NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KURUKSHETRA

SUBMITTED BY:
LALIT
MEENA
108416(E1)

ELECTRI
CAL ENGINEERING

CONTENT
S.N
o.
1
2
3
4

5
6
7

TOPIC
About Indian Railways
Acknowledgement
Circuit Diagrams
Details of Vasai
Road(mumbai)
substation
Bus schemes at
Substation
Substation
equipments
Protection
equipments

PAGE NO.

ABOUT INDAIN RAILWAYS

Indian Railways has 114,500 kilometers (71,147 mi). of total track over a
route of 65,000 kilometers (40,389 mi) and 7,500 stations. It has the world's
fourth largest railway network after those of the United States, Russia and
China. The railways traverse the length and breadth of the country and carry
over 30 million passengers and 2.8 million tons of freight daily. It is the
world's second largest commercial or utility employer, with more than
1.36 million employees As for rolling stock, IR owns over 240,000 (freight)
wagons, 60,000 coaches and 9,000 locomotives.
Railways were first introduced to India in 1853. By 1947, the year of India's
independence, there were forty-two rail systems. In 1951 the systems were
nationalised as one unit, becoming one of the largest networks in the world.
IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge
network of broad, meter and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and
coach production facilities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Its my pleasure to be indebted to various people , who directly
or indirectly contributed in the development of this work and
who influenced my thinking ,behavior and acts during the
course of study.
Training at Indian Railways has been a wonderful experience
for me. I would like to thank Indian Railways for wholesome
development
of
personality.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. S.K. PATIL
(ADEE/SS/BCT), my mentors that I learnt work ethics besides
enhancement of my technical skills.
Mr. RATAN PARKHI has been gracious enough to allow me to
imbibe educational and professional qualities. I would also like
to thank Mr. SINDHEY for his guidance, encouragement and
taking pain for my project work. Though tedious at times, the
training at Indian Railways was overwhelming.
Lastly,I would like to thank almighty and my parents for their
moral support and my friends with whom I share my day- today experience and received lots of suggestions that improved
my quality of work.

AC POWER TRACTION LEYOUT

DETAILS OF 100/25 KV VASAI

ROAD SUB STATION

Incoming feeder from TATA Power Station

at 100kv
Lightning Arrestor -96 kv
Potential transformer 100kv to 110v
Double Pole Insulator
Bush Coupler
Supporting Insulator
Current Transformer 800A To 5A
Circuit Braker- SF6(Arc Intrruptor )
Zabra Voltage Cable- 28mm2
Lightning Arrestor(Fixed and Moving)
Capacitor Bushings
Differential Protection (Zone Protection)

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT

The main components of a substation are as

follows: Autotransformer
Circuit breaker
Isolator and earth switch
Current transformer
Capacitive voltage transformer
Wave trap
Lightning arrester

AUTO TRANSFORMER
It is a static device which transfers the A.C. electric power
from one circuit to the other at the same frequency. It is used

to step up or step down the voltage. At all the substations

except at the generating station the step down transformers
are used. There are many types of transformers but in this
substation an auto transformer is used.

13.5MVA , 100/25KV AUTO TRANSFORMER

There are two auto transformers of 3 phases; 100/25kV auto
transformer is installed in Vasai Road Substation. The
capacity of each auto transformer is 13.5 MVA. Input of 100kV
is coming from TATA POWER PLANT substation and the output
is 25 kV .
ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATION OF 13.5 MVA, 100/25 KV
TRANSFORMER
1
2

Capacity(MVA)
Cooling

13.5
ONAN/ONAF/OFAF

3
4
5
6
7

Voltage(KV)HV/LV
No. of phases
Frequency
Connection & symbol
Neutral earthing

100/25
3
50Hz
Star/ delta-Ynod11
HV solidly earthed

Advantage of Auto Transformer

Volume, and hence weight of copper, is proportion to the length
and area of cross section of the conductor. The length of the
conductor is proportion to number of turns and area of cross
section is proportional to the current flowing through it .Hence
the weight of copper proportional to the product of current and
number of turn .
It is used as auto transformer starter to give up to 50 %to
60% of full voltage to the stator of squirrel cage induction
motor during starting .
It is give a small boost to a distribution cable to correct
the voltage drop
It is used as a regulating Transformer

Disadvantages:Although Auto transformers have less cost, better regulation

and low losses as compared to the ordinary tow winding
transformer of same rating. But they are not widely used due
to one major disadvantage that the secondary winding is not
insulating from primary.

