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5. Relative error or fractional error = Mean absolute error a . = Mean value am a 100%. am 7. Error in sum of quantities is expressed as ( a + b ) 100%. a+b 8. Error in difference of quantities is expressed as x= x= ( a + b ) 100%. ab
9. Error in division of quantities is expressed as x a b = + . a x b 10. Error in quantity raised to some power is expressed as x b a = n +m . a x b 11. Checking whether a given equation is correct or incorrect using dimensional analysis is based on the principle of homogeneity. According to this principle, the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation must be the same. 1 2. If X = A (BC )2 + DEF , according to the principle of homogeneity, we have [X] = [A ] = [(BC )2 ] = [ DEF ].
10 0 = 1 Using powers of 10, we can write the radius of Earth as 6,380,000 m = 6.38 106 m. 4. Mean absolute error is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the measurements of the quantity. It is represented by a and is expressed as a = | a1 | + | a2 | + | an | . n
v avg =
3. The average speed involves the total distance covered and is independent of direction. It is given by the relation
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v dv = lim(aavg ) = . t t0 dt
3. 4. 5. 6.
7. If we know a vector in component notation (ax and ay) and if we want it in magnitude angle notation (a and q ), to transform it, we can use the following equations: a = a2 + a2 and tan = x y ay ax .
8. Unit vectors in the positive directions of the x, y, and z axes are labeled i, j and k , respectively, where the hat ,is used instead of an overhead arrow as or cap symbol k for other vectors. Unit vectors are very useful for expressing other vectors: a = ax i + ay j ; b = bx i + by j , where the quantities ax i and ay j are vectors called the vector components of a. The quantities ax and ay are scalars called the scalar components of a.
14. The velocity is otherwise called as instantaneous velocity, which is given by the limiting value of the average velocity as the time interval approaches zero: v = lim
t 0
r dr = . t dt
15. In a circular motion, the distance traveled by a particle in one revolution is just the circumference of the circle (2p r).
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16. In a circular motion, the total number of revolutions by a particle in a given time is known as the frequency (n ) of revolution. From the definitions we have given for period and frequency, they are related by the expression 1 = . T
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18. Magnitude of centripetal acceleration: The centripetal acceleration of an object moving with a speed v on a circular path of radius r has a magnitude ac given by ac = v2 . r
14. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as a result of its position relative to another object to which it is attracted by the force of gravity. Gravitational potential energy, as a function of height h, is mathematically expressed as V(h) = mgh. 15. Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an object as a result of a reversible change in shape, which is mathematically expressed as 1 V ( x ) = kx 2 . 2 16. Massenergy equivalence: An objects mass m and the equivalent energy E are related by the equation E = mc 2, which is the famous Einsteins equation. 17. If a force does an amount of work W in an amount of time t, the average power due to the force during that time interval is Pavg = W . t
18. The instantaneous power P is the instantaneous time rate of doing work, which can be expressed as Pinst = dW . dt
19. The SI unit of power is J/s. This unit is used so often that it has a special name, watt (W), named after the scientist James Watt. 1 horse power, another unit of power often used in automobile industry, is equal to 746 W. 20. Instantaneous power is also expressed in terms of force and velocity as P = F v.
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21. Law of conservation of angular momentum: If the net resultant external torque acting on an isolated system is zero, the total angular momentum L of system should be conserved. 22. The relation between the arc length s covered by a particle on a rotating rigid body at a distance r from the axis and the displacement q (in radians) is expressed as s = rq.
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Chapter 7: Gravitation
1. Newton proposed a force law that we call Newtons law of gravitation is defined as every particle attracts other particle with a gravitational force of magnitude mm F = G 12 2 , r where m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles, r is the distance between them, and G is the gravitational constant (= 6.672 10-11 N m2/kg2 or = 6.67 10-11 m3/kg s2). 2. The SI unit of gravitational constant is N m2/kg2 and its dimensional formula is [M-1L3T -2]. 3. If we are supposed to find the resultant gravitational force acting on the particle m due to a number of masses M1, 2, M Mn, we use the principle of superposition. Let F1 , F2 , Fn be the individual forces due to the masses M1, M2,. Mn, which are given by the law of gravitation, then from the principle of superposition, each of these forces acts independently and uninfluenced by the other bodies. The resultant force FR can be expressed in vector addition as
n FR = F1 + F2 + + Fn = Fi , i =1
due to gravity at an altitude h above the surface of Earth is then given by g= GME , 2 RE
6. Considering Earth be a homogeneous sphere of radius RE and mass ME and a body be taken to a depth d below the free surface of the Earth, then the acceleration due to gravity is gd is given by d gd = g 1 . RE 7. The gravitational potential energy U of two particles, of masses M and m, separated by a distance r is given by U= GMm , r
The gravitational potential energy decreases when the separation decreases. Since U = 0 for r = , the potential energy is negative for any finite separation and becomes progressively more negative as the particles move closer together. 8. When an isolated system consists of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a massive body of mass M, then the total mechanical energy of the particle is given by GMm 1 E = mv 2 , r 2 which implies that the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. The total energy is a constant of motion. 9. The escape velocity, ve , of a body that is projected from the Earth is given by v e = 2gRE , which has the value of 11.2 km/s.
