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Circuit Theory
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
+ VS
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
electrons -B -
V Figure S1(b)
Figure 1(c)
Figure 2(a) shows a capacitor initially fully charged to 50V. To discharge a capacitor, a wire is connected across a charged capacitor, or a switch is closed, as shown in Figure 2(b). When the switch is closed, the excess electrons on plate B move through the circuit to plate A (indicated by the arrows). The charge is neutralized when the number of free electrons on both plates is again equal. At this time, the voltage across the capacitor is zero, and the capacitor is completely discharged, as shown in Figure 2(c). A + 50V B A + electrons B VC = 0V
Figure 2(b)
Figure 2(c)
In a practical situation, there cannot be capacitance without some resistance in a circuit. Because of this, the charging and discharging characteristics of a capacitor must always be considered in light of the associated resistance. The resistance introduces the element of time in the charging and discharging of a capacitor. (Otherwise, the charging and discharging theoretically takes zero amount of time, i.e., is instantaneous.) 1 S + E _
Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005
2 R2
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R1
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
Figure 3. When a capacitor charges or discharges through a resistance, a certain time is required for the capacitor to charge fully or discharge fully. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously because a finite time is required to move charges from one point to another. The rate at which the capacitor charges or discharges is determined by the time constant of the circuit. Definition: The time constant (tau) of a series RC circuit is determined by the rate at which the curve rises or decays and is defined by the product of R and C. It is expressed in units of seconds when resistance is in ohms and capacitance is in farads. = RC, unit seconds (s) transient
fin l a va e lu 8% 6 9% 5 9% 8
steady-state
9% 9
6% 3
0 0
Figure 4. Charging curve. During one time constant, the charge on a capacitor changes approximately 63%. Therefore, an uncharged capacitor charges to 63% of its fully charged voltage in one time constant. transient steady-state
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
in l itia va e lu
10 0%
3% 7
1% 4 5 % 0 0 1 2 3 2 % 4 1 % 5 t
Figure 5. Discharging curve. When discharging, the capacitor voltage drops to approximately 37% (which is 100% - 63%) of its initial value in one time constant. Important: Voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously Current in a capacitive circuit can ideally change instantaneously A fully charged capacitor appears as an open circuit to block direct current. An uncharged capacitor appears as a short circuit to an instantaneous change in current.
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
When a source has been connected to a circuit for a long period of time (i.e. after all transients have expired), the currents and voltages in the circuit are said to have their steady-state values (also known as final values). Under steady-state conditions, all capacitors are fully charged and are equivalent to open circuits. Thus, we can find steady-state voltages and currents by replacing all capacitors with open circuits and using conventional analytical methods. In performing such analysis, we determine the voltage across a fully charged capacitor by finding the voltage across the terminals of the open circuit that replaces it. 4.3.3 Instantaneous values These refer to the voltage or current values at a particular time t.
Figure 6. An RC circuit that can be used to charge and discharge a capacitor. 4.4.1 Charging phase To charge a capacitor, the switch S is in position 1 leading to a circuit as shown in Figure 7. C I + E _ + VC + VR -
Figure 7. The capacitor in the circuit is initially uncharged, and is in series with a resistor. When switch S is closed at t = 0, we can determine the voltage across capacitor VC, the voltage across resistor VR and the transient current I = IC = IR.
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
Recall the instance of the capacitor circuit charged by a battery (Figure 1). When the switch is closed, electrons are drawn from plate A and deposited to plate B by the battery, resulting in a net positive charge on plate A and negative charge on plate B. The transfer of electrons is very rapid at first, and slows down as the potential across the capacitor approaches the applied voltage of the battery. Once the voltage across the capacitor has reached the source voltage, the capacitor is fully charged and will remain in this stage if no further changes are made. A capacitor can be replaced by an equivalent open circuit once the charging phase in a dc network has passed. C + + E _ Figure 8. a) Solution of first order differential equations general solution and unique solution The current in the capacitor is the same as the current in the resistor. dV E VC C C = dt R dVC E VC E VC = = dt RC dVC dt = VC E dVC 1 = dt + D C E t ln (VC E ) = + D t / + D VC E = e = e t / e D = Ae t / VC = E + VR = 0 -
To find the unique solution, we make use of the fact that when t = 0, VC = 0. VC (0) = E + Ae 0 / VC (0) = E + A = 0 A = E VC (t ) = E (1 e t / )
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
