Mod1 PDH

The PDH hierarchy
by JM Caballero
© Trend Communications
The telecommunication networks
POTS
1 2 3 2, 3 ,4 3 2 1
Information (1)
only meaningful for the end user
Signals (2)
modification of a physical characteristic: electricity, light, magnetism...relative to time
Transmission media (3)

allow the movement of a signal from a source to a target
Nodes (4)
relay the signals maintaining their characteristics.
there are three basic types: regenerators, switches/routers and multiplexers
© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 2/

60
Signals & Information
Information
Analog Digital
Modulation Digital Modulation
Analog - AM/FM radio - ADSL
- broadcast TV - digital TV
Signals
Digitalization Codification
Digital - audio CD - ISDN (data)
- ISDN (voice) - Internet

60
Transmission media
Transmission types Transmission obstruction
Twisted pair - Attenuation (loss of signal power)

· proportional to the distance
- Conductors · the signal loses power
Coaxial · must have a good relation with noise
- Noise
· thermic
Optical Fiber · intermodulation (sum total of frequencies)
- Dielectrics
· noise point
Space
- Distorsion (modification of the signal format)
· different propagation speeds

60
Telecommunication in evolution

60
The arrival of digital technology
analog
analog analog : 1900
Central Central
digital
digital Modem
Modem
analog
analog Central Central analog : 1960
digital
digital : 1990
Central Central digital
digital
The telephone networks have moved to the digitalization. At the beginning on the local
exchanges, backbones. The last step is the local loop.

60
The digitalization of signals
SAM PLIN G
t Q U AN TISATIO N
t0 t0+T ···
011
010
001
000
100
t
101
110
111
EN C O D IN G
001 011 001 101 100
t
t0 t0+T ···
It is a process in order to transport analog information through a digital network

60
Nyquist Sampling Theorem
in order to convert an analog signal to digital it is

necessary to use a sampling frequency (fs) at least two
times the highest frequency”
• fs ≥ 2BW (in Hertzs)

i.e.) a phone channel BWc = 4000 Hz in 8 bits each
sample it would be necessary:
• fs = 2*4000=8000 Hz
T= 125µs: this is the base period for all digital networks
codifying:
• 8000 samples/seg* 8bits/sample = 64.000 bits/seg
64kbit/s is the basic rate, or the unit rate, in digital telecommunications

60
Capacity of a channel: the Shannon Law
The capacity of a noisy channel is :
C= Bw log2 (1 + P/N)
C: Capacity of a channel in bit/s
Bw: Bandwidth in Hz.
P: Signal power
N: Media noise
Show a maximum capacity for a noisy channel

for transmitting digital information

60
Types of digital modulation
7V
3V 3V
PA M t
t0 t0+T ··· -V
-3V
7V (3) 011 1 3 1 5 4 A N A LO G
5V (2) 010 PU LSE
3V (1) 001
PD M t M O D U LA TIO N
t0 t0+T ···
V (0) 000
t0+3T t0+4T
-V (4) 100 t0 t0+T t0+2T t
1 3 1 5 4
-3 V (5) 101
-5 V (6) 110 PPM t
-7 V (7) 111 t0 t0+T ···
001 011 001 101 100
PC M t D IG ITA L
t0 t0+T ··· PU LSE
M O D U LA TIO N
t7 t8 t9 D elta
t t4 t5 t6 t7
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 M odul. t0 t1 t2 t3 t8 t9
t
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) the most used for voice

60
Line Codifications
Facts:
• An increase in data rate increases bit error rate

• An increase in S/N decreases bit error rate
• An increase in bandwidth allows increase in data rate
Evaluation factors:
• Avoid high frequency components for less bandwidth

• Avoid DC component, just AC allows transformers & media isolation
• Signal Synchronization embedded in the bit sequency avoids separate clock
• Signal Error Detecting Capability provided by the nature of the codification
• Signal Interference and Noise Immunity
• Cost and Complexity

60
Line Codifications (ii)
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
+V
NRZ 0
Non
Return -V
Zero
+V
2 Mbit/s
AMI 0 8 Mbit/s
Alternate
Mark
Inversion -V
+V
HDB3 B 0 0 V
2 Mbit/s
High 0 34 Mbit/s
Density 0 0 0 V B 0 0 V
Bipolar B: balancing
-V
Three V: violation
Zeroes +V
140 Mbit/s
CMI 0 155 Mbit/s
Coded
Mark
Inverted -V
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

