Key term accuracy actinides activated complex activation energy or EA addition polymerisation addition reaction alcohols aldehydes alicyclics

aliphatic aliphatic hydrocarbons aliquots alkaline earth metals alkanes alkenes alkyl group alkynes allotropes alpha radiation amorphous carbon anabolic steroids anthropogenic climate change antioxidants Ar arenes atom atom economy atomic crystals/giant atomic structures atomic mass unit atomic number Z atomic radius atomisation Avogadro constant Avogadro s law balanced equation base base peak base units bent linear benzene beta radiation bio polymers biodegradable bio fuels blocks body centred cubic structure bomb calorimeter bond angles

Definition The degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity The bottom row of f block elements. These are all radioactive. A transitional structure in a chemical reaction that results from The minimum energy required to start a reaction by breaking b A polymerisation reaction where monomers join together and t A reaction where two molecules combine to form a single prod Homologous series of organic molecules with an -OH functional Homologous series of organic molecules containing the carbony Organic molecules containing closed rings of carbon atoms whi Organic molecules containing straight or branched chain carbon Hydrocarbons containing closed rings of carbon atoms which m Equal measured volume of solution. A family of metals in Group 2 of the periodic table. Simplest homologous series of hydrocarbons with general form

Homologous series of hydrocarbons containing a double carbon

An alkane molecule that has lost a hydrogen atom to attach to a Homologous series of hydrocarbons containing at least one trip

Forms of the same element in the same physical state. Two protons and two neutrons (helium nuclei). Non-crystalline forms of carbon e.g. soot. Hormones used to encourage the growth of muscle and body m Climate change due to activities of human beings e.g. burning f Compounds which react with and inactivate free radicals. Symbol for relative atomic mass. Organic molecules derived from the benzene molecule containi The smallest complete unit of an element. It consists of protons Measure of how efficiently a reaction turns reactants into desir Atoms held together by covalent bonds in a giant lattice structu The mass of a carbon-12 atom divided by 12. The number of protons in an atom of an element. The distance of closest approach between two atoms. The breaking of bonds in a molecule to leave atoms.

The number of atoms of carbon in exactly 12g of carbon-12 i.e. All gases contain equal numbers of molecules at the same temp A chemical equation where the numbers of atoms are equal on The number base. The largest peak (or the greatest trough) on the ir spectrum. The basic SI units of measurement. A molecule where three atoms are joined together but not in a Organic compound with the molecular formula C6H6.

High energy electrons. Polymers made from materials produced from living, renewable Can be broken down by living organisms. Fuels made from living material e.g. ethanol from the fermenta Regions of the periodic table. Arrangement of ions in a lattice where each ion has 8 nearest n Calorimeter which gives accurate measure of enthalpy changes Angle between two bonds in a molecule.

bond dissociation enthalpy bond energy bond enthalpy bond fission bond length Born Haber cycle boundary brittle calorimeter carbanion carbocation / carbonium ion carbon capture carbon footprint carbon neutral carbon offsetting carbon sink carboxylic acids carcinogenic cat cracker catalyst catalytic cracking or cat cracking catalytic reforming cellulose centres of charge chain reaction charge density chemical bonds chemical properties chemical/feedstock recycling chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs cis trans isomerism closed system collision theory colorimeter colorimetric analysis completion reaction concentration condensation polymerisation condensation reaction conductimetric analysis contrails coordination number corrosive Coulomb s law covalent bond/ing covalent bonds crude oil/petroleum curly arrows d block d block elements

The energy required to break a particular bond or the energy re The amount of energy needed to make or break a bond. The energy contained in a chemical bond. Breaking the bonds between atoms in a molecule. The average distance between the nuclei of atoms in a molecul Special type of enthalpy level diagram used to calculate the latt Separates the system from the surroundings in thermochemistr Breaks easily when hit. Insulated container used to measure enthalpy change of a reac A species containing a negative charge produced by the heterol The positively charged ion left when carbon has lost electrons in A process that removes carbon dioxide and stops it from being Measure of the impact of human activity in terms of the amoun When the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed when a raw mat A method of reducing the carbon footprint e.g. by planting tree A reservoir of carbon compounds. Homologous series of organic molecules with a -COOH function Causes cancer. Industrial vessel where catalytic cracking takes place. A substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction withou Breaking down long chain alkanes into shorter chain molecules Process which involves breaking down the longer straight chain A polymer of glucose molecules found in the stems of plants. Parts of a molecule where positive and negative charge is conce A reaction in which a change in one molecule causes changes in The amount of electric charge per unit volume. Forces holding atoms together. Properties which affect the way in which an element or compo Chemically breaking down polymers into monomer units for reu Compounds containing fluorine, chlorine and carbon only. They Traditional method of naming geometric isomers based on the A system which can exchange energy with the surroundings but Theory accounting for the effects of concentration, temperatur An instrument that measures the absorbance of particular wave Analysis carried out using a colorimeter. A reaction where all of the reactants have been turned into pro Measure of the amount of a solute dissolved in a solvent to form A polymerisation reaction where, a small molecule such as wate A reaction where two molecules combine to form a larger mole Analysis carried out by measuring changes in conductivity of so Condensation trails or artificial cirrus clouds made by the exhau The number of close neighbours to an ion in a lattice structure. A substance which breaks down or destroys materials including Law which states that the force of attraction between ions is re A chemical bond formed when two or more atoms share electr Strong bonds which result from sharing electrons during covale Unprocessed oil, a fossil fuel extracted from underground. Symbol used to represent the movement of a pair of electrons. Region of the periodic table containing elements with their out Elements with the outermost electron in the d subshell.