where is the symbol used for summation. 4. Keplers third law of planetary motion: The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet, which is also called law of period, is given by 4 3 T2 = R , GMs
2
where T is the period of motion of the planet, R is the radius of the circular orbit of the planet, Ms is the mass of the Sun, and G is the universal gravitational constant (= 6.672 1011 Nm2/kg2). For elliptical orbits, this equation is valid if R is replaced by the semi-major axis (a). 5. When a body of mass m lying on the surface of the Earth of mass ME and radius RE, the exact value of acceleration
2. The SI unit of stress is same as that of pressure, that is, N/m2 or pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ML1T 2 ]. 3. The restoring force per unit area developed in a body due to the applied tangential force is known as tangential stress or shearing stress. Mathematically, it is expressed as Shearing stress = Tangential force . Area
5. If the deforming force acting on an elastic body produces a change in only the length of the body, the change in length per unit original length of the body is known as longitudinal strain, which is mathematically expressed as Longitudinal strain = Change in length L = . Original length L
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12. The ratio of tangential stress to the tangential strain produced in a body within elastic limits is known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, which is mathematically expressed as Shear modulus (G ) = Shearing stress F /A FL . = = = Shearing strain x /L Ax
7. If the deforming force acting on an elastic body produces a change in the volume of the body alone, the change in volume per unit original volume of the body is known as volumetric strain, which is mathematically expressed as Volumetric strain= Change in volume V = . Original volume V
13. SI unit of shear modulus is N/m2 or pascals (Pa). 14. The ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain produced in the body within the elastic limits is called bulk modulus of elasticity, which is mathematically expressed as Bulkmodulus (B ) = Hydroststic stress P PV = = , ( V / V ) V V Volume strain
8. According to Hookes law, within elastic limits, stress is directly proportional to strain,that is, the extension produced in a wire is directly proportional to the load applied to the wire, which can be expressed as Stress Strain Stress = k Strain, where k is a constant of proportionality and is known as the modulus of elasticity. Hookes law is applicable to most of the materials but there are certain materials in which the relationship between stress and strain is not linear and they do not obey Hookes law. 9. The ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain produced in a body within the elastic limits is called modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity. Modulus of elasticity is numerically equal to the ratio of stress and strain and, therefore, it has same dimensions as stress: Modulus of elasticity = Stress . Strain
where the negative sign shows that with increase in pressure P, the volume of the body decreases, that is, if P is positive, V is negative. Hence, for a system in equilibrium, the value of bulk modulus should be positive. 15. The SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2 or pascals (Pa). 16. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus of a material is called the compressibility of that material and is represented by the symbol k. Compressibility is defined as the fractional change in volume per unit increase in pressure. Mathematically, compressibility of a material is expressed as Compressibility (k ) = 1 1 V = = . B ( PV / V ) PV
17. When a deforming force is applied at the free end of a suspended wire, the ratio of lateral strain and the longitudinal strain produced in the wire is called Poissons ratio, which is mathematically expressed as Poissons ratio ( ) = l /l Lateral strain R l = = , Longitudinal strain R /R l R
10. The ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain within the elastic limit is called Youngs modulus of elasticity, which is mathematically expressed as Y= Tensile (or compressive) stress = . Linear strain
where l is the initial length and R is the radius of the wire before applying the deforming force and l and R are the increase in length and decrease in radius after the wire is stretched. 18. Applications of elastic behavior of materials: When loaded at the center and supported near its ends, a bar (bridge, buildings etc.) sags by a quantity
Greater the Youngs modulus of a material, larger is the elasticity of the material. Therefore, steel is more elastic than copper because Youngs modulus of steel is greater than that of copper. 11. Youngs modulus of the material of a wire is expressed as Y= MgL Linear stress Mg / r 2 = = = 2 , L /L r L Linear strain
Wl 3 , 4bd 3Y
where r is the initial radius of the wire, L is the initial length of the wire; r 2 is the area of cross-section of the wire; M is the mass of the weights in the pan at the bottom due to which elongation L is produced in the wire; the force applied by the mass M on the wire is equal to its weight, that is, Mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
