PADDY (Oryza sativa L.

)
Introduction Rice is one the three most important food crops in the world and is the staple food for over 2.7 billion people. It is grown in almost all the countries, except the America. Total global area under rice is 150.8 million ha with total out put of 573 million tones of paddy at an average yield of 3.83 tons per ha. More than 90% of global rice area is in Asia. Out of 2.7 billion rice consuming people, more than 95% live in Asia. China and India are two major rice producers. These two countries account for 49.1% of the total rice area (74.1 m ha) and 55.2% of world's production (310.1 m tons). India is the largest rice growing country, while China is the largest rice producer. In India, area under rice is 44.6 m ha with total out put of 80 m tones (paddy) with an average productivity of 1855 kg/ha. It is grown in almost all the states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Tamilnadu, Punjab, Maharashtra and Karnataka are major rice growing states and contribute to total 92% of area and production. Climate and Soil requirement Rice is a crop of tropical climate. However, it is also grown successfully in humid to subhumid regions under subtropical and temperate climate. Rice is cultivated in almost all types of soils with varying productivity. Under high temperature, high humidity with sufficient rainfall and irrigation facilities, rice can be grown in any type of soil. The major soil groups where rice is grown are riverine alluvium, red-yellow, red loamy, hill and submontane, Terai, laterite, costal alluvium, red sandy, mixed red and black and medium and shallow black soils. Cropping season and duration Depending upon the climate and water availability rice is grown in all the three seasons, i.e. Kharif, Rabi and summer. Depending upon the variety crop duration vary from 100 to 150 days. In northern and western India (J and K, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh Gujrat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra) rice is grown mainly in Kharif, while in southern and eastern India it is grown round the year in three seasons with varying sowing time and periods. Cropping pattern Rice is usually taken as monocrop in rice-wheat, rice-rice or rice-legume rotation. In eastern and southern India rice is grown in rice-rice rotation. In rainfed areas rice is followed by short duration legumes such as moong, black gram or horse gram. In Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh rice is grown in rice-wheat or rice-vegetable rotation. Important varieties Rice is an important food crop and large numbers of varieties are grown in different states. Some of the important varieties grown in Maharashtra and found suitable under organic management are given below: Early maturing Ratna, Sakoli-6, Sindewahi-1, Saket-4, Annapurna

Medium duration Jaya, Sindewahi-75, Sindewahi-4, HMT, PKV-HMT-selection, IR-8 Long duration Pankaj, Sindewahi-5, Sakoli-8 Scented rice Sakoli-7, PKV-Makarand, Sindewahi-2 Field preparation During April-May, plough the field 1-2 times, 20-25 cm deep with soil turning (mould board) plough. Deep ploughing helps in eradication of weeds and improves water holding capacity. It also exposes the eggs of harmful insects, pests to hot sun. Prepare bunds around the field to check loss of rain water by run-off. Keep it flooded or saturated with water for about 15 days. This will help in decomposition of chaff and straw of previous crops. Begin puddling 2 weeks ahead of transplanting, after erecting a 30 cm tall earthen bund around the field. Different types of bullock and tractor drawn puddlers are used. Puddling helps to bury and destroy the weeds, even later. Puddle the field in standing water with 3-4 runs, and make the soil surface even. Mix leaves of Neem, Custard apple, Pongam tree etc. to build pest resistance in the soil and crop. Plant farm bunds with trees of Neem, Babul, Pongam, Sesban, Gliricidia etc. to get much leaf litter for soil nutrition. Trees also attract birds that control the pests.