dative covalent bond Debye or D delocalised electrons derived units diatomic diesel oil dimers dipole dipole interactions dipole moment displacement reaction displayed formula disproportionation dissipated dot and cross diagrams double bond double salt ductile dynamic equilibrium E isomer E Z isomerism electron cloud electron density electron density map or plot electron pair repulsion theory electron spin electronegativity electronic configuration electronic structure electrons electrophiles electrophilic electrophilic addition reaction electrophilic attack electrostatic electrostatic theory element elimination reaction empirical formula end point endothermic reaction energetic/thermodynamic stability energetics energy recovery entgegen enthalpy change enthalpy change of reaction enthalpy H enthalpy level diagram epitestosterone

A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond where both of the sh Unit of dipole moment. Electrons which are not associated with one particular atom bu Units of measurement derived from the basic SI units. A molecule containing two atoms. One of the heavier fractions of crude oil used in diesel engines a Pairs of molecules held together by dative covalent bonds. A positive charge and a negative charge separated by a short d Forces of attraction between charge centres in different molecu For a pair of opposite charges of magnitude of the dipole mome A reaction where a more reactive element displaces a less react Formula which shows both the relative placing of the atoms and Simultaneous oxidation and reduction. Energy irreversibly lost to the system. A way of representing electrons to model bonding between ato The bond formed when two atoms share two pairs of electrons Crystal containing two different salts in a 1:1 ratio. Can be drawn out into wires. See equilibrium. Isomer with higher priority groups on opposite sides of a rigid b IUPAC system for naming geometric isomers based on the atom Arrangement of electrons in an atom. The areas in the electron cloud of an atom where the electrons Map plotting the areas where the probability of finding an elect The theory used to explain the shapes of molecules using the id The rotation of electrons clockwise or anticlockwise creating a m The tendency of the atoms of an element to gain electrons. The arrangement of electrons in their subshells and orbitals. The arrangement of electrons in an atoms in its main energy lev Sub-atomic particles with a negative charge which orbit the nuc Positively polarised, electron seeking groups e.g. H+ Attracted to electrons. A reaction in which an electrophile is attracted to an area of hig Effect of an electrophile on a molecule in a reaction, removing e Relating to electric charges that do not move. Like charges repel, opposite charges attract. A substance that cannot be broken down chemically into simple A reaction in which a small molecule is removed from an organi Simplest formula of a compound showing the whole number ra The stage in the reaction where the indicator changes colour sh A reaction which takes in energy from the surroundings. Stability of a compound with respect to its elements in terms of The study of energy transfers between reacting chemicals and t Methods of recovering some of the energy used in the product Opposite The change in the energy content of a system held at constant The energy change which takes place during a chemical reactio The energy content of a system at constant pressure. Diagram used to represent the enthalpy changes during a react Hormone similar to testosterone.

equilibrium equilibria ethers excited exothermic reaction f block f block elements face centred cubic structure fingerprint region fire retardants first ionisation energy flame photometer flame test fraction fragmentation free radicals fullerenes functional group gamma radiation gas oil gasification gasoline general formula geometric isomers giant lattice structure global warming global warming potential or GWP greenhouse effect greenhouse gases ground state groups half equations half-life halogenoalkanes halogens hazard heat capacity C heat exchanger Hess's law heterogeneous reaction heterolytic fission high density polythene or HDPE homogeneous reaction homologous series homolytic fission Hund's rule hydration hydration enthalpy hydrocarbons hydrochlorofluorocarbons or HCFCs

A situation with a reversible reaction where the rate of forward Plural of equilibrium. A homologous series. Term used to describe electrons when they are raised from one A reaction which releases energy into the surroundings. Region of the periodic table containing elements with their out Elements with the outermost electron in the f subshell. Arrangement ions in a lattice where each ion has 6 nearest neig The region to the right-hand side of the ir spectrum which usua Materials that inhibit or resist the spread of fire. The energy needed to remove the first electron from an atom. An instrument used for measuring the spectral intensity of met Test used to detect certain metal cations by observing the colou The liquid collected at a particular temperature during primary The process in a mass spectrometer that causes a positive ion t Atom or molecule with an unpaired electron e.g. one formed on A family of ball-shaped carbon molecules with the commonest

Atom or group of atoms which is typical of a particular homolog A subset of electromagnetic radiation. Similar to diesel oil but less useful in a cracker. Breakdown of solid hydrocarbons in a limited supply of oxygen A mixture of liquid hydrocarbons widely used as motor fuel (C5-

A formula which applies to all members of a homologous series Stereoisomer and isomer in space. A chemical compound which Arrangement of ions in an ionic substance. A measured increase in the temperature at the surface of the E A measure of the effectiveness of different gases have in increa The trapping of some of the energy absorbed by the Earth from Atmospheric gases which reduce the loss of heat by radiation fr The lowest energy state of an atom. Vertical columns of the periodic table. Part of an equation for a redox reaction showing oxidation or re The time it takes for half the atoms in a sample of radioactive m Homologous series of organic molecules in which one or more o A family of reactive non-metals in Group 7 of the periodic table Potential to do harm. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an ob A device built for efficient heat exchange from one place to ano Law stating that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is inde A reaction which takes place at the boundary of two phases. Fission which involves the unequal sharing of the electrons of a Ethene polymer with relatively few branched chains so relativel A reaction which takes place in a single phase. Family of organic molecules. Fission which involves the equal sharing of electrons in a bond s Rule stating that when electrons are placed in a set or orbitals w The process where water molecules arrange themselves around Energy released when 1 mole of gaseous ions are dissolved in e Organic compounds with molecules containing only carbon and A class of haloalkanes where not all hydrogen has been replace

hydrogen bond hydrogen cell hydrolysis hydroxyl group immiscible incomplete combustion index induced dipole inert infrared spectrometer infrared spectrum initial rate of reaction initiate inorganic chemistry instantaneous dipole instantaneous dipole induced dipole interactions intermolecular forces intramolecular forces ion ion microscope ionic/electrovalent bond ionic bonding ionic crystals ionic equation ionic radius ionisation ionisation energy irritant isoelectronic isolated system isomerism isomers isotopes IUPAC kerosene ketones kinetic stability lanthanides lattice lattice energy law of octaves Le Chatelier's principle life cycle assessment/analysis or LCA lime water line/emission spectrum linear liquid petroleum gas or LPG London dispersion forces lone pair low density polythene