PARTS OF AN AUTOTRANSFORMER
Conservator tank
Conservator tank shall have adequate capacity with highest
and lowest visible level to meet the requirements of total cold

oil volume in transformer and cooling equipment from

minimum ambient temp. To 100 deg C. Conservator should
notobstruct any electrical connection to transformer.
Dehydrating Filter Breather
Conservator shall be fitted with dehydration filter breather. It
shall be so designed that:a). Passage of air is through silica gel.
b). Silica gel is isolated from atmosphere by oil seal.
c). Moisture absorption indicated by change in colour.
Silica gel is replaced when half to two third of the silica gel as
become saturated and turned pink in colour. For its reuse, silica
gel should be heated in a well ventilated oven at a temp. Of
130 to 138 deg Celsius until the entire mass has achieved the
bright colour.

Silic
a gel breather of ICT1 and ICT2
CORE
Core is manufactured from lamination of cold rolled grain
oriented silicon steel which gives very low specific loss at
operating flux densities. Joints of the laminations are designed

such that the electromagnetic flux is always in the direction of

grain orientation. The core is of 3 limbs, 3phases.
WINDINGS
Windings are made from paper insulated copper conducors.
Parallel conductors are transposed at regular intervals
throughout the winding for ensuring equal flux linkage and
current distribution between strands. Insulation spacers in the
windings are arranged such that oil is directed through the
weights for ensures proper cooling.
COOLING
For ONAN cooling, oil flows through the winding and external
radiators units attached to the tank by thermo phonic effect.
Radiator cooler units consist of pressed steel sheet radiators
mounted directly on the tank. ONAF cooling is achieved by
providing adequate number of fans. OFAF cooling is achieved
by providing adequate number of in line oil pumps.

WINDING TEMPERTAURE INDICATORS

The winding temperature relay indicates the winding of the
temperature of the transformer and operates the alarm, trip
and cooler control contacts.Windingtemp.thermometer bulb is
in a separate thermometer well near the top of the tank. Wire
heater oil is either inserted into or wrapped around the
thermometer well which surround the temp.sensitive bulb. In
some transformers a current transformer is around is of the
three winding leads & provides current directly to the heater
coil in proportion to winding current. In other transformer the
current transformer supplies current to an auto transformer
that supplies currently to the heater coil. The heater warms s
the bulb & the dial indicates heat temp. But it is not the true
hottest spot temp. the increase in temp. of the resistance is
proportionate to that of the winding. The sensor bulb of the

instrument is located in the hottest oil of the transformer plus

the winding temp. rise above hot oil i.e.
the hotspot
temperature.

WINDINGTEMPRATURE INDICATOR

TAP CHANGER
Transformer is provided with on load tap changer. The tap
changing can be designed for changing the taps in the
following modes:
a). manually from local motor drive unit.
b). manually from remote.
c). automatically from the supervisory system.
The on load tap changing will be self contained unit housed in
the main transformer tank. This consists of diverter unit &
selector unit. In selector unit termination will be made. Since
some amount arcing take place during switching operation
from one tap to other. The oil inside the diverter unit will

deteriorate faster. Hence this oil in diverter chamber cannot be

allowed to mix with the oil in the main transformer. Oil load tap
changer is provided with a separate conservator and oil surge
relay.

GAS AND OIL ACTUATED (BUCHHOLZ) RELAY

Gas and oil actuated relay is fitted in the feed pipes from the
expansion vessel to the tank for collection of gas generated in
the oil. A pre-set volume of gas collection in the relay, or an oil
surge toward the expansion vessel will cause the alarm or trip
contacts to operate respectively. In the event of serious oil loss
from the transformer, both alarm and trip elements operate. In
the pipes connection between On Load Tap changer and its oil
expansion vessel an oil surge relay fitted. This relay operate on
principle of oil surge impinging on a flag causing operation of
the mercury switch connect to the trip circuit. Gas actuated
alarm switch is eliminated because the gas generated during
normal tap changing operation will give unnecessary alarm.