60
Multiplexing
Allows the use of several communications channels through a transmission media
BWs1
DTE-A
BW
s2 BWC
DTE-B
MULTIPLEXER
.
. Transmission media
. BWs1
DTE-F
FDMA TDMA CDMA

Frequency Division Multiplexing Access Time Division Multiplexing Access Code Division Multiplexing Access
11 01 0 00 10 11 01110 0 1
F B A F E D CB A
A E
B
frequency 0 0 10 111 0111 0 1110 0 1
D
C
code Bit
time
Radio, TV, GSM ISDN, Frame Relay,GSM UMTS

60
Digital switching
Analog switching & transmission: Inefficient, expensive

• Requires continuous modulation/demodulation
• Noise is always present
Demodulator Modulator
demultiplexer multiplexer
A(f1)
A(f1) A(f1), B(f2)
B(f2) B(f2)
A(f1), B(f2), C(f3), D(f4) Analog
switch
C(f3) C(f3)
D(f4) D(f4) C(f3), D(f4)
4 channels at the
same frequency
Digital switching & transmission

• Integrates in one operation the demultiplexing and switching
• Easy to manage
Digital switch
ABABABABAB
ABCDABCDABCDABCD
CDCDCDCDCD

60
Typical analog arrangement
SU BSC R IBER S
PC M M U X
2 M bit/s
LTE
R EG EN ER A TO R
A N A LO G D IG ITAL
TR A N SM ISSIO N
EXC H A N G E LIN E
SU BSC R IBER S
R EG EN ER A TO R
2 M bit/s
LTE
The swictching capabilities are between subribers and digital multiplexors

60
Typical digital arrangement
SU BSCR IBERS
PCM M UX
2 M bit/s
LTE
2 M bit/s 2 M bit/s
REG EN ERA TO R
DIG ITAL DIG ITAL

TRANSM ISSIO N
EXCHANG E LINE
REG EN ERA TO R
SU BSCR IBERS
PCM M UX 2 M bit/s
LTE
2 M bit/s 2 M bit/s
The swictching capabilities use to be inside and integrated with the digital network

60
Advantages of digital technology
• Reduces hardware cost

• Simplifies swtiching
• Improves reliability, maintenance and quality
• Allows you to offer Quality of Service (QoS)
• Optimizes the use of resources
• Supports audio, data, video under a unified media
...but
• Requires more Bandwidth

• Needs synchronization

60
Digital milestones
• Telex (Germany 1935) first digital network

• Digitalization (France 1942)
• Fax (Japan 1950)
• Integration (USA 50´s) of transmission and switching
• Digital switching AT&T (USA 1962)
• T-Carrier (USA 1965) CM 24 channels Western Electric
• RSAN (Spain 1968) first public packet Network Telefonica
• PDH (Europe 1975)
• IDN (USA 70s) first full digital network
• ISDN (Europe 1984) standarized voice and data metwork
• SONET (USA 1988) first installations
• B-ISDN (Europe 1990) SDH+ATM broadband networks
• GSM (France 1994) digital wireless telephony
• UMTS (Europe 2001) broadband wireless network

60
Identify Digital Technology areas
Switching Symplifies demultiplexing and switching

operation
Allows network management

Transmission Allows TDMA to transmit several
Allows error detection and quality

measurements
Mandatory for data cammunications

Signalling Allows the development of advanced features
when stablishing, maintaining or realease
connections
Local loop Allows advanced features for any applications
based on voice, data, hypermedia or
multimedia
End-to-end digital quality

60
The PDH standards
IT U -T T e le c o m m u n ic a tio n
S ta n d a rd iz a tio n S e cto r o f th e
In te rn a tio n a l
T e le c o m m u n ic a tio n
U n io n
R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
G S E R IE S : T ra n s m is sio n s ys te m s a n d
M u ltip le x a tio n e q u ip m e n t
O S E R IE S : M e a s u rin g e q u ip m e n t s p e cific a tio n s
M S E R IE S : T ra n s m is sio n s ys te m s m a in te n a n c e
Section
Multiplexing Hierarchies
Provides an standarized way for transmission and multiplexing in terms of rates and formats

60
PDH is the European hierarchy
• It is digital
• It is a hierachy because define four standarized layers for 2, 8, 34, and 140 Mbit/s
• It is plesiochronous because each multiplexer can use its clock

60
PDH is plesiochronous
PDH
PDH
PDH
PDH
PDH
PDH
clock
PDH circuits
alignment
SWITCH
Lines Input Synchronization Switched lines
Plesio- means “almost” but truth is that each PDH island has its own clock: the result is an
unsynchronized network