Mixing the organic manure and leveling

Puddling of the soil

Seed treatment To select good quality, healthy seeds suspend seeds in salt solution (300 gm common salt in 10lit water). Healthy seeds will sink in the solution while lighter, empty seeds will float. Discard floating seeds and chaff, wash the seeds in water for 3-4 times and dry for 24 hrs. Depending upon the conditions, cultivation practices and water availability, rice is cultivated by direct seed sowing or by seedling transplantation. Direct seed sowing

For direct seed sown paddy, seeds are sown by either broadcasting or by line sowing by drilling or by seeding behind the plough in wet soil. Treat the seeds with a mixture of Bijamrut (200gm/kg seed) and Trichoderma viride (8 gm/kg of seed). Dry the seeds in shade. Now again treat the seeds with Azospirillum and PSB biofertilizer (10gm each per kg of seed) and dry the treated seeds in shade. Such treated seeds should be sown within 6-8 hours of treatment. In south Indian states, Panchgavya is being used in place of Bijamrut. Seeds are soaked in diluted Panchgavya for 20 min, dried and then treated with Trichoderma viridi, PSB and Azospirillum. 100 kg seed is needed per ha under broadcasting method of sowing while in line sowing 60 kg will be enough per ha. The row-to-row distance in line sowing should be 20 cm. Seeds sown in nursery Soak seeds in a mixture of Bijamrut, Azospirillum, Trichoderma viride and PSB for 20 min and keep the seeds in a clean and moist bag, fold the bag tightly and keep it in a shady place. Stir the seeds every 12 hours for better air circulation and sprinkle water over seeds while stirring. Incubation period of 24 to 36 hours is required for wet and dry bed methods. Nursery preparation For raising seedlings in the nursery, select a fertile, well drained upland field near the source of irrigation. For transplanting 1 hectare area, about 500 sq m nursery area is sufficient. In case of late sowing, increase the nursery area to 750-1,000 sq. m. In case of bold grain varieties like Jaya and IR-8, about 40 to 45 kg seed is needed to raise seedlings for 1 ha, whereas for fine grain varieties like, Ratna, Prasad, Saket-4 etc, 30 to 35 kg seed is enough. Do not burn the FYM or leaf litter for nursery bed preparation, which is a common practice. Wet Bed Method - Wet nurseries are preferred under irrigated condition. The soil is puddled thoroughly or ploughed 3-4 times with local plough, After 1 or 2 days of puddling, divide the nursery into narrow beds of 1.25 m width and of suitable length as per the requirement of slope, to facilitate sowing, weeding and other intercultural operations. Keep 30 cm wide drainage channels in between two seed beds. Mix well decomposed farm yard manure, 3-5 quintals per 100 sq m area for good nutrition. Uniformly broadcast about 2-3 handfuls of seed/ sq m. Keep seed beds saturated with water for first 5 days and then increase the level of water gradually up to 5 cm. Seedlings will be ready in 20-25 days.

Fig.- seed bed Dry Bed - In water deficient areas seedlings are grown in dry nurseries. Plough the field 34 times to pulverize the soil. Prepare beds of 100-125 cm wide, 15-20 cm high and with suitable length. Two beds are separated by 30 cm wide irrigation channels. Add 3 kg of well decomposed FYM/ compost per sq. m. Seeds are sown in rows, with row to row distance of 7-8 cm and 1-2 cm deep. Cover the sown seeds immediately with soil. Allow the water to run in channels and maintain the soil moisture at saturation. Do not flood the beds. Maintain soil moisture at optimum level for 20-30 days. Seedlings will be ready for transplantation in 25-30 days time. Transplanting When seedlings are at 4-5 leaf stage and about 15-20 cm tall they are ready for transplanting. Maintain 5-10 cm water level for 2 days prior to uprooting. The optimum age of seedlings for transplantation is 3-4 weeks for short duration varieties, 4-5 weeks for medium and 5-6 weeks for long duration varieties. Transplanting older or bigger seedlings causes poor tillering and early flowering, resulting in lower yield. Transplant 2-3 seed lings per hill at 20 x 15 cm distance under normal conditions. 45 days old seedlings need to be transplanted with 5-6 seedlings per hill. In alkaline soils, 45 days old seedlings establish better than 25 days young seedlings.

PVC pipe marker

Transplanting

In each case, transplant seedlings at 2-3 cm depth. Do not plant seedlings deeper than 2-3 cm as deeper planting delays and inhibits tillering. Planting in lines is unnecessary with 50 hills per sq. m. that ensures adequate population. Transplanting has following advantages: 1. It enables optimum plant population at desired spacing in the field. 2. It provides opportunity for a thorough cultivation and puddling that reduces weeds. 3. As nurseries occupy only a small area, controlling pests and diseases as well as irrigation and manuring is easier and cheaper at early seedling stage. But now-a-days transplanting has become very expensive due to high labor cost involved in transplantation. If planned well, direct seeded rice also produces as much as transplanted rice.

