Power Corporation formed by Kenneth Gerken, President, Lee Gordon and Brian Kennedy, Vice Presidents; offices established in Gaithersburg, Maryland. February: Bradley E. O'Mara named president of Balance of Systems Specialists, Inc., Scottsdale, Arizona. February 14-16: Sandia National Laboratories holds its 5th PV Systems Development & Evaluation Project Integration Meeting (PIM), at the Marriott Hotel, Albuquerque, New Mexico. March 27-29: Chuck Backus, the Center for Professional Development, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, holds the Fourth Annual Photovoltaics Short Course. April 26: Solarex Corporation ships the final modules for the 337-kW (4464 module) Georgetown University Intercultural Center system, installed by Hughes Aerospace.

April 30: The DOE National PV Program Annual Review Meeting, held at the Hyatt Orlando Hotel, Kissimmee, Florida. May: BP Solar buys Monosolar thin film division from Nortek, Inc. May 1-4: 17th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Kissimmee, FL, Hyatt; chairman, Eugene L. Ralph. This conference included the first high school program. Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Henry Brandhorst. May: Presentation of the IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Award to Dr. David Carlson and Dr. Christopher Wronski, at the IEEE PVSC, "For crucial contributions to the use of amorphous silicon in low-cost, high-performance photovoltaic solar cells." October 29-31: The Solar Energy Research Institute holds the 6th Annual PV Advanced Research and Development Review meeting at the Denver Marriott West, Golden, Colorado. November 15-18: The First International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference (PVSEC), held in Kobe, Japan. 1985 Martin Green team, University of New South Wales, Australia, breaks the 20-percent efficiency barrier for silicon solar cells under 1sun conditions. BP acquires its first solar cell manufacturing capability, through the purchase of a plant in Sydney, Australia. This was rapidly followed by the building of a second plant, on a "greenfield" site, just outside Madrid in Spain. May: A PV power system is installed near Wawatobe, Sulawesi, Indonesia, to power a satellite transmit/receive earth station and classroom equipment. The classroom was a part of a U.S. AID project for distributed education throughout Indonesia. The photovoltaic power system was designed and installed by NASA Lewis Research Center and their contractor, Hughes Aerospace, Long Beach, CA.

October 21-25: 18th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Las Vegas, NV, Riviera; chairman, Allen M. Barnett. Wm. Cherry Award to Gene Ralph. 1986 June: ARCO Solar releases the G-4000--the world's first commercial thin film "power module." 7-9 October: Space Photovoltaic Research and Technology (SPRAT) Conference, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland OH, USA. (First published paper describing GaAs/Ge solar cells, entitled "Heterostructure Solar Cells," presented by Dr. Kou-I Chang, Appled Solar Energy Corporation and Lt. Robert K. Morris, Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories.) 1987 May 4-8: 19th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, New Orleans, LA, Sheraton; chairman, Lawrence L. Kazmerski. Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Charles E. Backus. November: In the 3100-km Pentax World Solar Challenge race across Australia for PV-powered cars, the GM Sunraycer wins by 950km, with an average speed of approximately 71 kph. 1988 Dr. Alvin Marks Phototherm, Amherst NH, USA, receives patents on his Lepcon (light to electricity power conversion) and Lumeloid (film with a donor-acceptor complex of molecules for the conversion of light to electricity) designs. June 27-July 2: The fourth Tour de Sol, 350 km through Switzerland and Austria. The catagories for vehicles include PV-powered cars, pedal-supplement cars, commercial PV-powered cars, and electric non-PV-powered cars. The total prize money for the event totals 140,000 Swiss Francs.

July: Solarex wins contract to supply 50 kW of modules to a UN Development Project in Pakistan. One village selected is KilaMojgarh, in NE Pakistan, with 700 residents. The UN absorbs the capital cost of the equipment, while the villagers pay a nominal rate for their electricity. July: ARCO Solar dedicates the expansion of its thin-film manufacturing facility, in Camarillo, CA, bringing capacity to 7 MW per year. In addition, production begins in two new facilities in which ARCO Solar has interest: Atsugi, Japan, and Munich-Freimann, West Germany. July 19-21: The Joint Crystalline Cell Research and Concentrating Collector Projects Review, sponsored by the U.S. DOE and Sandia National Laboratories, held at the Albuquerque Sheraton Old Town Hotel, Albuquerque, NM, USA. September 26-30: 20th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Las Vegas, NV, Riviera; chairman, Joseph F. Wise. Wm. Cherry Award to David Carlson. September: The last of 1450 modules, donated by the U.S. DOE and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, from its Block Testing Program, to the PV Information and Education Association (PVIEA), are distributed to 26 education and training institutions around the United States (Alternative Energy Engineering, Arizona State University, Ball State University, Cate School, Colorado Energy Office, Colorado Mountain College, Florida Solar Energy Center, Grinnnell College, Hawaii Energy Office, Meadowcreek Project, National Center for Appropriate Technology, Northeastern University, Northern Arizona University, Outside Power, Pennsylvania State University, Rocky Mountain Institute, San Luis Valley Solar Energy Center, Sierra Nevada College, Solar Energy Industries Association, Solar Energy Research Institute, SunnySide Solar, University of Alabama, University of Alaska, University of Arizona, University of Massachusetts, and Western New England College). October: PV International magazine and the membership rights to the PV Information and Education Association sold to the American Solar Energy

