The Crisis of the imperial Order, 1900-1929

*Origins of the Crisis in Europe and the Middle East *The Great War and the Russian Revolutions, 1914-18 Peace and Dislocation in Europe, 1919-1929 China and Japan: Contrasting Destinies *The New Middle East Society, Culture, and Technology in the Industrialized World

Learning Objectives: After reading and studying this chapter your should be able to discuss: 1. Be able to trace the course of World War I and discuss some of its most important consequences in Europe, the United States, and the Middle East. 2. Be able to describe the outbreak and early years of the Russian Revolution, as well as the development of the Soviet Union under Lenin.

3. Be able to compare and contrast the histories of China and Japan before and after World War I. 4. Be able to discuss the impact of late nineteenthand early twentieth-century scientic, cultural, and technological innovations on society and the environment.

Focus and Essential Questions: What led to the outbreak of the First World War? How did the war lead to revolution in Russia? What role did the war play in eroding European dominance in the world?

Why did China and Japan follow such divergent paths in this period? How did the Middle East change as a result of the war? How did European and North American society and technology change in the aftermath of the war?

Origins of the Crisis in Europe and the Middle East

Nationalism and the System of Alliances The system of nation-states that emerged in Europe led not to cooperation but to competition At the same time, Europes great powers had been divided into two loose alliances. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the *Triple Alliance

France, Great Britain, and Russia created the *Triple Entente A massive crisis emerged in the Balkans between 1908 and 1913 Each state was guided by its own self-interest and success

Militarism
The growth of mass armies after 1900 heightened the existing tensions in Europe *Conscription had been established as a regular practice in most Western countries before 1914 European armies doubled in size between 1890 and 1914; Militarismaggressive preparation for warwas growing

The Outbreak of War: Summer 1914 The Serbian Problem The rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Russia for domination of these new states created serious tensions in the region *Serbia, supported by Russia, wished to create an independent Slavic state in the Balkans

Assassination in Sarajevo *Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austriahungary, was assassinated by the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist organization that wanted a free *Bosnia *Gavrilo Princip shot the archduke and his wife

Austria-Hungary Responds

The Austro-Hungarian government did not know whether or not the Serbian government had been directly involved in the archdukes assassination *Emperor William II of Germany gave unlimited support to Austria-Hungary Austrian leaders sent an ultimatum to Serbiabut was a series of extreme demands leading to war

Russia Mobilizes *Czar Nicholas II ordered partial mobilization of the Russian army against Austria-Hungary Unable to partially mobilize, the czar ordered a full mobilization of the Russian army, knowing that Germany would consider this order an act of war

The Conict Broadens

Germany declared war on Russia *General Alfred von Schlieffen created the German military plan of action known as the *Schlieffen Plan Germany would hold Russia back while conducting a rapid invasion of Francetherefore, declaring war on France In retaliation, Great Britain declared war on Germany

The Great War and the Russian Revolutions, 1914-18

1914 to 1915: Illusions and Stalemate Government *propaganda worked in stirring up national hatreds before the war Almost everyone believed that the war would be over in a few weeks

The Western Front The Schlieffen Plan had called for the German army to make a vast encircling movement through Belgium into northern France The war quickly turned into a stalemate, as neither the Germans nor the French could dislodge each other from the trenches they had dug for shelter

The Eastern Front Eastern Front was marked by mobility The Russian army moved into eastern Germany but was defeated at the *Battle of Tannenberg and the *Battle of Masurian Lakes The Austrians had been defeated by the Russians in Galicia and thrown out of Serbia as well

The Italians betrayed their German and Austrian allies in the Triple Alliance by attacking Austria in May 1915. Italy thus joined France, Great Britain, and Russia, who had formed the Triple Entente now called the *Allied Powers German-Austrian army defeated the Russian army in Galicia and pushed the Russians far back into their own territory

1916 to 1917: The Great Slaughter By 1916, the Trenches became an elaborate system of defense: 5 feet high and 30 yards wide, concrete machine-gun nest with heavy artillery Troops lived in holes in the ground

Tactics of Trench Warfare

Breakthroughthrowing masses of men against enemy lines that had rst been battered by artillery Millions of young men died in failed attempts at breakthrough World War I had turned into a *war of attrition, a war based on wearing the other side down by constant attacks and heavy losses

War in the Air

By the end of 1915, airplanes had appeared on the battlefront for the rst time Fights for control of the air occurred and increased over time Hand pistols to machine guns Germans used their giant airshipsthe zeppelinsto bomb London and eastern Englandthough hydrogen gas became raging infernos

Widening of the War

Both sides sought to gain new allies who might provide a winning advantagethe Ottoman Empire had joined Germany; Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers In the Middle East, a British ofcer known as *Lawrence of Arabia urged Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman overlords The British mobilized forces from India, Australia, and New Zealand

Entry of the United States At rst, the United States tried to remain neutral The British ship Lusitania was sunk by German forces through unrestricted submarine warfare *Admiral Holtzendorff wanted to continue the attack method which drew the US into the war

The Home Front: The Impact of Total War As World War I dragged on, it became a *total war, involving a complete mobilization of resources and people Led to an increase in government powers and the manipulation of public opinion to keep the war effort going

Increased Government Powers Wartime governments also expanded their power over their economies *planned economies directed by government agencies