BUCHHOLZ RELAY
BUSHING

Transformers are connected to HV lines, and therefore, care is

to be taken to prevent flash-over from the high voltage
connections to earthed tank. Connections from cables are
made in cable boxes, but overhead connections are made to be
brought through bushings specially designed for different
classes of voltages.
The winding connection passes from the windings to terminal
bushings. Terminal bushings upto 36 KV class, 3150 Amps, are
normally of plain and porcelain and oil in contact type.
Bushings of 52 KV class and above are of oil impregnated
condenser type. The oil inside the condenser bushings will not
be communicating with the oil inside the transformer. Oil level
gauge is provided on the expansion chambers of the condenser
bushings.

INSULATING OIL
In the Auto Transformer, we use mineral oil .It acts as an
insulating fluid & heat transfer medium to carry off excess heat
generated by the losses of power transformers.
To ascertain the
requirements:
1
2
3
4
5
6

properties

of

oil

for

meeting

certain

Kinematic viscosity
Pour point
Carbon type composition
Oxidative ageing
Density
Oxidation stability
It should be free from moisture

For testing of insulating oil it stand for 60 KV for up to flash

time.

CIRCUIT BREAKER
It is a device which makes & breaks the circuit under no load,
full load & fault condition. It can be operated manually under
normal conditions & automatically under abnormal conditions.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
It consists of fixed & moving contacts called as electrodes
under normal operating conditions. These contacts remain
closed & will not open automatically until the system become
faulty. When fault occurs the tripping coil of the circuit breaker
gets energized & the moving contacts are pulled apart. An arc
is produced between them. The production of arc delays the
current production & generates heat which may damage the
system.
Sulphur-Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker
In this circuit breaker, sulphur hexafluoride gas is used for the
extinguishing the arc.

SULPHURHEXAFLOURIDE CIRCUIT BREAKER

PRINCIPLE OF ARC EXTINCTION IN SF6

In SF6 circuit breaker, the SF6 gas is blown axially convection
& dissipation. This reduces the arc diameter during the
decrease mode of current wave & an arc in extinguished. In
sf6 circuit breaker, the gas is made to flow from high pressure
to low pressure through a convergent divergent nozzle. When
moving contact is struck from the fixed contact, an arc is
produced in between them. Gas nozzle is located such that
the flow of gas covers the arc reduce its diameter. Finally, arc
reduces to zero at current zero. Under normal conditions, the
moving contact is connected with the fixed contact. The outer
cylinder is coupled with the moving contact whereas piston is
fixed. When fault occurs the moving contacts separated from
the fixed contact.
ADVATANGES: There are some advantages of SF6 circuit
breaker over the conventional breakers given below:
(1) Due top outstanding arc quenching property of SF6, the
arcing time is very small. This reduces contact erosion.
(2) Using SF6 gas at low pressure & low velocity, the current
chopping can be minimized.
(3) During arcing of SF6 circuit breaker, no carbon dioxide is
formed and hence no reduction of dialectical strength.
(4) SF6 circuit breaker is salient in operation and moisture
ingression into the gas cycle is almost nil.
(5) SF6 breaker is performance is not affected due to variation
in atmospheric condition.
(6) SF6 breaker is compact in size and electrical clearance is
directly reduced.
DISADVANTAGES: The only disadvantage is that SF6 is
suffocating. In case of leakage of breaker tank, this gas is
heavier than air settled in the surrounding and may lead to

suffocation of the operating personals .However, It is non

poisonous. It also destroys our ozone layer.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER
These are the instrument transformers which are basically step
down transformers.Current transformer is used to step down
the a. c. from higher to lower value. The primary winding of a
having one or a few turns of thick wire is connected in series
with the line whose current is to be measured. The secondary
having large number of carries the instrument an ammeter
directly connected across it. The current transformer works
under short circuit condition. The secondary of transformer is
connected to the instrument placed on panel boards. The
current transformer burden values are very low i.e.15 VA for
1A.current transformer ratios are so chosen such that they
supply 1a or 5A at nominal primary current. For measurement
CTs may utilize low inductance cores or special core materials
for high accuracy measurement& protection. CTs may use air
gapped cores to meet special requirement for asymmetrical
fault
currents.
CTs
are
also
known
as
SERIES
TRANSFORMER.Current transformers are very accurate and
long lasting reliable equipment.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

TYPES OF CT
1). DEAD TANK CT
In the dead tank C.T, the primary winding is on the top where
as the secondary winding is placed on bottom as shown in
figure.