Society. 1989 Dr. Duane Sunderman replaces Dr. "Hub" Hubbard as director of the U.S. DOE's Solar Energy Research Institute (1989-1995). BP Solar Systems 30-kW grid-tied array, in Marchwood, near Southampton, UK, dismantled after 5-year successful demonstration. BP Solar acquires patents for thin film process. February 14-17: The 4th International PV Sciences and Engineering Conference, at the Roundhouse Convention Center, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. May 24-26: The 9th SERI PV Advanced Research and Development Review Meeting, sponsored by the U.S. DOE and the Solar Energy Research Institute, held at the Sheraton Inn Lakewood, Lakewood, CO, USA. September 4-8: International Solar Energy Society Solar World Congress, 'Clean and Safe Energy Forever,' in Kobe, Japan. 1990 Energy Conversion Devices Inc. (ECD) and Canon Inc. form the American joint venture PV manufacturer United Solar Systems Corp., based in Troy, Michigan. February 28: ARCO Solar sold to Siemens, forming Siemens Solar Industries. May 21-25: 21st IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Kissimmee, FL, Hyatt; chairman, John D. Meakin. Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Martin A. Green. 1991

BP Solar Systems becomes BP Solar International (BPSI), a wholly owned, but self standing, international business unit within British Petroleum. September 16: U.S. Solar Energy Research Institue is redesignated as the U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory, by President George Bush. October 7-11: 22nd IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Las Vegas, NV, Riviera; chairman, Cosmo R. Baraona. Wm. Cherry Award to Peter Iles. 1992 October/November: A 0.5-kW PV power system was installed at Lake Hoare, Antarctica, with 2.4-kWh of battery storage, to power laboratory equipment, lights, personal computers and printers, and a small microwave oven. This project was implemented by the NASA Lewis Research Center for the National Science Foundation. 1993 May 10-14: 23rd IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Louisville, KY, Galt House; chairman, Richard J. Schwartz; Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Lawrence L. Kazmerski. October: Dedication of the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL's) Solar Energy Research Facility (SERF), in Golden, Colorado, USA. 1994 January: The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL's) World Wide Web site goes on line.

Summer: The U.S. DOE, through NREL, implemented a joint technology research and demonstration effort in the Federal Republic of Brazil with the Centro de Pesquisas de Energia Electrica (CEPEL). The pilot project systems demonstrate PV, wind, and hybrid power systems in applications that include street lights, indoor and outdoor lighting for schools, pumping systems for potable and agricultural water, television, and refrigerators in health clinics. July: ASE GmbH of Germany acquires 100% of Mobil Solar Energy Corporation's technology and assets, forming ASE Americas, Inc. December 5-9: 24th IEEE PV Specialists Conference and 1st World PV Specialists Conference, Waikoloa, HI, Hilton; chairman, Dennis J. Flood. Wm. Cherry Award to Prof. Yoshihiro Hamakawa. 1995 February: Dr. Charles Gay replaces Dr. Dwayne Sunderman as director of the U.S. DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory. October: First internationally funded national training program to support acceleration of commercialization of PV begins in India. The World Bank and the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) sponsor a 3-year multi-audience, practically focused series of training seminars, conducted by Siemens Solar Industries. 1996 BP Solar purchases the facilities of APS in California, and announces it is going into commercial production of it's cadmium telluride Apollo technology. May 7: Tucson Electric Power Company and ITN Energy Systems, Inc., Denver, Colorado, form Global Solar Energy, LLC, as a subsidiary of Tucson Electric Power, to develop a copper-indium-diselenide production manufacturing capability.

May 13-17: 25th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Washington, DC, Hyatt; chairman, Eldon C. Boes. Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Allen Barnett. July: The world's most advanced solar-powered plane, the Icare, flew over Germany. The wings and tail surfaces of the Icare are covered by 3000 super-efficient PV cells, with a total area of 21 m2. August 31: Ishaq Shahryar resigns as president of Solec International; Hiroyoshi Fanatsu, Senior Manager for Electronic Components Division, Sanyo Electric Company, Ltd., promoted to president of Solec International. 1997 BP Solar opens two new offices, in Germany and Colombia. February 28: Dr. Charles Gay resigns as Director, U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado. March 26: Admiral Richard Truly named new Director of the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado. April 14-15: Village Power '97 Conference, Arlington, VA. May 18-21: The Third NREL Conference on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity, Colorado Springs, Colorado; chairmen, Tim Coutts and John Benner. June: Greece agrees to fund the first 5 MW of a 50-MW PV power station on Crete with Enron Solar. June 2: President Suharto, Indonesia, inaugurates a project to install 36,400 50-W solar home systems over three years. June 29-July 4: 14th European PV Solar Energy Conference, Barcelona, Spain; chairman, Heinz Ossenbeink. Bacquerel Award to Dr. Adolf Goetezberger. September 29-October 3: 26th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Anaheim, CA, Anaheim Marriott; chairman, Paul Basore. Wm. Cherry Award winner Dr. Adolf Goetezberger.

1998 July 6-10: 2nd World Conference and Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion, Hofburg Congress Center, Vienna, Austria. This conference was also the 15th European PV Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, the 27th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, and the 10th Asia/Pacific PV Science and Engineering Conference. Jurgen Schmid, General Chairperson, Sheila Bailey, General Vice-Chairperson, and Kosuke Kurokawa, General Vice-Chairperson. Wm. Cherry Award to Dr. Richard J. Schwartz 1999 February: Solar Cells, Inc. (SCI), of Toledo, Ohio, and True North Partners, LLC, of Phoenix, Arizona, jointly form First Solar, LLC. March: Solarex PV modules supplied electricity to the Breitling Orbiter 3 balloon during its non-stop trip around the world. For three weeks in March, the balloon's on-board equipment was powered by 20 Ultralite modules suspended under the nacelle. Each module was tilted to ensure even power output during rotation, and recharged five lead batteries for navigation instruments, satellite communications systems, lighting and water heating.

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