60
PDH standard by ITU-T
hirarchy standard binary rate line code amplitude attenuation
1 G.704/732 2048kbit/s±50ppm HDB3 2.37V ó 6dB

3.00V
2 G.742 8448kbit/s±30ppm HDB3 2.37V 6dB
3 G.751 34368kbit/s±20ppm HDB3 1.00V 12dB
4 G.751 139264kbit/s±15ppm CMI 1.00V 12dB

60
PDH Frame stream sequence

60
The PDH hierarchy
Remote Alarms Indicator (FAS and MFAS)

A
Spare bits (national use)
S
i - Tributary bits
T1
Justification control bits
J11
Justification bits
R1
i - Channel CAS bits
ai bi ci di
CRC-4 Error signaling bits

E
CAS multiframe alignment
1
Frame alignment bits
CRC-4 Multiframe alignment
Frame alignment supervision bits

0
Cyclic Redundancy Checksum bits
C1 C2 C3 C4

60
Frame alignment
FA S FA S
tim e slots
• Allows targetting of synchronization to find the beginning of the frame

• It needs the FAS word at the beginning of each odd framefor the 2 Mbit/s or at the beginning
of the frame for the rest of the hierarchies

60
The 2048Mbit/s basic frame
• Multiframe composed by 16 frames, each one has 32 bytes

• The first time slot is for the control, the 16 channel is for signalling
• The frame period is 125 µs then 1byte is a 8 bit/125 µs= 64 kbit/s channel
• The transmission rate is (32channel x 8bit/channel) / 125 µs = 2,048 Mbit/s

60
The 2 Mbit/s basic frame (ii)
B inary rate = 2048.0 Kbit/s ± 50 ppm

Line C ode = H D B3
N om inalam plitude = 2.37 V (coaxialcable)
3.00 V (balanced cable)
Im pedance = 75 (coaxialcable)
Ω
120 (balanced cable)
Ω
Tolerated inputlevelattenuation = 0 to 6 dB at1024 Khz according to f
√
Fram e length = 256 bits
A vailable bits per tim eslot= 8 bits
M ultiplexing m ethod = octetinterleaving
Fram e rate = 8000 fram e/s
FA S bits rate = 28000 bit/s
(including supervision bit)= 32000 bit/s
• It is the basic frame and the most used

• All the european network equipment support
• Most of the narrow band networks are built over this frame: POTS, Frame Relay, GSM, N-
ISDN, and some leased lines, and ATM access networks

60
The FAS for the alignment
• FAS =0011011
• FAS is only transmitted on odd frames the
• NFAS uses a bit equal to “1” to avoid coincidences

60
NFAS: Non Frame Alignment Sequence (i)
The second bit of the NFAS is equal to “1” and it is used to avoid aleatory coincidences with
the FAS

60
NFAS: Non Frame Alingment Sequence (ii)
• The A bits are used for alarm management

• The S bits are reserved space for opertators that want to implement management and
maintenance protocols

60
Check Redundancy Code CRC-4
• It detects block errors. Each 4 bits CRC corresponds to the previous sub-multiframe
• The receiver compute the submultiframe CRC and compares it with the code received on
the next frame
• If it does not match then an indition is sent using the E bit

60
Error monitoring
• This two bits indicate block errors detected by the CRC. First for the upper submultiframe
and the second for the II submultiframe
• “1” is the defect value
• If multiplexer detects block errors then sets to “0” the bit E to the frame which is sent to the
other side

60
Multiframe alignment
• The “001011” sequence is the alignment which is inserted on the odd frames
• They must identify the CRC-4 submultiframe

60
Distance alarm indication (bit A)
Used to send alarms to the remote side:
• Alarm bit used to indicate a power fault, loss of incoming signal, loss of frame, coder/
decoder fault, a very high bit error rate (>10-3) that do not allows recover the channels
• Then the receiver sets the bit A=‘1’ on the frames travelling on the other direction
• When transmitter realizes on the alarm state then send an AIS setting all the frame bits to ‘1’

60
Spare bits
• The bits S are reserved for the Network Operator internal use only
• Usually are application, maintenance or monitoring of performance
• If they are not used, or in international links, must be set to “1”

60
The signalling channel
Used to interchange information between Local Exchanges (LE)
• Allows to establish, maintain an release end user connections.