Manipulation of Public Opinion Authoritarian regimes, such as those of Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, relied on force to subdue their populations The British Parliament passed the Defense of the Realm Act (DORA)arrested protestors as traitors General propaganda

World War I created new roles for women Women were asked to take over jobs that had not been available to them beforetruck drivers, farm laborers, and factory workers Both men and women seemed to expect that many of the new jobs for women were only temporary The return to the old order and the right to vote

Total War and Women

Background to Revolution
Russia was unprepared both military and technologically for the total war of World War I Lacking guns, soldiers using broomsticks to train and sent to the front without ries The Russian army suffered incredible lossestwo million soldiers were killed, and another four to six million wounded or six million wounded or captured

Beginnings of Upheaval
Czar Nicholas II was an autocratic ruler whose wife, Alexandra was German born *Grigori Rasputin, an uneducated Siberian peasant who claimed to be a holy man his inuence made him an important power behind the throne Assassinated in 1916, poisoned, shot, beat, and drowned

The March Revolution A series of strikes led by working-class women broke out in the capital city of *Petrograd The government had started bread rationing after the price of bread had skyrocketed Strikes shut down factories demanding Peace and Bread

The czar tried to dissolve the Duma, or legislative body. A provisional government was established which urged the czar to step down, eventually doing so *Alexander Kerensky, now head of provisional government, continued the war *The Soviets challenged this government and its policies the *Bolsheviks came to power

The Rise of Lenin

The *Bolsheviks began as a small faction of Marxist party called the Russian Social Democrats led by *V. I. Lenin He believed that only a violent revolution could destroy the capitalist system

German military leaders, hoping to create disorder in Russia, shipped Lenin to Russia ushering in a new stage of the Revolution They promised an end to the war the redistribution of all land, etc. Peace, Land, Bread

The Bolsheviks Seize Power Lenin and Leon Trotsky took over the government The Bolsheviks renamed themselves the Communists and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovskthey gave up eastern Poland, Ukraine, Finland, and the Baltic Real peace did not come, however, because the country soon sank into civil war

Civil War in Russia

Many people were opposed to the new Communist regime Liberals and antiLeninist socialists The Allies sent thousands of troops to various parts of Russia in the hope of bringing Russia back into the war

The Red Army was forced to ght on many fronts against these opponents Members of the local soviet murdered the czar and his family and burned their bodies in a nearby mine shaft

Triumph of the Communists

A policy of *war communism was used to ensure regular supplies for the Red Army A new Red secret police (Cheka) began a Red Terror aimed at the destruction of all those who opposed the new regime Communism transformed Russia into a centralized state and was largely hostile toward the Allied powers

The New Middle East

Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire The empire of the Ottoman Turks had been growing steadily weaker the sick man of Europe France seized Algeria and Tunisia and Great Britain took control of Egypt; Greece also declared its independence in the 19th century

reformers seized control of the empires government and adopted a constitution *Abdulhamid II, suspended the new constitution and ruled by authoritarian means He feared of assassination and had pets taste all his food

Impact of World War I

World War I was the nal blow The British sought to undermine Ottoman rule in the Arabian Peninsula by supporting Arab nationalist T. E. LawrenceLawrence of Arabia, governor of Makkah declared Arabia independent from Ottoman rule British troops seized Palestine

Massacre of the Armenians

During the war, the Ottoman Turks had alienated the Allies with their policies toward minority subjects The Christian Armenian minority had been pressing the Ottoman government for its independence Violent reaction killing Armenian men and expelling women and children

1.5 million Armenians had been killed and 500,000 deported *genocide or *ethnic cleansing the deliberate mass murder of a particular racial, political, or cultural group

Emergence of the Turkish Republic

Ottoman Empire collapsed Great Britain and France divided up the Ottoman territories in the Middle East Turkey remained under Ottoman control; Greece invaded Turkey *Colonel Mustafa Kemal led the creation of a new Republic of Turkey created in 1923

The Modernization of Turkey

President Kemal, known as *Atatrk (Father Turk) created the modern state of Turkey Turkish language with Roman Alphabet, European style names, Factories, Secular state Religion is like a heavy blanket that keeps the people of Turkey asleep

Men were forbidden to wear the fez, the brimless cap worn by Turkish Muslims Women were forbidden to wear the veil (also given the right to vote in 1934) The Turkish Republic was the product of Atatrks efforts

The Beginnings of Modern Iran A similar process of modernization was underway in Persia The discovery of oil in the southern part of the country in 1908 In 1921, Reza Khan led a military mutiny that seized control of *Tehran, the capital city

*Reza Shah Pahlavi tried to follow the example of Kemal Atatrk in Turkey; Persia became the modern state of *Iran in 1935 He created a Westernstyle education system Reza Shah Pahlavi drew closer to Nazi Germany

Arab Nationalism
Iraq, Palestine, and Jordan were assigned to Great Britain; Syria and Lebanon to France For the most part, Europeans created these Middle Eastern states; Europeans determined the nations borders and divided the peoples. *Ibn Saud united Arabs in the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula*Saudi Arabia

The Problem of Palestine In Palestine, the nationalism of Jews and Arabs came into conict because both groups viewed the area as a potential national state Zionist movement and the Jewish state *Balfour DeclarationBritain expressed support for a national home for the Jews in Palestine