Fig. Rice row planting at 20 x 20 cm Nutrient management Green manure crops such as cowpea etc. grown 25-30 days before the rice transplanting and then dumped into the soil, meet nutritional needs of paddy crop. Farmyard manure (2-5 t/ha), vermicompost (5-10 quintals/ha) and biofertilizers such as Azospirillum (2 kg/ha) and Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB, 2 kg/ha) are added to the soil at the time of puddling. Application of goat droppings 1.25 t/ha, poultry manure 1.25 t/ha, wood ash 1.25 t/ha helps in obtaining good productivity. For better soil fertility, rice should be taken in rice-legume rotation and the entire legume biomass should be incorporated in the soil. In rainfed rice areas, there is common practice of broadcasting Moong or black gram seed, just before harvesting of rice. These legumes grow with available moisture and enrich the soil with

environmentally fixed nitrogen for next crop. Remember these legume crops are for soil, therefore harvest only the pods and leave entire crop residue in the field. Gliricidia leaf manure is very good for rice. Maintain enough population of Gliricidia plants on the high bunds and incorporate their leaves in the field at the time of puddling. 6 ft tall Gliricidia plants on the bunds around 1 ha field (on 400 m bund) can provide 22.5 kg N/ha after 3 years and up to 77 kg N/ha from 7 years of their age. Application of 10 kg/ha dried flakes of BGA biofertilizer, 6-7 days after transplanting can harvest 20-25 kg of atmospheric nitrogen. Application of Sanjivak or Jivamrut 3 times is essential. About 500 lit of such liquid manure is applied at an interval of 15 days from the date of planting as soil treatment, either with irrigation water or at the time of rains. Sanjivak/ Jivamrut can also be amended with 2kg of Neem seed/leaf extract for control of stem borer. Foliar spray of diluted Amritpani, cow urine or dilute vermiwash has been found to be very beneficial. 3-4 applications of such foliar spray meet entire N-demand of the crop at important growth stages thus ensuring good productivity. Use of Neem compost wash or Neem leaf/seed extract with vermiwash not only acts as growth promoter, but also acts as pesticide against wide variety of insect pests. Cultural operations Weeding and Hoeing - In upland rice cultivation, weeds are common and require, manual weeding at 40-45 days after sowing. Water management Paddy is a tropical dry land crop and needs sufficiently wet soil for its growth. Flooding is unnecessary. Watering is also unnecessary if the first 10 days receives good rains. Avoid flooding if weeds can be controlled manually. Flooding is done to suppress the weed growth and increase the nutrient availability, such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium iron and silica. Provide water only at the critical stages viz. (a) during the initial seedling period covering about 10 days (b) tillering to flowering, which is the most critical stage (c) panicle initiation stage. Until the transplanted seedlings are established, water should be allowed to stand in the field at a depth of 2-5 cm, thereafter about 5 cm of water may be maintained up to the dough stage of the crop. Water should be drained out from the field 7-15 days before harvest, depending on the soil type to encourage quick and uniform maturity of grain. Pest and disease management Rice crop is attacked by large number of insect-pests and diseases and usually 20-30% losses are attributed to pest attack. Use of resistant varieties and use of healthy seed stock is the best and most effective way of preventing the pests and diseases. Crop rotation with legumes and other green manure crops also help in keeping the pest problem below ETL. Use of pest predators such as