A special type of dipole-dipole force that exists between an elec A new technology for powering vehicles based on the oxidation A reaction where a substance is split up by water (or dilute acid An O-H functional group. Liquids which do not mix but form separate layers. Burning when the supply of oxygen is limited. The power to which a base number is raised. A dipole set up by the close proximity of strong charge. Non-reactive. An instrument for producing an infrared spectrum. A graph showing the record produced when an infrared spectro The rate of reaction at the start of a reaction. Start/supply the initial energy for a reaction. Study of all the 91 naturally organic chemical elements and the A temporary dipole set up in a molecule. Forces between neighbouring molecules that provide the mean Forces between molecules. Forces within molecules. An atom which has lost or gained electrons to take a positive or A microscope which uses helium ions instead of light to form an Strong forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions for A chemical bond formed when atoms gain or lose electrons to f Crystals formed by giant ionic lattices. Reaction equation which only shows the ions involved in a reac Term used to describe the size of ions. The complete removal of an electron from an atom. The energy change associated with the removal of an electron f A substance which causes irritation of the skin. An ion with the same number and arrangement of electrons as A system where the boundary prevents matter and energy ente Where two or more compounds have the same molecular form Two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. The fraction of crude oil used for aircraft fuel and also as a sour Homologous series of organic molecules containing at least one When the activation energy of a reaction is so large that no mo The top row of f block elements. Structural arrangement of a solid. The energy released when an ionic lattice is formed. A measure Law developed in an attempt to arrange the elements in order When an equilibrium reaction mixture is subjected to a change The investigation and valuation of the environmental impacts o A solution of calcium hydroxide in water used as a positive test The pattern which results from the light given out by a gas whe All of the atoms in a molecule are in a straight line. Propane which is liquefied at low temperatures and high pressu The forces that exist in non-polar molecules that involve an acc Two non-bonding electrons in a molecule. Ethene polymer with branched chains: low density, low m.p.

macroscopic properties malleable Markovnikov s rule mass number A mass spectrometer mass spectrum Maxwell Boltzman model mean bond enthalpy mechanical recycling melting temperature metallic bonding metalloids metals micromoles microscopic processes millimoles miscible molar/molarity molar enthalpy of vaporisation molar mass M molar solution molar volume Vm mole or mol molecular crystals/giant molecular structures molecular equation molecular formula molecular ion peak moles per cubic decimetre monomer nanoparticles nanoprobes nanorods nanotubes natural climate change natural gas natural pesticides neutrons noble gases non aqueous solvents non metals nucleons nucleophile nucleophilic attack octane rating octet rule orbital organic chemistry overall ionic equation oxidation oxidation numbers

Those properties that an external observer can see and measur Can be hammered into sheets Rule that states that when a hydrogen halide is added to an alk The number of neutrons plus the number of protons in the nuc Instrument for obtaining a mass spectrum that can be used to m The data produced by a mass spectrometer. A model for expressing the distribution of energy among the m The mean value of the bond dissociation enthalpy of a particula Physically breaking down plastics into smaller pieces before rep The temperature at which a pure solid is in equilibrium with a p Bonding in metals with positive metal ions embedded in a sea o Elements which aren't metals but which have some characteris Elements which are good conductors of heat and electricity, can 1*10^-6 moles. Processes on a molecular scale. 1*10^-3 moles. Liquids which completely mix to form a single layer. Concentration in mole dm^-3 Energy required to change 1 mole of a liquid to a vapour at its b The relative atomic or molecular mass in grams. A solution of concentration 1 molar= 1 mol dm^-3. The volume occupied by a mole of any gas under standard cond The amount of substance that contains the same number of pa Covalently bonded molecules held together in giant structures b Reaction equation which shows the complete formula of every Formula of a compound showing how many of each atom there The peak corresponding to the M+ ion which is the peak with th Measure of the concentration of a solution. A small molecule, for example an alkene, that can be joined to m Small particles with at least one dimension less than 100 nm. Devices for seeing very small objects. A material made by compressing C-60 molecules. It is harder th Cylindrical carbon molecules which exhibit extraordinary streng Climate change due to naturally occurring processes. A gaseous fossil fuel found in association with crude oil. It is ma Pesticides derived from plants or other living organisms. Electrically neutral sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of a Group 8, unreactive gases. A solvent other than water. All the elements which are not metals. The sub-atomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom-the p An electron donor, attracted to positive ions. An atom of group Effect of a nucleophile on an ion in a reaction, donating electron Rating for fuel which indicates the proportion of branched chain Rule stating that when elements react they tend to do so in a w The region where an electron is most likely to be found. Study of carbon compounds with the exception of the simplest Overall reaction equation showing what happens overall to the Reaction in which electrons are lost. The charge that an element would have if it were totally ionical

oxidising agent p block p block elements paraffins parts per million ppm peaks pentagonal bipyramid percentage transmission periodic law periodic properties periodic table periodicity periods permanent dipole pesticides physical properties pi bond polar bond polar molecule pole polychloroethene polyethene polymer polymerisation reaction polypropene position of equilibrium post transition metals precise results primary alcohol primary distillation primary halogenoalkanes principal quantum number n principle of conservation of energy propagation reaction protons pyramidal molecule pyrolisis pyrolisis/bio oil qualitative quantitative quantum mechanics quench quicklime radioactive decay radiocarbon dating rate of reaction reaction mechanism reaction profile reactive metals redox reaction