1. Dome

2. Nitrogen filling valve

3. Primary terminal

4. Collar

5. Porcelain insulator
with insulation

6.

7. Adaptor cylinder

8. Secondary cores

9. Base

Primary

10. Oil drain plug

conductor

2). LIVE DESIGN TYPE CT

In the live tank C.T., both primary &secondary windings are on
the top. The fig. is as shown below:-

ISOLATOR
It is a device which opens and closes the contacts only under
no load conditions. Its main purpose is to isolate a portion of
the circuit from the other. These are generally placed on both
sides of the circuit breaker in order to make repair and maintain
the circuit breaker without any danger. These are never opened
until the circuit breaker in the same circuit is opened and
always closed before the circuit breaker is closed.

(Horizontal Double break type)

CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

CVT is an instrument transformer which is used for voltage
measurement and protection system and their high frequency
point is used for PLCC system. In EHV system CVTs are used
instead of VTs due to economical reason.

1. Oil level indicator

units

2. Expansion device3. Capacitor

4. Insulating oil5. Porcelain insulator6. Sealing

7. Electromagnetic unit8. Low voltage terminals box
9. Series inductance10. Medium voltage transformer

11. Damping circuit against ferro-resonance effects

There are 280 300 elements in C1 & C2

C1 will be about 260 to 280 elements
C2 will be 15 to 20 elements
Ratio of C1/ C2 is about 20
400/ 20 = 20kV (Tap Voltage)

LIGHTNING ARRESTORS
LA is used for protection of substation equipments(eg
transformer), from Lightning surges and over voltage. It
behaves like a insulator in normal operating voltage and gives
a continuous path in case of high voltage surges. It is first
equipment of the substation which is placed at the line
entrance to the substation to protect bay equipments and is
also placed on both sides of the transformer.
Concept of Leakage Current
The leakage current through the arrester is broadly classified
as
1. Capacitive
components
current
originated
from
permittivity of ZnO elements, stray capacitance, grading
capacitors.
2. Resistance component current originated from ZnO
elements, Porcelain surface current (Pollution).
MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE
1. Harmonic are created in leakage current on application
of fundamental frequency, due to non linear voltagecurrent characteristics of surge arresters.
2. 3rd Harmonic is the largest Harmonic component of the
resistive current.
EFFECT OF 3RD HARMONICS IN SYSTEM VOLTAGE
1. 3rd Harmonic in system voltage creates capacitive
harmonics currents which affect the measured value.
2. Error in the measured values may be considerable.
3. As reported, 1% 3rd Harmonic in system voltage may
introduce error upto 100% in the measured value.

WAVE TRAP
It is PLCC equipment. It is highly inductive device which is used
for PLCC purpose, it block the high frequency PLCC signal to
enter in the switchyard of the substation and it allows the
power frequency 50 Hz to pass through it and enter into
switchyard. It is connected in series with the EHV line.

( Wave Trap)

CONTROL ROOM
Control room consists of :
relay panel
control panel
SCADA

RELAY PANEL
It is used for protection purposes ,the relays get supply from CT
or CVT. The relays used are numeric relays .They send tripping
signal to the circuit breaker during fault condition.

(A view of Relay panel in a Relay Room)

CONTROL PANEL

It displays the current,voltage,power reading for all load

centers,line feeders etc. .at the time of fault ,the alarm sounds
or any red alert signal turns on. Generally, red and white flags
are present. Red flags give indication for a major fault and
white flag give indication for a minor fault. The panel has
several transducers i.e. voltage, current, power, frequency
transducers. These transducers receive the input from the relay
unit. The quantities are then converted to DC signals, which are
displayed on digital meters.