b) Concepts of homogeneous and nonhomogeneous differential equations A linear nth order differential equation of the form dny d n 1 y dy an ( x ) n + an 1 ( x ) n 1 + ... + a1 ( x ) + a0 ( x ) y = 0 dx dx dx is said to be homogeneous, whereas an equation dny d n1 y dy an ( x ) n + an 1 ( x ) n1 + ... + a1 ( x ) + a0 ( x ) y = g ( x ) dx dx dx with g(x) not identically zero, is said to be nonhomogeneous. From our first order equation dV E VC C C = dt R dV V E C C+ C = dt R R Since the RHS is not identically zero, the equation is nonhomogeneous. The solution of a nonhomogeneous equation consists of the solution of the associated homogeneous equation (known as the complementary function) plus a particular solution. Solution of nonhomogeneous equation = complementary function + particular solution The associated homogeneous equation for C C dVC VC + =0 dt R dVC VC E + = is dt R R
Let us try to solve the associated homogeneous differential equation. dVC V V = C = C dt RC dVC dt = VC 1 dt + D C t ln (VC ) = + D t / + D VC = e = e t / e D = Ae t /
dVC
Note that this is part of the solution for the nonhomogeneous equation C VC = E + Ae t /
dVC VC E + = . dt R R
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
complementary function particular solution The general expressions for charging and discharging exponential curves are given in the following equations for both voltage and current. v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / i = I F + ( I i I F ) e t / where VF and IF are the final (or steady-state) values Vi and Ii are the initial values v and i are the instantaneous values at time t = time constant = RC c) Voltage across capacitor VC For the capacitor charging from Vi = 0 to VF = E, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = E + (0 E )e t / VC = E Ee t / VC = E (1 e t / ) This gives a charging exponential curve as shown in Figure 4. If it is required to find t for a particular value of VC, VC = E (1 e t / ) VC = 1 e t / E V e t / = 1 C E V t = ln1 C E d) Voltage across resistor VR From Figure 7 and applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, E = VR + VC or VR = E - VC When switch S is closed at t = 0, the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Therefore there is no voltage across the capacitor at time t = 0+. VR = E at t = 0+ (just after switch is closed)
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
When time t is increased, the voltage across capacitor will increase. Therefore, VR = E - VC When the capacitor is fully charged at steady-state, the voltage across the capacitor VC is equal to the source voltage. Therefore VR = E - VC = E - E = 0 The general expression for discharging (and also charging) exponential curve is v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / For the voltage across the resistor, the curve begins Vi = E and ends at VF = 0. Therefore we can write VR = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VR = 0 + ( E 0)e t / VR = Ee t / This gives a discharging exponential curve as shown in Figure 5. e) Transient Current I (I = IR = IC) From Figure 7 and applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, E = VR + VC or IR = VR = E - VC When switch S is closed at t = 0, the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Therefore there is no voltage across the capacitor at time t = 0+. IR = VR = E or I = E R at t = 0+ (just after switch is closed) at t = 0+ (just after switch is closed)
When time t increases, there is a voltage VC increasing across the capacitor. Therefore, E VC I= R When the capacitor is fully charged (at steady-state), the voltage across the capacitor VC is equal to the source voltage. Therefore E VC E E I= = =0 R R The general expression for discharging exponential curve is i = I F + ( I i I F ) e t / For the transient current through the circuit, the curve begins at Ii = E/R and ends at IF = 0. Therefore we can write the equation as
Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
I = I F + ( I i I F )e t / E I = 0 + 0 e t / R E I = I C = I R = e t / R This gives a discharging exponential curve as shown in Figure 5. 4.4.2 Discharging phase At any time in the charging process, if the switch is moved to position 2 resulting in a circuit as shown in Figure 9, the capacitor will begin to discharge at a rate sensitive to the time constant = RC. (Note that for the circuit in Figure 6, this is the same time constant as for the charging phase.) C I + VC + VR Figure 9. The established voltage across the capacitor VC will create a flow of charges in the closed path that will eventually discharge the capacitor completely. In essence, the capacitor functions like a battery with a decreasing terminal voltage. In this discharging process, the actual current flow has reversed its direction, changing the polarity of the voltage across R. This means that by definition, I and VR are now negative. a) VC, VR and I Consider the circuit shown in Figure 6. Assume that the switch has been in position 1 for a long period of time, so the capacitor is fully charged to E volts and the current IC is zero. The switch S is now moved to position 2, resulting in a circuit as shown in Figure 9. The source is no longer in the circuit and there is a path for current to flow from the positive side of the capacitor to the negative side. This is consistent with the fact that I is now negative. In other words, electrons on the negative side are drawn to the positive side and the charges on each side are dissipated. This transfer of charges produces a current which is in the opposite direction from the original current. Eventually, all of the charges on both sides of the capacitor will be neutralized, so both the discharging current I and the voltage VC will decay to zero. The voltage across capacitor VC can be found by applying v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / , where Vi = E and VF = 0.