A substance which oxidises another substance but is itself redu Region of the periodic table containing elements with their out Elements with their outermost electrons in the p subshell. Old, non-systematic name for the alkanes. Mass of the solute/total mass * 10^6 Characteristic wavelength of a vibration of a particular group le A molecule with three bonds in a plane with bond angles of 120 The variable recorded on the y-axis of an ir spectrum. Law stating that the properties of elements are a function of th Properties which show clear patterns in the periodic table. Table arranging the elements in order of their atomic number. Repeating patterns of elements in the periodic table. Horizontal rows of the periodic table. A distribution of charge within a molecule. Chemicals that kill animal pests. Properties which do not involve the chemical nature of the elem A double carbon to carbon bond, i.e. C=C. A covalent bond where the pair of bonding electrons is not eve A molecule with an overall dipole ,taking into account any dipol One half of a dipole. Polymer of chloroethene. Polymer made from repeating ethene monomer units. Large molecule made up of long chains of smaller units joined t A reaction in which many monomer units are joined together to Polymer of propene. The extent to which a reaction has moved to completion. Metals found to the right hand side of the periodic table after t Results made to the maximum accuracy permitted by the appar An alcohol where the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon its Process by which crude oil is turned into useful chemicals. Halogen atom is attached to a carbon atom attached to 2 or 3 h The number assigned to electron shells which indicates the size Principle stating that the total energy content of the universe is A reaction which sets of other reactions. Sub-atomic particle with positive charge found in the nucleus o A molecule such as ammonia with a pyramid shape. Method of breaking down polymers using heat in the absence o An alternative fuel extracted by pyrolisis from dried biomass. Identifying the different constituents (elements, ions or atoms) Measuring the different quantities of constituents (elements, io Branch of physics needed to understand atomic structure in de Cooling a sample rapidly to slow all reactions to enable analysis The old name for calcium oxide. The process by which an unstable nucleus breaks up to become Using the ratio of C-12 to C-14 to date once living material. The speed at which a reaction happens. Mechanism by which a reaction takes place showing the possib Graph that shows the change in energy as a function of the pro The s block elements. A reaction where oxidation and reduction take place.

reducing agent reduction refinery gas reflux condenser relative abundance relative atomic mass or RAM relative atomic mass scale relative formula mass relative greenhouse factor relative molecular mass or Mr reliable results residue risk risk assessment rock salt structure s block s block elements saturated second ionisation energy secondary alcohol secondary halogenoalkanes shells sigma bond skeletal formula slaked lime slaking solubility solute solution solvent space filling models specific heat capacity c spectator ions stability standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of combustion standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of neutralisation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard solution standard temperature and pressure STP starch state symbols steady state stereoisomers structural formula structural isomers subshell substitution reaction surroundings

A substance which reduces another substance but is itself oxidi Reaction in which electrons are gained. The lightest fraction of crude oil (C1-C4). A vertical condenser which condenses escaping vapours so they Measure of the percentage of different isotopes in a sample of The atomic mass of an atom relative to an atom of C-12. The scale by which chemists compare the mass of all atoms to t The sum of all the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a c A comparison of the effect different gases have on absorbing ir The sum of all the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a c Results that if repeated will give the same outcome. A viscous mixture of hydrocarbons with high b.p. produced duri The chance of a hazard causing harm. Identifying the risks associated with a course of action and redu The packing of ions found in sodium chloride. Region of the periodic table containing elements with their out Elements with the outermost electrons in the s subshell. Containing only C-C bonds. The energy needed to remove a second electron from an atom/ An alcohol where the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon its Halogen atom is attached to a carbon atom attached to 1 hydro The regions in which electrons are concentrated around a nucle Single C-C bond. Formula which simply shows the bonds and the functional grou Old name for calcium hydroxide. The exothermic process taking place when water is added to ca Mass of a solute dissolving in 100g solvent at a particular tempe Solid, liquid or gas dissolved in a liquid to form a solution. A liquid containing a dissolved solid, liquid or gas. Liquid in which substances dissolve to form a solution. Models showing the shape of molecules in 3d. The heat capacity per unit mass of a particular substance. Ions which appear in the same form on both sides of an ionic eq Description of how readily a compound breaks down into its ele The enthalpy change when 1 mole of its atoms in the gaseous s The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is completely The enthalpy change when 1 mole of the compound is formed f The enthalpy change when 1 mole of acid is just neutralised by The enthalpy change of a reaction measured under standard co A solution of known concentration. Conditions used for measuring the molar volume of gases, 1 atm A polymer of glucose molecules. Symbols used to indicate the physical state of a chemical in a re A situation in which all variables are constant in spite of ongoin 2+ compounds with same molecular formula where the 3d arra Formula which shows both the number of atoms in a molecule 2+ compounds with same molecular formula but with the atom Regions of differing energy within a shell, described by letters s A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is replaced by a Everything around a chemical reaction.

syngas synthesise synthetic pesticides system Systeme International or SI termination tertiary alcohol tertiary halogenoalkanes testosterone thermochemistry titration transition transition metals triads trigonal planar triple bond unsaturated unstable Van der Waals forces volatility volumetric/titrimetric analysis weighted mean yield Z isomer zussammen

Mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide which can be used i To make in a laboratory. Pesticides which are not naturally occurring, they have been syn A chemical reaction. The common internationally used system of measurements. A reaction which completes a chain reaction. An alcohol where the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon its Halogen atom is attached to a carbon atom attached to no hydr Male sex hormone. The study of energy transfers in chemical reactions. A process for finding the exact volumes of different solutions w Energy changes which take place within the atom as electrons m Another name for the d block elements. Group of three elements in an early attempt to group the elem A triangular shape with all three lines/orbitals in the same plane The bond formed when two atoms share three pairs of electron Containing at least on C=C bond. An atom in which the forces which make up the nucleus are unb Very weak attractive forces between induced dipoles in adjacen The ease with which a liquid turns into a gas. Chemical procedure used to determine the concentration of a s A mean based on both the abundance of an isotope and its RAM The quantity of a product obtained from a chemical reaction. Isomer with both higher priority groups on the same side of a ri Together.

conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual (true) value. w of f block elements. These are all radioactive. tructure in a chemical reaction that results from an effective collision between molecules and that persists while old bonds are breaking and new bond energy required to start a reaction by breaking bonds. on reaction where monomers join together and the polymer is the only product. re two molecules combine to form a single product. eries of organic molecules with an -OH functional group. eries of organic molecules containing the carbonyl group positioned at the end of the carbon chain. ules containing closed rings of carbon atoms which may contain single or multiple carbon-carbon bonds. ules containing straight or branched chain carbon skeletons which may contain single or multiple carbon-carbon bonds. containing closed rings of carbon atoms which may contain single or multiple carbon-carbon bonds. d volume of solution. tals in Group 2 of the periodic table. logous series of hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n+2

eries of hydrocarbons containing a double carbon-carbon double bond with general formula CnH2n

ecule that has lost a hydrogen atom to attach to another carbon chain. eries of hydrocarbons containing at least one triple carbon-carbon double bond with general formula CnH2n-2

ame element in the same physical state. nd two neutrons (helium nuclei). forms of carbon e.g. soot. d to encourage the growth of muscle and body mass. e due to activities of human beings e.g. burning fossil fuels, deforestation. hich react with and inactivate free radicals.

ules derived from the benzene molecule containing a benzene ring with 6 carbon atoms in their structure. omplete unit of an element. It consists of protons and neutrons in the nucleus orbited by electrons. w efficiently a reaction turns reactants into desired products. Equals the molecular mass of the desired product divided by the molecular masses of all gether by covalent bonds in a giant lattice structure. carbon-12 atom divided by 12. protons in an atom of an element. f closest approach between two atoms. f bonds in a molecule to leave atoms.

atoms of carbon in exactly 12g of carbon-12 i.e. 6.02*1023 in equal numbers of molecules at the same temperature and pressure. uation where the numbers of atoms are equal on both sides and all are in the form in which they undergo the reaction (i.e. complete molecules where

ak (or the greatest trough) on the ir spectrum. its of measurement. ere three atoms are joined together but not in a straight line e.g. water. ound with the molecular formula C6H6.

e from materials produced from living, renewable resources such as plants. down by living organisms. m living material e.g. ethanol from the fermentation of maize.

of ions in a lattice where each ion has 8 nearest neighbours. hich gives accurate measure of enthalpy changes, particularly when a substance is burnt in oxygen. two bonds in a molecule.

uired to break a particular bond or the energy released when a bond is formed. energy needed to make or break a bond. ntained in a chemical bond. onds between atoms in a molecule. stance between the nuclei of atoms in a molecule. enthalpy level diagram used to calculate the lattice energy of substances. system from the surroundings in thermochemistry.

ainer used to measure enthalpy change of a reaction. aining a negative charge produced by the heterolytic fission of a covalent bond. charged ion left when carbon has lost electrons in an electrophilic attack. A species containing a positive charge produced by the heterolytic fission of a removes carbon dioxide and stops it from being emitted. e impact of human activity in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced. unt of carbon dioxide absorbed when a raw material is grown or a fuel is formed equals the amount of carbon dioxide formed when it is burnt. ducing the carbon footprint e.g. by planting trees.

eries of organic molecules with a -COOH functional group.

el where catalytic cracking takes place. hich alters the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up. long chain alkanes into shorter chain molecules which are more useful as fuels and as compounds in industry. Catalysts such as zeolites are used to re involves breaking down the longer straight chain molecules from crude oil and reforming them into shorter branched chain molecules (often isomers o lucose molecules found in the stems of plants. cule where positive and negative charge is concentrated. hich a change in one molecule causes changes in many other molecules until eventually a stable molecule is formed. electric charge per unit volume.

ch affect the way in which an element or compound reacts with other substances. aking down polymers into monomer units for reuse. ntaining fluorine, chlorine and carbon only. They were formerly used in industry e.g. as refrigerants, propellants and cleaning solvents. thod of naming geometric isomers based on the arrangements of groups around a rigid bond. h can exchange energy with the surroundings but not matter. ting for the effects of concentration, temperature, surface area and catalysts on reaction rates. that measures the absorbance of particular wavelengths of light by a specific solution. It is most commonly used to determine the concentration of a k d out using a colorimeter. re all of the reactants have been turned into products. e amount of a solute dissolved in a solvent to form a solution. on reaction where, a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride is lost when two monomer molecules combine. re two molecules combine to form a larger molecule and a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride is lost. d out by measuring changes in conductivity of solutions. trails or artificial cirrus clouds made by the exhaust of aircraft engines which precipitate a stream of tiny ice crystals in moist, upper atmosphere. close neighbours to an ion in a lattice structure. hich breaks down or destroys materials including skin. es that the force of attraction between ions is related to the charge on the ions and the distance between them. nd formed when two or more atoms share electrons to gain a full, outer stable shell. which result from sharing electrons during covalent bonding. il, a fossil fuel extracted from underground. o represent the movement of a pair of electrons. periodic table containing elements with their outer electrons in the d subshell. the outermost electron in the d subshell.

ent bond is a covalent bond where both of the shared electrons come from the same atom.

h are not associated with one particular atom but are free to move. rement derived from the basic SI units.

vier fractions of crude oil used in diesel engines and as fuel for industrial boilers. Can also be used in a catalytic cracker to yield other chemicals. ules held together by dative covalent bonds. rge and a negative charge separated by a short distance. ction between charge centres in different molecules. pposite charges of magnitude of the dipole moment is defined as the magnitude of the charge times the distance between them and the defined direct re a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element in an aqueous solution. shows both the relative placing of the atoms and the number of bonds between them. oxidation and reduction. ibly lost to the system. senting electrons to model bonding between atoms. ed when two atoms share two pairs of electrons. ing two different salts in a 1:1 ratio.