SCADA

SCADA is an acronym that stands for Supervisory Control and

Data Acquisition. SCADA refers to a system that collects data
from various sensors at a factory, plant or in other remote
locations and then sends this data to a central computer
which then manages and controls the data. A SCADA system
usually includes signal hardware (input and output),
controllers, networks, user interface (HMI), communications
equipment and software. All together, the term SCADA refers
to the entire central system. The central system usually
monitors data from various sensors that are either in close
proximity or off site (sometimes miles away).
(Programmable Logic Controller) is usually used to control a
site automatically. The SCADA system also provides a host
control functions for the supervisor to control and define
settings. For example, in a SCADA system a PLC can be used
to control the flow of cooling water as part of an industrial
process. At the same time the supervisor can use the Host
control function to set the temperature for the flow of water. It
can also have alarms and can record the flow of water
temperature and report back to the SCADA system. The RTUs
and PLCs are responsible for data collection such as meter
readings, equipment status etc and communicate back to the
SCADA system. This data can be stored in a database for later
analysis or monitored by a supervisor to take appropriate
actions
if
required.
SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database,
which contains data elements called tags or points. A point
represents a single input or output value monitored or
controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft".
A hard point is representative of an actual input or output
connected to the system, while a soft point represents the
result of logic and math operations applied to other hard and
soft points.. Point values are normally stored as valuetimestamp combinations; the value and the timestamp when
the value was recorded or calculated. A series of valuetimestamp combinations is the history of that point. It's also
common to store additional data with tags such as: path to
field device and PLC register, design time comments, and
event alarming information.

PROTECTION

RELAYS
Protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates
the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective
section from the rest of the system. We have seen that
whenever the fault occur on the power system, the relay
detects that fault and closes the trip coil circuit. This result in
the opening of the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty
section. Thus, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit
equipment from damage which may be caused by the faulty
current.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF RELAY
All relays have the following three essential fundamental
elements in the block diagram.
i.

ii.

iii.

Sensing Element: - Sensing or measuring element is the

element which responds to the change in the magnitude or
phase of the actuating quantity e.g. current in the over
current relay.
Comparing Element: - It is the element which compares the
action of the actuation quantity of the relay with pre-designed
relay setting. The relay only pick up if the actuating quantity
is more than the relay setting.
Control Element:- when a relay pick up, it accomplishes a
sudden change in the
controlled
quantity
such
as
closing of
trip
coil
circuit.

FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENT OF RELAY

The main function of the protective relay is to disconnect the

faulty section of the power system through circuit breaker
abruptly before damaging the costly equipment. In order to
perform this function satisfactory, it should have the following
important features:i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Selectivity
Sensitivity
Reliability
Speed or quickness
Simplicity
Economical

All protective switchgears have the above features as above

mentioned.

TYPES OF RELAYS
There are many kinds of relays applied in the power system.
The relays can be designed and constructed to operate in
response to one or more electrical quantities such as voltage,
current, phase angle, etc. The relays are classified in different
ways.

1) ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OF

OPERATION
Thermal relays:- the heating effect of electric current is
used for the operation of these relays.

Electromagnetic attraction type relay: - The operation

of these relays depends upon the
movement of an armature

under influence of attractive forces due to the magnetic field

set up
by current flowing through the relay coil.

Induction type: - Electromagnetic induction phenomenon

is used for the operation of these
relays. By induction eddy
current are induced in the aluminum disc, free to rotate, which
exerts
torque on it.
2)

ACCORDING TO APPLICATION

Over current, over voltage relays:-These relays operate

when the current, voltage or power rises beyond a specific
value.
Under voltage, under current relays: - These relays
operate when the current, voltage or
power falls below a
specific value.
Directional or reverse current relays:-These relays
operate when the applied current assumes
a
specified
phase displacement with respect to the applied voltage and the
relay is compensated
for fall in voltage.
Directional or reverse voltage relay: - These relays
operate when the applied voltage and
current assumes a
specified phase displacement and no compensation is allowed
for fall in voltage.
Distance relays:-The operation of these relays depends
upon the ratio of the voltage to the current.
Differential relays:- the operation of these relays takes
place at some specific phase difference or
magnitude
difference b/w two or more electrical quantities.