Trichogramma (50,000 eggs/ha), Chrysoperla (5000 eggs/ha) etc have also been found to be keeping large number of insect-pests below ETL. Table - Important insect-pests affecting the rice (stagewise) STAGE POSSIBLE STAGE Rice whorl maggot; Thrips; Defoliator; Stem borer; Seedling Green leaf hopper; Plant hopper Thirps; Defoliator, Stem borer; Green leaf hopper; plant Tillering hopper Aphids, caseworm, black bugs, grasshoppers, mealy Minor pests (vegetative phase): bugs Stem elongation Defoliator; Stem borer; Greenleaf hopper; Plant hopper Panicle initiation to booting Stem borer; Green leaf hopper; Plant hopper Heading Plant hopper Flowering Plant hopper; Thrips Minor pests (reproductive phase): Green horned caterpillars, skippers Mature grain stage Plant hopper; Rice bug Minor pests (reproductive phase): Panicle mite

Control measures For leaf eating caterpillars a. 5 to 10% Dashaparni extract in water as foliar spray b. Ginger, Chili, Garlic extract (Crush garlic 10 kg, ginger 5 kg and green chilly 5 kg in 70 liter of water and filter). 60 liter of extract is needed for spraying in 1 ha. c. Vermiwash 7 to 10% in water as foliar spray. Leaf folder control - Ginger, Garlic, Chili extract. In addition, use of light trap is also very effective in control of wide variety of pests. Following combination of fermented botanical extracts have also been found to be very effective for control of various insect-pests. After 45 days of transplanting apply cow-dung-cow urine and Neem leaf extract as foliar spray (This extract can be prepared by suspending 2lit cow urine, 1 kg cow dung, 2 kg crushed Neem leaves in 100 lit water. Ferment the suspension for 2 days with frequent stirring. Filter and spray) After 60 days of transplantation apply concentrated fermented extract (Cow urine 5lit, cow dung 2kg, Neem leaves 5kg, fermented for 2 days, filter). After 75 days of transplantation spray 3% sour butter milk (3 lit sour butter milk in 100 lit water, keep it overnight). Diseases Paddy crop is also affected by large number of diseases. Table - Important diseases occurring at different stages of paddy DISEASE STAGE Blast All growth stages SEASON CAUSES Mostly wet High Nitrogen levels, cloudy skies High relative humidity Frequent rain and drizzle Sheath Tillering Leaf sheath - Grayish green Periodic High temperature and Blight lesions between the veins humidity High levels and the leaf blade of N, Bacterial Tillering to Leaf lesions run along the Wet High temperature and Leaf Blight heading length of the leaf humidity Sheath Rot Boot leaf Small water soaked lesions Periodic High temperature and on leaves humidity Brown Spot Flowering to Brown round to oval spots Periodic 25-30 degrees maturity on leaves centigrade temp & High humidity False smut Flowering Ovaries transformed to large Periodic Rainfall accompanied and maturity green masses by cloudy days SYMPTOMS Leaf lesions- Grey Centers large in the middle tapering to ends. Also attacks stem nodes.

Tungro virus

Flowering Stunting of the plant & and maturity yellow to orange laves

Periodic

Usage of more N and more vector activity

Diseases control:1) Blast:- 10% of cow urine extract (twice in 10 days). 2) Rust/ Virus:- Cow urine+ butter milk extract (1 liter Butter milk + 1 lt. cows urine + 8 lt. water) 3) Bacterial leaf spot:- 10% vermiwash + 5% cow urine in 10 liter water.

Before Treatment

After Treatment

Fig. Effect of spraying of Cow Urine & Dashaparni (Herbal extract) on Takaya Disease

Harvest Harvest the crop as soon as it matures. If delayed, grain may be lost due to damage by rats, birds, insets, shattering and lodging. Timely harvesting ensures good quality, consumer acceptance and the grain do not break when milled. The right stage for harvesting is when about 80% panicles have 80 % ripened spike lets and their upper portion is straw colored. The grain contains about 20% of moisture. Harvest around the full moon, according to the biodynamic calendar principles. The crop is generally cut with serrate edged sickles by hand, close to the ground and left in the field for a few days to dry. Hand harvesting leads to 55-60 % grain recovery. Combined harvester machine completes all the operations from paddy harvesting to rice extraction, but gives less recovery (50 %). Stack paddy bundles for 6-10 weeks and then thresh, as it enhances the recovery. Threshing is trampling by bullocks, rubbing with bare human feet (in hills) or lifting the bundles and