gher priority groups on opposite sides of a rigid bond. for naming geometric isomers based on the atomic numbers of the atoms attached around a rigid bond. of electrons in an atom. e electron cloud of an atom where the electrons are most likely to be found. he areas where the probability of finding an electron is highest. The diffraction patterns produced when x-rays are passed through a crystal and diffract d to explain the shapes of molecules using the idea that electron pairs are arranged as far from each other as possible. electrons clockwise or anticlockwise creating a magnetic field. of the atoms of an element to gain electrons. ent of electrons in their subshells and orbitals. ent of electrons in an atoms in its main energy levels and sub levels. rticles with a negative charge which orbit the nucleus of an atom. rised, electron seeking groups e.g. H+

hich an electrophile is attracted to an area of high electron density and joins onto the molecule. ctrophile on a molecule in a reaction, removing electrons. ctric charges that do not move. pel, opposite charges attract. at cannot be broken down chemically into simpler substances. All the atoms of an element contain the same number of protons. hich a small molecule is removed from an organic molecule to produce a double bond. ula of a compound showing the whole number ratios of the atoms present. e reaction where the indicator changes colour showing that exact reacting volumes of the two solutions are present. ch takes in energy from the surroundings. ompound with respect to its elements in terms of bond enthalpy. nergy transfers between reacting chemicals and their surroundings. covering some of the energy used in the production of polymer products by burning them as fuels for electricity production e.t.c.

the energy content of a system held at constant pressure. ange which takes place during a chemical reaction. ntent of a system at constant pressure. o represent the enthalpy changes during a reaction.

h a reversible reaction where the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction so there is no apparent changes in concentration

escribe electrons when they are raised from one energy level to another within an atom. ch releases energy into the surroundings. periodic table containing elements with their outer electrons in the f subshell. the outermost electron in the f subshell. ons in a lattice where each ion has 6 nearest neighbours. he right-hand side of the ir spectrum which usually contains a very complicated series of absorptions mainly due to all manner of vibrations within the inhibit or resist the spread of fire. eded to remove the first electron from an atom. used for measuring the spectral intensity of metals present in the metallic salt. etect certain metal cations by observing the colour of the flame. cted at a particular temperature during primary distillation. a mass spectrometer that causes a positive ion to split into pieces, one of which is a positive fragment ion. ule with an unpaired electron e.g. one formed on the breaking of a covalent bond. -shaped carbon molecules with the commonest one C60 called buckminsterfullerene.

of atoms which is typical of a particular homologous series and which plays an important part in determining the chemical properties of the molecule. ctromagnetic radiation. el oil but less useful in a cracker. solid hydrocarbons in a limited supply of oxygen to produce syngas. quid hydrocarbons widely used as motor fuel (C5-C10).

h applies to all members of a homologous series and describes the number of carbon atoms and their relationship to the other atoms. and isomer in space. A chemical compound which has the same molecular formula as another but a different geometric configuration because atoms o of ions in an ionic substance. crease in the temperature at the surface of the Earth over a period of time. he effectiveness of different gases have in increasing global warming. f some of the energy absorbed by the Earth from the Sun an reradiated from the surface by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Some of the energy i ases which reduce the loss of heat by radiation from the Earth's atmosphere contributing to the greenhouse effect e.g. carbon dioxide, methane. ergy state of an atom. ns of the periodic table. ation for a redox reaction showing oxidation or reduction of one species. Two half equations added together can produce an ionic equation. es for half the atoms in a sample of radioactive material to decay. eries of organic molecules in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms within an alkane has been replace by a halogen atom. ctive non-metals in Group 7 of the periodic table.

heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1K. or efficient heat exchange from one place to another. In a chemical factory waste energy from one place can be used efficiently elsewhere. at the total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the route taken. ch takes place at the boundary of two phases. nvolves the unequal sharing of the electrons of a covalent bond, so that both electrons go to one atom when the covalent bond is broken. r with relatively few branched chains so relatively dense with higher melting point than LDPE. ch takes place in a single phase.

nvolves the equal sharing of electrons in a bond so that each atom receives one electron when the bond is broken. at when electrons are placed in a set or orbitals with equal energy, they spread out to maximise the number of unpaired electrons. here water molecules arrange themselves around an ion in a solution. d when 1 mole of gaseous ions are dissolved in excess water. ounds with molecules containing only carbon and hydrogen. alkanes where not all hydrogen has been replaced by chlorine or fluorine. They are used primarily as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) substitutes, as the ozone

of dipole-dipole force that exists between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom bonded to another electronegative atom. This type of force a ogy for powering vehicles based on the oxidation of hydrogen with water as the waste product. re a substance is split up by water (or dilute acid or alkali).

do not mix but form separate layers. the supply of oxygen is limited. which a base number is raised. by the close proximity of strong charge.

for producing an infrared spectrum. ng the record produced when an infrared spectrometer scans an ir wavelength and the detector records how strongly the sample absorbs each wavele ction at the start of a reaction. e initial energy for a reaction. 91 naturally organic chemical elements and their compounds, including carbon and its oxides and carbonates. pole set up in a molecule. n neighbouring molecules that provide the means of bringing non-polar molecules together in a liquid at low temperatures.