3)

ACCORDING TO TIME OF OPERATION

Instantaneous
operation takes place

relays:- in these
instantaneously

relays,
i.e.

complete
the

operation is complete in a negligible small interval of time from

the incidence of the actuating quantity.

Definite time lag relays:- in these the operation takes

place after a definite time lag which is
independent of the
magnitude of actuating quantity.

Inverse time lag relays:- In these relays the time of

operation is inversely proportional to
magnitude
of
actuating quantity.

Inverse definite minimum time lag relays (IDMT):In these relays the time of operation is
approx.
inversely
proportional to magnitude of actuating quantity, but it is never
less than a definite minimum time for which relay is set.

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAY

Features

Processors system with powerful 16 bit microprocessor.

Insensitive against CT errors, transient phenomenon &
interfaces.

Simple setting & operation using the integrated panel.

Storage of fault data &a instantaneous value during a

fault for fault recording.

Continuous monitoring of the hardware & software of the

relay.

Continuous calibration of operational measured value &

indication on front display.
OPERATION
Differential protection system operate acc. To the principle of
current comparison. It is known as current balance system.
They utilize the fact that the current leaving a healthy
protected object is as that which entered it. The sec. winding of
CT1& CT2, which have the same transformation ratio, may be

so connected that current I flows through it. A measuring

element M is connected at electrical balance pt. under healthy
condition, no current flow in the measuring element M. when
fault occurs in b/w the two CTs, the currents at the ends of the
section are unequal, the measuring element is subjected to a
current I1+I2 prop. To I1+I2 the sum of two inflowing faults
currents.
When an external fault causes a heavy current to flow through
the protected zone diff. in the MAJ. Characteristic of the CT
under condition of saturation may cause a current flow through
M. if the magnitude of current lies above the response
threshold, the system would issue a trip signal.

RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

Detects earth fault in power transformers, shunt reactors,
neutral grounding trans. Or rotating machines, the star point of
which is led to earth. A precondition is that a CT is installed in
the star point lead. i.e. b/w the star point & earth. The star
point CT & the three phases CTs define the limits of the
protection zone exactly.

DISTANCE PROTECTION RELAY

Basic Principle of Distance protection
A distance relay, as its name implies, has the ability to detect a
fault within a pre-set distance along a transmission line or
power cable from its location. Every power line has a resistance
and reactive per kilo meter related to its design and
construction so its total impedance will be a function of its
length or distance. A distance relay therefore looks at current
and voltage and compares these two quantities on the basis of
Ohms law.

Basic principle of operation

The voltage is fed onto one coil to provide restraining torque;
the current is fed to the other coil to provide the operating
torque. Under healthy conditions, the voltage will be high (i.e.
at full-rated level), whilst the current will be low (at normal load
value), thereby balancing the beam, and restraining it so that
the contacts remain open. Under fault conditions, the voltage
collapses and the current increase dramatically, causing the
beam to unbalance and close the contacts.

Distance Protection Relay

Application onto a power line
Correct coordination of the distance relays is achieved by
having an instantaneous directional zone 1 protection and one
or two more time-delayed zones. A transmission line has a
resistance and reactance proportional to its length, which also
defines its own characteristic angle.

Zone 1
The relay characteristic has also been added, from which it will
be noted that the reach of the measuring element has been set
at approximately 80% of the line length. This under-reach
setting has been purposely chosen to avoid. These measuring
elements in known as zone 1 of the distance relay and are
instantaneous in operation.
Zone2
To cover the remaining 20% of the line length, a second
measuring element can be fitted, set to over-reach the line, but
it must be time delayed by 0.5 s to provide the necessary
coordination with the downstream relay. This measuring
element is known as zone 2. It not only covers the remaining
20% of the line, but also provides backup for the next line
section should this fail to trip for whatever reason.
Zone 3
A third zone is invariably added as a starter element and this
takes the form of an offset mho characteristic. This offset
provides a closing-onto-fault feature, as the mho elements may
not operate for this condition due to the complete collapse of
voltage for the nearby fault. The short backward reach also
provides local backup for a bus-bar fault.
This element can also be used for starting a carrier signal to
the other end of the line. The zone 3 element also has another
very useful function. As a starter it can be used to switch the
zone 1 element to zone 2, reach after say 0.5 s, thereby saving
the installation of a second independent zone 2 measuring
element so reducing its cost.