striking them on the raised wooden platform. Pedal threshers or power driven stationary threshers are also used. Freshly threshed rice must be dried well in the sun. A well-managed crop of mid-late duration (135-150 days) like Jaya, IR-8, IR-20 etc, yields about 60-70 quintals/ ha, short duration varieties yield about 45-55 quintals. About 40-60 quintals/ ha of fodder also becomes available per season. The straw is nutritious food for soil. It should be returned back to the soil either after composting or by mixing and incorporating directly in the soil. Growing pulses, or other dicots such as ground nut, besides wheat, during summer is beneficial to next rice crop. Storage The different components of rice required for storage are 1. Paddy, 2. Milled-raw rice, 3. Milled-boiled rice, 4. Bran and 5. Brokens Paddy is stored either on the farms or in the rice mills. Rice undergoes storage at the mills and in commercial warehouses. Bran, braoens etc are stored only in the mills from where these are sold/ used. Paddy is stored either for seed or for hand pounding or for milling as needed. Rice (husked rice), either semi-polished (4-5% removal of bran) or polished (10 12 % removal of bran), is stored in jute bags.
Hygiene in storage

Place sticky traps in the drying and storage areas for rats. Relative humidity in storage area should be between 20 and 40%. Storage rooms should be physically rodent and bird proof (if possible). Keep Neem leaves mixed with the grains to ward off pests. Inspect the stored seeds once a week and remove the infected lot.

Paddy storage A sizeable quantity of paddy is stored on the farms either as seed, or for hand-pounding or for milling and for home consumption. Paddy harvested in October-December is mostly retained on the farms. Summer and autumn crop is not stored in open, to avoid drying and discoloration. On the farm, paddy is stored indoors in jute bags or in containers made of rope (morai), straw (Bharola), bamboo (Kanagi) or mud (Kuthla or Kuthi). When quantities held in storage exceed 1t, the containers made of rope, straw or bamboo are used and placed out doors. Storage location should a be high land not prone to flooding. Cover the out door containers with a sloping straw/thatch roof. Jute bags of paddy are placed in lots of 6 (breadth) x 10 (length) x 7 m (height) on wooden platform or concrete blocks on the ground with a gap of 15 cm between the floor and the bag. Use polythene cover to protect the paddy from weather and pests. The loss under such storage is only quantitative due to

reduced moisture. Large quantities of paddy can be stored for 1 year by this way safely without pucca roof. Control of storage pests The stored grains are mainly subjected to attack of insects, rats and micro-organisms. Rats spoil the grain more than their need by way of food contamination. The insects feed on grains causing, heating and deterioration in stored produce. Micro-organisms like fungi, bacteria etc spoil food grains in storage and bring about heating, foul odor, discoloration, loss of nutritive value and change of palatability. Most of the stored grain insect pests have a high rate of multiplication and within one season they may destroy 10 - 15 % of the grain and contaminate the rest with undesirable odors and flavours. The major insect pests include:
Rice

weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) - Both the grubs and adults bore and feed into the unhusked paddy grain. Lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica) - The grubs and adults cause damage by feeding inside the grain. Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium) - The grub eat the grains near the embryo or another weak point and from there it proceeds inwards. Rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica) - It is primarily a pest of rice. The larva (caterpillar) damages grains by feeding under silken webs. In case of severe infestation the entire stock becomes a webbed mass and a characteristic bad smell emits, indicating the grains to be unfit for human consumption. Angoumos grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella) - The larva (caterpillar) feed on the grain from inside and pupate there. It inflicts severe damage to unhusked paddy. Preventive Measures Dry grains properly before storing. Store grain in receptacles or go downs, stacked on elevated structures (dunnage) to avoid direct contact with the floor and to provide aeration. Bag should not touch the walls to avoid the absorption of moisture and hiding place for rats. Remove garbage. Fix Zinc sheets at the bottom of the wooden doors to prevent the entry of rats. Block all drainage holes with wire mesh and use rat traps. Put flour ball mixed with cotton thread. Rats readily eat these balls. Cotton blocks the anus of rats and prevents them to excrete. Failing to excrete rats become agitated and mad, and bite other rats. Some rats flee away or get killed by the storekeepers as they run out. Mix leaves of Neem, Karanj, Custard Apple, Adathoda, Tulsi to protect the grains from storage insects etc. Some Innovate practices in rice cultivation Control of crabs Application of FYM at the time of puddling reduces crab damage. Block the mud holes on the farm bunds and mix paste of Silk Cotton (Bombax ceiba) tree bark, Embelia ribes fruits and Asafoeitda 2 kg each in 100 lit water in 1 ha.