where l is the length of the bar, b is the breadth of the bar, d is the depth of the bar, and Y is the Youngs modulus of the material. (On increasing the depth d of a bar, unless the load is exactly at the right place, the deep bar bends, which effect is known as buckling.) 19. The elastic potential energy stored in a wire is given by 1 U = Youngsmodulus (Strain)2 . 2
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m , V
where m is the mass of the of the fluid and V is the volume of the fluid. 2. Density is a scalar property; its SI unit is the kilogram per cubic meter. 3. The pressure at any point in the fluid is the limit of this ratio as the surface area A of the piston, centered on that point, is made smaller and smaller. However, if the force is uniform over a flat area A, pressure of uniform force on flat area is written as P= F , A
where F is the magnitude of the normal force on area A. (When we say a force is uniform over an area, we mean that the force is evenly distributed over every point of the area.) 4. The SI unit of pressure is the newton per square meter, which is given a special name, pascal (Pa), which is same as N/m2. Pascal is related to some other common (non-SI) pressure units as follows: 1 atm = 1.01 105 Pa = 760 torr. 5. Pascals law: A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of its container. 6. The pressure in a fluid varies with depth (h) as per the expression P = Pa + rgh, where r is the density of the fluid, when it is uniform. 7. For an incompressible fluid passing any point every second in a pipe of non-uniform cross-section, the volume is the same in the steady flow, that is, vA= constant, where v is the velocity and A is the area of cross-section. 8. Archimedes principle: When a body isfully or partially submerged in a fluid, a buoyant force F b from the surrounding fluid acts on the body. The force is directed upward and has a magnitude equal to the weight mf g of the fluid that has been displaced by the body. 9. When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fb of the buoyant force on the body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body. 10. When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body is equal to the weight mf g of the fluid that has been displaced by the body. 11. Bernoullis principle: As we move along a streamline, the sum of the pressure (P), the potential energy per unit volume (rgy), and the kinetic energy per unit volume (rv 2/2) remains a constant:
Av , y
where h is the coefficient of viscosity. 16. SI unit of viscosity is Pa s. Common unit of viscosity is poise (P). 17. Poiseuilles law: A fluid whose viscosity is h, flowing through a pipe of radius R and length L, has a volume flow rate Q given by Q=
R 4 ( P2 P1 ) , 8L
where P1 and P2 are the pressures at the ends of the pipe. 18. According to Stokess law, viscous force F acting on the sphere varies directly with (1) the coefficient of viscosity h of the fluid, (2) velocity v of the spherical body, and (3) radius r of the spherical body. Stokess law the viscous dragging force is mathematically expressed as F = 6 av , which explains the retarding force which is proportional to the velocity. 19. Reynolds number: The onset of turbulence in a fluid is determined by a dimensionless parameter given by Re =
vd ,
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work done in increasing the area of a surface film through unity under isothermal conditions:
Surface energy = Work done in increasing the surface area . Increase in surface area
23. The SI unit of surface energy is N/m and dimension of surface energy is [MT -2]. 24. The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and solid surface, inside the liquid, is termed as angle of contact and is denoted by q.
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10
12. To measure specific heat of a material, we heat a sample to some known temperature Tm, and keep it in a vessel containing water of known mass and temperature Tw , (Tw < T ). We then measure the temperature of the water after equilibrium has been reached. This method is called calorimetry, and vessel in which this energy transfer occurs is called calorimeter. 13. The rate Pcond at which energy is conducted through a slab for which one face is maintained at the higher temperature TH and the other face is maintained at the lower temperature TC is Pcond = Q T T = kA H C , L t
15. If T1 is the temperature of the surroundings, and T2 is the temperature of the body, Newtons law of cooling is stated as the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the excess temperature of the body over the surroundings: Q = k (T2 T1 ), t where k is a positive constant depending upon the area and nature of the surface of the body, T2 is the temperature of the body, and T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium. The plot between the temperature of the body and time is known as the cooling curve.
where each face of the slab has area A, the length of the slab (the distance between the faces) is L, and k is the thermal conductivity of the material. 14. Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of electromagnetic energy. The rate Prad at which an object emits
where m is the number of moles of the substance [for a solid, the law of equipartition of energy gives C = 3R (where R is the universal gas constant), which agrees with the experiment at ordinary temperatures. 4. Calorie is the old unit of heat. One calorie is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5C to 15.5C; 1 cal = 4.186 J.