• Uses the time-slot TS16 of the 2 Mbit/s frame
• Si is a four bits channel (a1, a2, a3, a4) i values goes from 1 to 30, one per channel

60
Signalling channel methods
• Channel Associated Signalling CAS

Each 64 kbit/s channel (TS1-TS15 and TS17-TS30) has a 2 kbit/s channel, as fast as each one
of the 30 signalling channel can be found at predefined positions
• Common Channel Signalling (CCS)
Byte oriented protocol. There is not a predefined position for each information channel
because the protocol messages can be identified by means of an specific field

60
Multiframe Alignment Signal (MFAS)
• To synchronize the CAS an alignment signal

• 0000 sequence is found on the first bits of the multiframe

60
No Multiframe Alignment Signal (NMFAS)
Used to send alarms to the remote side:
• Alarm bit used to indicate a power fault, loss of incoming signal, loss of multiframe CAS,
coder/decoder fault, a very high bit error rate (>10-3) that do not allows recover the channels
• Then the receiver sets the bit A=‘1’ on the frames travelling on the other direction
• When transmitter realizes on the alarm state then sets all the bits of the CAS multiframe to
indicate the alarm on the response from the remote side is to set CAS bits to ‘1’

60
FAS - higher hierarchies
FA S
140 M bit/s 111110100000 A S T1 T2T3 T4
34 M bit/s tributaries bits
FA S
34 M bit/s 1111010000 AS T 1 T2 T 3T 4
FA S
8 M bit/s 1111010000 AS T 1 T2 T 3T 4
Uses some bits more depending on the bit rate

60
Frame synchronization criteria
Bit rate CCITT standard Frame Alignment Frame Loss
2048 Kbit/s G.704/732 FAS, NFAS(bit 2), FAS 3 consecutive

errored FAS
8448 Kbit/s G.742 3 consecutive 4 consecutive

correct FAS errored FAS



60
8 Mbit/s channel structure
1 12 13 2121 45 212
FAS AST T T T T1T2T3 T4

Ji
1 2 3 4 T1 T2T3 T4T1 T4T1 T2T3 T4
1 45 212 1 45 89 212
Ji Ji Ri T1 T2T3 T4 T1 T4T1 T2T3 T4

T1 T2T3 T4 T1 T4 T1 T2T3 T4
B in ary rate = 8448.0 K bit/s ± 30 ppm
L in e C od e = H D B 3
N o m in al am p litu d e = 2.37 V
Im p ed an ce = 75Ω
T o lerated inp u t level atten u atio n = 0 to 6 dB at 4224 K hz according to f
√
N u m b er o f trib u taries = 4
Ju stificatio n : P ositive
bits Jij = 1 → R i = fill-in (justification)
bits Jij = 0 → R i = inform ation (no justification)
(decision is based on m ajority count of bits Jij)
M u ltip lexin g m eth od = bit interleaving
F ram e rate = 9962.264 fram e/s
F A S b its rate = 99622.64 bit/s
M axim u m ju stificatio n rate p er trib u tary = 10000 bit/s approx.
N o m in al ju stificatio n ratio = 0.424
F ram e len gth = 848 bits

A vailab le b its p er trib utary p er fram e = 206 bits
848 bits
F ram e d u ratio n = = 100.4 µ s
8448 kbit/s
bits per tributary (per fram e) 206 bits
T rib u tary R ate = = = 2051,7 kbit/s
fram e duration 100.4 µ s

60
1 12 13 384 1 45 384
FAS AST T T T T1 T2T3 T4

Ji
1 2 3 4 T1T2T3 T4 T1 T4 T1T2T3 T4
1 45 384 1 45 89 384
Ji Ji Ri T1 T2T3T4 T1 T4T1 T2T3 T4

T1 T2T3 T4 T1 T4 T1 T2T3 T4
B inary rate = 34368.0 K bit/s ± 20 ppm

Line C ode = H D B 3
N om inal am plitude = 1 V
Im pedance = 75Ω
Tolerated input levelattenuation = 0 to 12 dB at17.184 M hz according to √f
N um ber of tributaries = 4
Justification :P ositive
bits Jij = 1 → R i = fill-in (justification)
bits Jij = 0 → R i = inform ation (no justification)
(decision is based on m ajority countofbits Jij)
M ultiplexing m ethod = bitinterleaving
Fram e rate = 22375.0 fram e/s
FA S bits rate = 223750.0 bit/s
M axim um justification rate per tributary = 22735 bit/s approx.
N om inaljustification ratio = 0.436