OVERCURRENT RELAY- TYPE MCA

4B/5B3 relay are used for restriction earth fault protection. 4B3
relay are available in two voltage setting (15 -170V and 115270 V) and 5B3 relay has single voltage setting 15- 270 V.

AUXILIARY RELAY
Auxiliary relay is the range of attracted armature,
auxiliary/protection relays operated by DC or AC voltage. A
product designation number following the AR identifies the
particular features of the model.Product designations:
First designation
elements.

Second digit
Third digit

:
:

Number of identical
Type of Flag.
Type of contact reset.

AUXILLARY RELAY

LIGHTNING MAST:
Lightning phenomenon can be the cause of severe failures in
substations such asinsulation flashover and damage of
substation devices .the tipof mast is sufficiently small then the
mast attracts lightningflashes more easily than the shielding
wire. Masts arethus preferred to shielding wires for lightning
protection for substations. In a substation, a height of a device
can range betweena height of a mast and zero. As the goal of
the substationprotection, the heights of the masts, as well as
the locationsof the masts, should be determined to protect
properly for alldevices within this range. This is, the protected
zone of themasts should cover the devices as much as
possible, the protected zone of one mast is based on: themast
height of h and the object protected, which has a heightof y
and is located at a distance of x from the foot of the mast.
Limited Conditions:

In case of more than two masts, for a certain nominal

systemvoltage, three conditions are considered as the follows:
Each mast of this voltage level is contained by at leastone
three-mast group.
For outside masts, two consecutive outside masts are
twoends of a side of a three-mast group. They are
neighbormasts.
Each outside mast has only two neighbor masts.

LIGHTNING ARRESTOR
The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the
electrical system against direct lightning strokes but they fail to
provide protection against travelling waves, which may reach
the terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge
diverters provide protection against such surges. A lightning
arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device, which
conducts the high voltage surges on the power system to the
ground. The action of the lightning arrester is as under:
(i) Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line
i.e. it conducts no current to earth or the gap is non-conducting
(ii) On the occurrence of over voltage, the air insulation across
the gap breaks down and an arc is formed providing a low
resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this way, the
excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly
conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being
sent back over the line.

(iii) As the gap sparks over due to over voltage, the arc would
be a short-circuit on the power system and may cause powerfollow current in the arrester. Since the characteristic of the
resistor is to offer low resistance to high voltage (or current), it
gives the effect of short-circuit. After the surge is over, the
resistor offers high resistance to make the gap nonconducting.
TYPES OF LIGHTNING ARRESTERS:
There are several types of lightning arresters in general use.
They differ only in constructional details but operate on the
same principle viz, providing low resistance path for the
surges to the round. Following are the different types of
lightning relays:
1. Rod arrester 2.Horn gap arrester
3. Multigap arrester 4. Expulsion type lightning arrester
5. Valve type lightning arrester

SURGE ABSORBER
Surge Absorber acts as a load that utilizes the high current until
it exhausts. Surge absorber degrades faster than surge
diverter. It is also called surge modifier, surge capacitor and
surge reactor. A surge modifier is a small shunt capacitor
connected between line and earth or a series air cored
inductor. It means a capacitor connected in parallel with an
equipment provide some degree of protection against surges

before the surge can impress high voltage on the equipment.

GROUND WIRES
The shielding of station and incoming lines is done by ground
wires which limit the severity of surges. If supports are
available,we may run it over the station in such a way that all
equipments lie in protected zone. For a small substation, it
sometimes is sufficient to run one or two ground wires across
the station from adjacent line towers. If it is not possible to run
ground wires to run over the substation then it may be possible
to erect masts or rods at corners or over vertical columns so
that the buses and equipments will fall within the cone of
protection of masts and rods.
Breakage of shieldingwires (due to lightning current or poor
maintenance) can causecatastrophic faults in substations.