CP . CV
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11
11. In a refrigerator (or a heat pump), the system extracts heat Q2 from the cold reservoir and discharges Q1 amount of heat to the hot reservoir, with work (W) done on the system. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is expressed as
W , Q1
Q2 Q2 = . W Q1 Q2
where and W is the work done on the environment in on complete cycle and Q1 is the heat input, that is, the heat absorbed by the system in one complete cycle. According to the first law of thermodynamics, for one complete cycle, W = Q1 Q2, therefore,
12. Carnot engine: A reversible engine operating between two temperatures (1) source temperature (T1) and (2) sink temperature (T2) is called Carnot engine, which consists of two isothermal processes connected by two adiabatic processes. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
= 1
Q2 . Q1
= 1
T2 . T1
This implies that the temperature of a gas is an amount of the average kinetic energy of a molecule, which is independent of the nature of the gas or molecule. At a fixed temperature, in a mixture of the gases, heavier molecule has the lower average speed. 10. Law of equipartition of energy is stated as follows: When a system is in equilibrium at absolute temperature T, the total energy is distributed equally in different energy modes of absorption, the energy in each mode being equal to (1/2)kBT. Each translational and rotational
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12
11. The molar specific heat of gases is determined using the law of equipartition of energy and the resultant values are in agreement with the experimental values of specific heats of several gases. The agreement can be improved by including vibrational modes of motion. 12. Translational kinetic energy of the molecules in a gas is given by
k ; m m . k
T = 2
9. The unit of force constant is N/m and its dimension is [MT 2]. 10. The motion of a simple pendulum moving back and forth through small angles is considered approximately to be simple harmonic and its period of oscillation is expressed as T = 2 l . g
2 = 2 . T
5. The SI unit of angular frequency is radians (rad). 6. As functions of time, the particle velocity [n(t)] and acceleration [a(t)] during SHM, respectively, are expressed as v (t ) = A sin(t + );
11. In damped oscillations, although the energy of the system is continuously dissipated, the oscillations remain apparently periodic. 12. For a SHM, when the damping force is given by Fd = bv, where v is the velocity of the oscillator and b is a damping constant, then the displacement of the oscillator is expressed as x (t ) = A e bt /2 m cos( + ), where the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, w, is expressed as
(t ) = 2 A cos(t + ) (t ) = 2 x (t ).
It is shown that both velocity and acceleration of a body executing SHM motion are periodic functions, having the velocity amplitude vm = A and acceleration amplitude am = 2 A, respectively. 7. At any time, a particle executing SHM has potential energy U = (1/2)kx2 and kinetic energy K = (1/2)mn 2. If no friction exists, the mechanical energy of the system, that is, E = K + U always remains constant despite the fact that K and U change with time. 8. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a Hookes law restoring force given by F = kx,
k b2 . m 4 m2
When the damping constant is small, then , where w is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator. The mechanical energy (E) of the damped oscillator is expressed as 1 E (t ) = kA2 e bt /m . 2
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13
The amplitude of oscillations is the highest when wd = w, which is a condition known as resonance of the oscillation.
11. When two sinusoidal waves on the same string show interference, adding or canceling according to the principle of superposition, and if the two are traveling in the same direction and have the same amplitude and frequency but differ in phase by a phase constant , the result is a single wave with the same frequency w : 1 1 y ( x , t ) = 2a cos sin kx t + . 2 2 In this case, if = 0 or an integral multiple of 2p, the waves are exactly in phase and the interference is constructive and if = , they are exactly out of phase and the interference is destructive. 12. A traveling wave, at a rigid boundary or a closed end, is reflected with a phase reversal, but the reflection at an open boundary takes place without any phase change. For an incident wave, y i ( x , t ) = a sin(kx + t) For the reflected wave at a rigid boundary is y r ( x , t ) = a sin(kx + t) For reflection at an open boundary is y r ( x , t ) = a sin(kx + t) 13. Standing waves are produced by the interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions. For a string with fixed ends, the standing wave is expressed by y ( x , t ) = [2a sin kx ]cos t 14. Standing waves are characterized by fixed locations of zero displacement called nodes and fixed locations of maximum displacements called antinodes. The distance between the two consecutive nodes or antinodes is l/2. A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates with frequencies given by
. 2
= = . k T
6. Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is set by the properties of the string. The speed on a string with tension T and linear mass density m is expressed as v= T .
7. Sound wave is a longitudinal mechanical wave which travels through solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of a sound wave in a fluid with bulk modulus (B) and density (r) is expressed as B v= . 8. In a metallic bar, the speed of longitudinal waves is given by v= Y .
nv , for n = 1, 2, 3, 2L
P .
10. Principle of superposition of waves: In the same medium, when two or more waves traverse, the
in which, the set of frequencies are called the normal modes of oscillation of the system. The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2, etc. For a pipe of length L with
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14
15. When two waves, having slightly different frequencies (n1 and n2) and comparable amplitudes, are superposed, the outcome is called beats; the beat frequency is given by
beat = 1 2 .
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