A vailable bits per tributary per fram e = 378 bits
1536 bits
Fram e duration = = 44.7 µs
34368 kbit/s
bits per tributary (per fram e) 378 bits
Tributary R ate = = = 8456,4 kbit/s
fram e duration 44.7 µ s

60
1 16 17 488
FAS A S T1 T2T3T4 T1 T2T3 T4
1 45 488
Ji T1 T2T3 T4T1 T4 T1 T2T3 T4

Binary rate = 139264.0 Kbit/s ± 15 ppm
Line Code = CM I
Vpp nom inal= 1 V
1 45 488
Im pedance = 75
Ω
Ji T1 T2T3 T4 T1 T4 T1 T2T3 T4
Tolerated inputlevelattenuation = 0 to 12 dB at70 M hz according to f
√
Num beroftributaries = 4
Justification :Positive
1 45 488
bits Jij = 1 → R i= fill-in (justification)
Ji T1 T2T3 T4T1 T4 T1 T2T3 T4
bits Jij = 0 → R i= inform ation (no justification)
(decision is based on m ajority countofbits Jij)
M ultiplexing m ethod = bitinterleaving
1 45 488
Fram e rate = 47562.842 fram e/s
Ji T1 T2T3 T4 T1 T4 T1 T2T3 T4
FAS bits rate = 570754.098 bit/s
M axim um justification rate pertributary = 47563 bit/s approx.
Nom inaljustification ratio = 0.419
1 45 89 488
Ji Ri T1 T2T3 T4 T1 T4T1 T2T3 T4

Available bits pertributary perfram e = 723 bits
2928 bits
Fram e duration = = 21.02 µs
139264 kbit/s
bits pertributary (perfram e) 723 bits
Tributary Rate = = = 34394,2 kbit/s
fram e duration 21.02 µs

60
Synchronization problems
8448 Kbit/s (+5 ppm)

8
34368 Kbit/s
8448 Kbit/s (-10 ppm)

34
• The standard allows some offsets from the nominal bit rates because it is assumed the lack
of synchronization on PDH networks
• The problem appears when multiplexing to higher rate
• In order to avoid errors the second, third and fourth hierachies provides mechanisms to
accommodate the rate impairments

60
Majority criteria for justification
• If the tributary were absolutely synchronized with the multiplexed frame the it would use the
R bit about the 50% of the opportunities
• Then the multiplexer must set on all the Jik bits that belong to that tributary i.e.) if it is the
second tributary would set J21, J22, J23 = 1 and R2=1
• At the reception site a majority criteria is applied to identify if R bit contains information of
the tributary or not. If it does the bits must be insert on the bit sequence when demultiplexing

60
The justification mechanism
• Bits Jik=1 then Ri is justification, no information

• Bits Jik= 0 the Ri contains tributary information
• if not all are 0s or 1s decision is based on majority count of Jik
Maximum justification rate. 2nd hierarchy: 9962,264 bits/s, 3rd hierarchy: 22375,0 bits/s, 4th.
hierarchy: 47562,842 bits/s

60
Alarms - higher hierarchies
140, 34 y 8 Mbit/s
FAS A S T1T2T3 T4
The same functionality than 2 Mbit/s frame uses the full duplex capabilities of a link.
It is used to indicate for alarms at higher rates:
• loss of signal
• loss of frame (where the frame starts?)

60
Spare channel - higher hierarchies
140 M bit/s. FAS A S S ST 1T2T3 T4
34 M bit/s FAS A ST 1 T2T3T4
8 M bit/s FAS A ST 1 T2T3T4
• general purpose bit that defines a channel which can be used by any operator application
• some samples are maintenance or monitoring of performance

60
PDH events
hierarchy ID Explanation
All AIS Alarm Indication Signal
LOF Loss Of Frame alarm
LOS Loss Of Frame Signal alarm
RAI (RDI) Remote Alarm Indication
FAS error Alignment error
Bit error Bit sequence mismatch (the patterns is known)
Code error Violation on codification sequence
2Mbit/s CRC-LOM Cyclic Redundancy Checksum - Loss Of Multiframe
CAS-LOM Channel Associated Signalling - Loss Of Multiframe
RLOM Remote Loss Of Multiframe
CRC error Redundancy Check error
REBE Remote End Block Error
LOF
RAI (bit A=1)

60
Different AIS types
:X
=1
2 Mbit/s AIS TS16 AIS 8, 24, 140 Mbit/s AIS
• AIS: all the tributary bits are “1”

• Receiver detects it when tries to identify the FAS
• TS16 AIS at the signaling channel. The rest of the bits are not modified