SRI Method of rice cultivation- Mr. Jayant Wadekar, Wada Tal., Thane System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a method, adopted from Madagascar farmers. It requires very low seed rate (5-6 kg/ ha) which is just 10-20 % of existing seed rate of 50-60 kg/ ha, and the crop is grown with much less water. Important features of SRI method are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 15 days old seedlings are transplanted at 2 leaf stage. Single seedling is planted rather than a clump of 2-5. Spacing is wider at 20 x 20 or 25 x 25 cm Soil is kept only moist and not flooded during vegetative growth. 3 cm water is maintained during flowering and drained out 20 days before harvest. Only 1 weeding is done between 15 to 20 days of transplantation. Use of vermicompost @1000 kg/ ha during transplantation has been found very effective in seedling establishment.

Transplanting and cultivation method Transplant 15 days old seedlings at 2 leaf stage at 1 seedling per hill at 20 cm x 20cm. Line transplanting is preferred over random planting To maintain spacing and guiding the labor, use PVC pipe marker or ropes. After 1 month, do weeding and apply first dose of Sanjeevak/Jivamrut Apply second and third dose of Sanjeevak/jivamrut after 30 days of weeding and at the time of flowering. Moist but unfolded condition of soil is maintained by applying water and draining excess water. On an average 25 -30 tillers per seedling are observed. Three vermiwash spraying are required as per the schedule below: 10% vermiwash, 15 days after transplanting. 10% vermiwash, 20 days after 1st spraying and 05% vermiwash at flowering stage. Benefits of SRI 1. Seed rate is very low 2. Water requirement is just 35-40% of conventional system. 3. No chemical fertilizers required, only organic compost, vermicompost gives better yield. 4. Local variety can be used that reduce the cost of seeds 5. About 30-40 % decrease in cost of production. 6. Seedling mortality is very little (5 %). 7. About 16-22 panicles emerge from each seedling, ensuring optimum productivity. 8. Establishments of root setting early was only possible because immediate transplanting of seedlings. 9. Maximum number of tillers could be obtained (25to30/hill). 10. Seed requirement was reduce drastically from 40kg to 6.25kg/ha. 11. By adopting this method even local variety yield better. 12. It could save on labor and money being an eco friendly method. Harvesting and Yield :-

Karjat 184 and Wada Swad varieties were ready for harvesting in 100 and 135 days respectively. Harvesting was carried out manually with sickles. Threshing was carried out on, manually operated thresher. Yield- is high- Karjat 184: 62 quintals/ha, Wada Swad 72: quintals/ha.

Crop stage before harvesting

Nursery preparation using waste plastic bottles- Mr. Sanjay Patil, Jawhar Tal., Thane 1) Empty waste plastic bottles of 2 liters volume, are cut horizontally (length wise) and used for preparation of bed for raising paddy seedlings. 2) These half cut empty bottles are filled with silt, vermicompost and paddy husk in a proportion of 3:2:1. Approximately 300gm bedding material is needed for one half of a bottle 3) Seeds treated with Amrutpani/Bijamrut are sown on the bed in these bottles. 10 gm paddy seeds are sown in each bottle bed 4) These beds are kept moist by watering once in 2 days. 5) Seedlings get ready within 10 days for transplantation in the field. For transplantation in one ha following material will be needed No. of empty bottles (half cut) = 625 Seed = 6.3 kg Silt = 93.8 kg Vermicompost = 62.5 kg Ash = 31 kg No. of seedlings prepared = 2,00,000 This is a useful method in villages near cities where space and labor are scarce and costly.

Fig.- Raising seedlings in the bottle