has lost or gained electrons to take a positive or negative charge. which uses helium ions instead of light to form an image giving very high levels of magnification. f attraction between oppositely charged ions formed during ionic bonding. The electrostatic forces two oppositely charged ions together. nd formed when atoms gain or lose electrons to form positive or negative ions. The loss or gain in electrons gives the ion a complete outer shell of elect d by giant ionic lattices. ion which only shows the ions involved in a reaction. escribe the size of ions. emoval of an electron from an atom. ange associated with the removal of an electron from an atom or ion. hich causes irritation of the skin. e same number and arrangement of electrons as an atom of another element. e the boundary prevents matter and energy entering and leaving. more compounds have the same molecular formula but with the atoms arranged differently. ompounds with the same molecular formula but with the atoms arranged differently. ame element with the same atomic number but with different numbers of neutrons giving them different mass numbers. nion of Pure and Applied Chemistry. crude oil used for aircraft fuel and also as a source of other useful chemicals in the cracking process. eries of organic molecules containing at least one carbonyl group which is never positioned at the end of the carbon chain. vation energy of a reaction is so large that no molecules in the reaction mixture have sufficient energy to overcome it and so the reaction does not take

eased when an ionic lattice is formed. A measure of the strength of bonds in an ionic compound. It is equivalent to the amount of energy required to se in an attempt to arrange the elements in order of atomic masses. brium reaction mixture is subjected to a change in conditions, the composition adjusts to counteract the change. on and valuation of the environmental impacts of a given product or service caused or necessitated by its existence. alcium hydroxide in water used as a positive test for carbon dioxide gas. hich results from the light given out by a gas when an electrical charge is passed through it to form a spectrum. s in a molecule are in a straight line. is liquefied at low temperatures and high pressures for storage and transport. exist in non-polar molecules that involve an accidental dipole that induces a momentary dipole in a neighbour. ing electrons in a molecule. r with branched chains: low density, low m.p.

es that an external observer can see and measure with a naked eye.

s that when a hydrogen halide is added to an alkene, the hydrogen is most likely to add to the carbon atom which already has the most hydrogen atom neutrons plus the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. obtaining a mass spectrum that can be used to measure the relative masses of isotopes or to find the relative abundance of the isotopes in a sample o uced by a mass spectrometer. pressing the distribution of energy among the molecules in a gas in thermal equilibrium. e of the bond dissociation enthalpy of a particular type of bond over a wide range of different compounds. king down plastics into smaller pieces before reprocessing. re at which a pure solid is in equilibrium with a pure liquid at atmospheric pressure. tals with positive metal ions embedded in a sea of delocalised electrons. h aren't metals but which have some characteristics of a metal e.g. conducts electricity. h are good conductors of heat and electricity, can be hammered into sheets and drawn out into wires. Usually shiny and are solids at room temperatur

ompletely mix to form a single layer.

d to change 1 mole of a liquid to a vapour at its boiling temperature. omic or molecular mass in grams. oncentration 1 molar= 1 mol dm^-3. cupied by a mole of any gas under standard conditions of 1 atm and 298K. substance that contains the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12g of C-12 which is equal to the relative atomic or molecular mas ded molecules held together in giant structures by intermolecular forces as a result of partial ionic character in the covalent bond. ion which shows the complete formula of every substance involved in the reaction. ompound showing how many of each atom there are. sponding to the M+ ion which is the peak with the highest m/z value. e concentration of a solution. ule, for example an alkene, that can be joined to many other small molecules to form a much larger molecule. with at least one dimension less than 100 nm. ing very small objects. de by compressing C-60 molecules. It is harder than diamond. Nanorods are also made from other substances e.g. silicon carbide. bon molecules which exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties and are efficient conductors of heat. e due to naturally occurring processes. il fuel found in association with crude oil. It is mainly made of methane. ved from plants or other living organisms. tral sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. Mass slightly greater than that of a proton.

ts which are not metals. c particles found in the nucleus of an atom-the protons and the neutrons. nor, attracted to positive ions. An atom of group of atoms that is attracted to a positive charge. A nucleophile is negatively charged or contains a lone p eophile on an ion in a reaction, donating electrons. which indicates the proportion of branched chain to straight chain alkanes in the fuel mixture. at when elements react they tend to do so in a way which results in an outer shell containing eight electrons. ere an electron is most likely to be found. n compounds with the exception of the simplest compounds such as the oxides and carbonates. n equation showing what happens overall to the ions in the reaction. ich electrons are lost. t an element would have if it were totally ionically bonded.

hich oxidises another substance but is itself reduced. periodic table containing elements with their outer electrons in the p subshell. their outermost electrons in the p subshell. matic name for the alkanes. ute/total mass * 10^6 wavelength of a vibration of a particular group leads to a maximum amount of ir radiation being absorbed. Shown as troughs on the ir spectrum. h three bonds in a plane with bond angles of 120 degrees and one bond at right angles above and one bond at right angles below the plane. corded on the y-axis of an ir spectrum. at the properties of elements are a function of their atomic numbers. ch show clear patterns in the periodic table. g the elements in order of their atomic number. erns of elements in the periodic table. s of the periodic table. of charge within a molecule.

ch do not involve the chemical nature of the element or compound e.g. melting temperature, density, conductivity e.t.c. on to carbon bond, i.e. C=C. d where the pair of bonding electrons is not evenly distributed. h an overall dipole ,taking into account any dipole across bonds.

from repeating ethene monomer units. e made up of long chains of smaller units joined together. hich many monomer units are joined together to form a long chain polymer molecules.

which a reaction has moved to completion. o the right hand side of the periodic table after the transition metals. o the maximum accuracy permitted by the apparatus. ere the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon itself bonded to 2 or 3 other hydrogen atoms. ch crude oil is turned into useful chemicals. is attached to a carbon atom attached to 2 or 3 hydrogen atoms. signed to electron shells which indicates the size of the shell and the distance from the nucleus. g that the total energy content of the universe is constant. ch sets of other reactions. rticle with positive charge found in the nucleus of an atom. h as ammonia with a pyramid shape. aking down polymers using heat in the absence of oxygen. fuel extracted by pyrolisis from dried biomass. different constituents (elements, ions or atoms) that are present in a substance. different quantities of constituents (elements, ions or atoms) that are present in a substance. ics needed to understand atomic structure in detail. ple rapidly to slow all reactions to enable analysis to be carried out.

which an unstable nucleus breaks up to become more stable and emits alpha, beta or gamma radiation. of C-12 to C-14 to date once living material. which a reaction happens. which a reaction takes place showing the possible route that a reaction might follow by displaying intermediate stages. ws the change in energy as a function of the progress of a reaction.