60
The CRC-4 mechanism
multiplexer multiplexer
CRC4 errors....
2 Mbit/s
REBE (bit E=1)
1) CRC process 2) error detection

4) error indication reader 3) error indication writter
• It is used for error detection as well as synchronization

• It is OK for low error rates (< 10-6)
• As all CRC It is not perfect the 6,25% of the errors are not detected
• Each multiplexer informs to the partner the detected errors using the E bit:
• Some of the old multiplexers does not implement this capabilities

60
PDH as circuit provider
POTS
POTS
Alquilada 8 8
Alquiladas
ISDN 2 2
ISDN
8 8
Frame
Relay Frame
Internet 2 2 Relay
Internet
8 8 8 8
GSM
2 34 34 2 GSM
ADSL ADSL
ATM
LMDS ATM LMDS
• PDH networks provide circuits to public and private networks like POTS, GSM, ISDN, FRL,
audio, video, and data.
• The 2 Mbit/s frame is used also to build the synchronization network.

60
PDH some restrictions
• The supervision and

maintenance functions are
limited (just a few bits for
alarms in NFAS, NMFAS
and E bit (2 Mbit/s frame)
• In order to get low speed
channel (i.e. 2 Mbit/s) from
a high hierarchy (i.e. 140
Mbit/s) a full
demultiplexing is need
• Loss of compatibility
between European,
Japanese and North
American hierachies
• There are no standards for
speeds over 140 Mbit/s
• Low management
capabilities

60
Test & Measurement
Section
How to measure
In Service Measurement 64 2 140 2

2 Mbit/s 140 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
(ISM)
2 140 2 64
FRAME
ANALYZER
test equipment
64 2 140 2
140 Mbit/s
Out Of Service Measurement

2 140 2 64
(OOS)
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
PATTERN ERROR
GENERATOR DETECTOR
test equipment

60
Equalization
Attenuation (dB)
140 Mbit/s
140
34
28
√f
8
EQUALIZATION
Test equipment provides automatic equalization
• attenuation is bigger for high frequencies

• amplification is a requirement

60
Quality Measurements
%ROUTE ALLOCATION
OK DEGRADED BAD
LIMIT LIMIT
SERIAL OK BAD
OUTPUT
ITU-T Recommendations
• G.821 under 2Mbit/s,

• G.826 applies to PDH and SDH,
• M.2100 bringing into service and maintenance PDH
• M2101.1 bringing into service and maintenance SDH

60

Mod1 PDH

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The PDH hierarchy

Transmission media (3)

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 2/

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 3/

Transmission types Transmission obstruction

Twisted pair - Attenuation (loss of signal power)

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 4/

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 5/

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 6/

001 011 001 101 100

It is a process in order to transport analog information through a digital network

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 7/

in order to convert an analog signal to digital it is

• fs ≥ 2BW (in Hertzs)

• 8000 samples/seg* 8bits/sample = 64.000 bits/seg

64kbit/s is the basic rate, or the unit rate, in digital telecommunications

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 8/

The capacity of a noisy channel is :

Show a maximum capacity for a noisy channel

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 9/

001 011 001 101 100

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) the most used for voice

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 10/

• An increase in data rate increases bit error rate

• Avoid high frequency components for less bandwidth

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 11/

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 12/

Allows the use of several communications channels through a transmission media

FDMA TDMA CDMA

Radio, TV, GSM ISDN, Frame Relay,GSM UMTS

© Trend Communications The PDH hierarchy 13/

Analog switching & transmission: Inefficient, expensive

D(f4) D(f4) C(f3), D(f4)

Digital switching & transmission

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The swictching capabilities are between subribers and digital multiplexors

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DIG ITAL DIG ITAL

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• Reduces hardware cost

• Requires more Bandwidth

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• Telex (Germany 1935) first digital network

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Switching Symplifies demultiplexing and switching

Allows network management

Allows error detection and quality

Mandatory for data cammunications

End-to-end digital quality

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Lines Input Synchronization Switched lines

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hirarchy standard binary rate line code amplitude attenuation

1 G.704/732 2048kbit/s±50ppm HDB3 2.37V ó 6dB

2 G.742 8448kbit/s±30ppm HDB3 2.37V 6dB

3 G.751 34368kbit/s±20ppm HDB3 1.00V 12dB

4 G.751 139264kbit/s±15ppm CMI 1.00V 12dB

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Remote Alarms Indicator (FAS and MFAS)