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 0 + ( E 0)e t / VC = Ee t / Lets say we need to find the time t when the voltage VC is of a particular value. VC = Ee t / VC = e t / E V t = ln C E To find VR, we apply Kirchhoffs Voltage Law. VR + VC = 0 VR = VC VR = Ee t / To find the transient discharge current V I= R R E I = e t / R
24V R2 = 1.2k
C = 3.3F
Figure 10.
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
a) Find the mathematical expression for the voltage across the capacitor when the switch is closed at t = 0. b) Find the mathematical expression of the current during the transient period. c) Sketch the waveform for the capacitor voltage and current. a) Time constant, = RC = ( R1 + R2 )C = ( 2.2k + 1.2k)(3.3F ) = 0.011s For the capacitor charging from Vi = 4V to VF = 24V, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 24 + ( 4 24)e t / VC = 24 20e t / 0.011 24V 4V = 5.88mA 2.2k + 1.2k Final value of current = 0 (since the capacitor becomes an open circuit) Applying i = I F + ( I i I F )e t / , we get i = 5.88e t / 0.011 mA Note that the current and the voltage have the same time constant. b) Initial value of current = Alternatively, dV i=C C dt d ( 24 20e t / 0.011 ) 20 t / 0.011 =C = (3.3 ) = 5.88mA e dt 0.011 c)
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
4 3 2
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
Figure 12. Voltage and current waveforms if the switch is moved alternately between positions 1 and 2.
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
Example 2 R1 = 100k 1 2 3
E = 10V
+ VC
_
a) Find the mathematical expressions for the transient behaviour of the capacitor voltage and current if the switch is moved to position 1 at t = 0. Assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged. b) Find the mathematical expressions for the capacitor voltage and current if the switch is moved to position 2 at 30ms. Assume that the leakage resistance of the capacitor is infinite. c) Find the mathematical expressions for the capacitor voltage and current if the switch is moved to position 3 at 48ms. d) Plot the capacitor voltage and current waveforms. a) Charging phase: Time constant, = RC = R1C = (100k)( 0.05F ) = 0.005s For the capacitor charging from Vi = 0V to VF = 10V, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 10 + (0 10)e t / VC = 10(1 e t / 0.005 ) E VC 10 10(1 e t / 0.005 ) iC = = = 0.1e t / 0.005mA R1 100k b) Storage phase: VC = E = 10V and iC = 0A
c) Discharging phase: Time constant,
= RC
For the capacitor discharging from Vi = 10V to VF = 0V, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 0 + (10 0)e t / VC = 10e ( t 0.048 ) / 0.01
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
iC = d)
0.1 0.08 Capacitor current (mA) 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 20 40 60 Time (ms) 80 100
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
Figure 16.
B -
At time t = 0, the switch is closed, but at time t = 6ms, the switch is opened again. Find an expression to describe a) the charging phase b) the discharging phase R2 = 2k A R3 = 4k
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+ ETH -
ECT1016
Circuit Theory
Figure 17. ETH is the open circuit voltage across the terminals A and B, with the capacitor removed. 4k E TH = 10V = 8V 1k + 4k R2 = 2k R1 = 1k A R3 = 4k RTH
Figure 18.
B -
So we get the Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 19. RTH = 2.8k A + = 8V _ B
ETH
C = 1F
Figure 19. To find the expression for VC, use v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / , where Vi = 0 and VF = 8V. = RTHC = 2.8ms
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
b) Discharging phase When t = 6ms, VC = 8(1 e 0.006 / 0.0028 ) = 7.06 V This becomes the initial value of the voltage for the discharging phase. R2 = 2k
R3 = 4k Figure 20. To find the expression for VC, use v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / , where Vi = 7.06V and VF = 0V. = (R2 + R3)C = 6ms VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 0 + (7.06 0)e ( t 0.006 ) / 0.006 VC = 7.06e ( t 0.006 ) / 0.006 V
8 7 6 5 VC (V) 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 T e (m im s)
C = 1F
for t 6ms
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ECT1016
Circuit Theory
The ideal capacitor does not dissipate or consume any energy. Instead, it stores energy. Consider an ideal capacitor that has been fully charged by a voltage source. When the voltage source is removed, leaving the capacitor terminals open, the capacitor remains charged indefinitely, because there is no path through which discharge current can flow. If a resistor is then connected across the terminals, discharge current flows and electrical energy is dissipated in the resistor. Clearly, this energy was stored in an ideal capacitor for whatever length of time the terminals were left open. A plot of the voltage, current and power to a capacitor during the charging phase is shown in Figure 22. The power curve can be obtained by finding the product of the voltage and current at selected intervals of time and connecting the points obtained.
Figure 22. Power curve for a capacitor during charging. The shaded area under the power curve represents the energy stored. Using calculus, we can determine the area under the curve. The energy W stored by capacitance C with a charge Q, is 1 W = CV 2 2 where V is the voltage across the capacitor, or 2 Q W= 2C
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