re oxidation and reduction take place.

hich reduces another substance but is itself oxidised. ich electrons are gained. ction of crude oil (C1-C4). enser which condenses escaping vapours so they fall back into the reacting flask. e percentage of different isotopes in a sample of an element. ss of an atom relative to an atom of C-12. hich chemists compare the mass of all atoms to the mass of a standard C-12 isotope. the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a chemical formula. of the effect different gases have on absorbing ir radiation. the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a chemical formula of a covalent compound. epeated will give the same outcome. ure of hydrocarbons with high b.p. produced during fractional distillation of crude oil. a hazard causing harm. risks associated with a course of action and reducing them as far as possible. ions found in sodium chloride. periodic table containing elements with their outer electrons in the s subshell. the outermost electrons in the s subshell.

eded to remove a second electron from an atom/ion. ere the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon itself bonded to 1 hydrogen atom. is attached to a carbon atom attached to 1 hydrogen atom. which electrons are concentrated around a nucleus, representing different energy levels of the electrons. simply shows the bonds and the functional group. Often used for ring compounds.

c process taking place when water is added to calcium hydroxide. e dissolving in 100g solvent at a particular temperature. gas dissolved in a liquid to form a solution. ning a dissolved solid, liquid or gas. substances dissolve to form a solution. ng the shape of molecules in 3d. ity per unit mass of a particular substance. ear in the same form on both sides of an ionic equation and can therefore be left out as they are not involved in the reaction. how readily a compound breaks down into its elements or reacts with other compounds. hange when 1 mole of its atoms in the gaseous state is formed from the element under standard conditions. hange when 1 mole of a substance is completely burnt in oxygen under standard conditions. hange when 1 mole of the compound is formed from its elements under standard conditions. hange when 1 mole of acid is just neutralised by an alkali in their standard states under standard conditions and in solutions containing 1 mol dm^-3. hange of a reaction measured under standard conditions. nown concentration. d for measuring the molar volume of gases, 1 atm and 298K.

o indicate the physical state of a chemical in a reaction. which all variables are constant in spite of ongoing processes which strive to change them. with same molecular formula where the 3d arrangement allows different arrangements in space so the molecules cannot be superimposed upon each shows both the number of atoms in a molecule and the way in which they are arranged relative to each other. with same molecular formula but with the atoms connected together in a different order. ering energy within a shell, described by letters such as s, p, d, f, e.t.c. hich an atom or group of atoms is replaced by a different atom or group of atoms. und a chemical reaction.

rogen and carbon monoxide which can be used in a number of chemical processes.

ch are not naturally occurring, they have been synthesised in the laboratory.

nternationally used system of measurements. ch completes a chain reaction. ere the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon itself bonded to no hydrogen atom. is attached to a carbon atom attached to no hydrogen atoms.

nergy transfers in chemical reactions. nding the exact volumes of different solutions which react using an indicator. s which take place within the atom as electrons move from one energy level to another. for the d block elements. elements in an early attempt to group the elements. ape with all three lines/orbitals in the same plane. ed when two atoms share three pairs of electrons.

ch the forces which make up the nucleus are unbalanced and there is an excess of internal energy. active forces between induced dipoles in adjacent molecules which a liquid turns into a gas. edure used to determine the concentration of a solution. on both the abundance of an isotope and its RAM. f a product obtained from a chemical reaction. th higher priority groups on the same side of a rigid bond.

ts while old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming.

roduct divided by the molecular masses of all the products multiplied by 100.

the reaction (i.e. complete molecules where relevant).

charge produced by the heterolytic fission of a covalent bond.

arbon dioxide formed when it is burnt.

ustry. Catalysts such as zeolites are used to reduce the temperature needed for the reactions to take place. er branched chain molecules (often isomers of the original molecules). A platinum catalyst is often used to keep the required to a minimum.

pellants and cleaning solvents.

nly used to determine the concentration of a known solute in a given solution.

ce crystals in moist, upper atmosphere.

talytic cracker to yield other chemicals.

distance between them and the defined direction is toward the positive charge.

-rays are passed through a crystal and diffracted by the electrons in the ions or atoms in the structure.

ame number of protons.

ctricity production e.t.c.

here is no apparent changes in concentration of reactants and products.

nly due to all manner of vibrations within the molecule.

ning the chemical properties of the molecule.

ationship to the other atoms. ent geometric configuration because atoms or groups of atoms are attached to either side of a double bond or other rigid bond.

gases in the atmosphere. Some of the energy is reradiated back to Earth again by these greenhouse gases and this is known as the greenhouse effect. use effect e.g. carbon dioxide, methane.

her can produce an ionic equation.

e by a halogen atom.

can be used efficiently elsewhere.

hen the covalent bond is broken.

ber of unpaired electrons.

rofluorocarbon (CFC) substitutes, as the ozone depleting effects are only about 10% of the CFCs.

her electronegative atom. This type of force always involves a hydrogen atom and the energy of this attraction is close to that of weak covalent bonds

how strongly the sample absorbs each wavelength.

oppositely charged ions together. ns gives the ion a complete outer shell of electrons.

overcome it and so the reaction does not take place.

ivalent to the amount of energy required to separate a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.

m which already has the most hydrogen atoms attached to it.

ative abundance of the isotopes in a sample of an element.

ually shiny and are solids at room temperature except for mercury.

equal to the relative atomic or molecular mass of a substance in grams. cter in the covalent bond.

nces e.g. silicon carbide.

phile is negatively charged or contains a lone pair of electrons.

d. Shown as troughs on the ir spectrum. ond at right angles below the plane.

olved in the reaction.

ons and in solutions containing 1 mol dm^-3.

molecules cannot be superimposed upon each other.

to keep the required to a minimum.

ond or other rigid bond.

s and this is known as the greenhouse effect.

action is close to that of weak covalent bonds (155 kJ/mol).