Life in the form single-celled algae was present when the Earth was 3.

5 billion years old as the first primitive life form along with bacteria. Animals with hard skeletons and shells appeared and formed fossils 540 million years ago. The period since then is usually broken up into the Paleozoic Era (old life) from 540 to 225 million years ago, the Mesozoic Era (middle life) from 225 million to 65 million years ago, and the Cenozoic Era (modern life) from 65 million years ago to the present. Dinosaurs flourished in the Mesozoic, whereas human beings have been present for only a few million years. By 4000 B.C. there were Quasi-civilized communities. Cities, temples, systematic irrigation and social organization first appeared in Mesopotamia and Egypt. They discovered the use of bronze and they built temples of sun dried bricks. At the same time, there were civilizations in India, China and South America.Jews built Babylon as the capital after conquering Mesopotamia and Egypt nearly 4500 years ago. They invented Semitics mixing Sumerian writing cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphic. All the major languages of the world were derived from Semitics. Before 1000 B.C. various techniques such as yoga, meditation etc were developed to achieve the knowledge of past, present and future. In the sixth century B.C., human race had reached a stage of adolescence. In the same year two wise men Confucius and Lao Tse lived in China and helped to achieve adolescence of mankind. In 900 B.C. Aryans were still barbarians. The success of Aryans was indeed unparallel in ancient period. Hindu gave numbers and Arabian transferred those numbers in the entire civilized world. Zero was invented by the Arabians and decimals by the Indian. GREEK-EXPERIMENTS The human mind were being trained in a new method and spirit of intellectual adventure by the Greek Philosophers at the time when Hebrew prophets, Ashoka, Confucius, and Lao Tse were giving knowledge From 466 B.C. to 428 B.C.; Athens was dominated by Pericles who rebuilt Athens intellectually. Socrates and his disciple Plato dominated after him. Then, Platos pupil Aristotle work upon method of thinking carried the science of logic. He was the father of History and founder of Political Science. In second century A.D. scientific leadership passed to Alexandria founded by Alexander. Many scientists did their experiments in the museum. However, soon those scientific experiments ceased due to various reasons. The fall of Roman Empire is also one of the causes. Nevertheless, at this time the whole Europe had accepted the Christian doctrine and church dominated free thinking of human beings. Then, Europe had entered into the Dark Age. In two century B.C., China started building the great wall which took nearly five centuries to complete. Ajanta and Allora of India took about seven centuries to complete. In Nepal, the first inhabitants were likely to be Mongolians and now we are likely to be a

mixture of Aryans, Mongolians and Dravidians. Paper was invented in China at least in 200 B.C. But, good quality of paper was available in Europe only in 13th century. Tea and wood block printing was also first invented in China. Nepal is at the heart of Asia. Our festivals like Gai-Jatra, Machhindra Nath Rath Jatra and other traditions have reached China, Korea and Japan. From the fifth century onwards, Europe became more religious and entered the Dark Age. But, the scientific inventions continued in China and Arab.

ARABS SUPREMACY Arab Empire became the most powerful when Islam flourished. The seed of Aristotle and the Museum of Alexandria began to grow towards fruition in Arab. Arabs made a great leap in Mathematics, Medical and Physical Science. The Arab experimental chemists were called Alchemist. The Arabian came upon many metallurgical and technical devices of the utmost value. At that time, Arabians were the masters and Europeans, the pupils.

MONGOLIANS VICTORY Mongolian emperor Jengis Khan conquered China, Turkmenistan, Persia, and Armenia, part of India down to Lahore, South Russia and Hungary in the beginning of 13th century. His successor Ogdai Khan completed conquest of China and Russia. Mangu Khan succeeded Ogdai Khan and made his brother Kublai Khan the emperor of China. Their descendent Baber conquest India and his grandson, Akbar completed his conquest and Mogul dynasty ruled India till 18th century. Western Mongolian became Muslim and Chinese Mongolian became Buddhist. They opened Silk Road to Europe.

GREAT-RENAISSANCE The renaissance of Europe and the brightest periods of human civilization were the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. Good quality of paper and printing reached Europe. There was direct contact and trading with Asia. Arabian literature and scientific experiments were translated into common language. Western Europe was revitalized with revival of intellectual knowledge. Marco Polo, Columbus, Vasco- De- Gama travelled to unreached part of the world. With substantial input from Semitic, Mongols and Hindus and rediscovery of Greek classes, European Aryans became intellectual and material leadership of mankind by the 16th century.

INDUSTRIALIZATION AND COLONIZATION Industrial Revolution took place after the great renaissance which differs from mechanical revolution. Many great discoveries took place in Europe of which the most worthy note are Science of Geology by Leonardo- Da -Vinci (1452-1519), Trevithick made the first locomotive in 1804, investigation of voltage, Faraday and Galvani into various electrical phenomenon, discovery of electric telegraphs in 1835. The new science of electricity and metallurgy grew up parallel with the extension of mechanical possibilities. Clock was invented in the 14th century in Europe. These inventions and discoveries led to material growth and subsequent colonization by European countries. The Dutch, the Portuguese and the Spanish were first in the race of trade and mining. Spain claimed the domination of North and South America but Portuguese also asked for their share. The intervention of Pope made the division possible, Brazil to Portugal and all the rest to Spain. In India, the Dutch, the French and the Portuguese came before the East India Company. After the mutiny troops in 1859, the empire of the East India Company was annexed to British Crown by an act. In African continent only three countries Liberia, Morocco and Abyssinia remained annexed and the rest was divided amongst European powers. With the rise of Germany in the beginning of 20th century, World War I took place. The World War II was mainly due to dictator Hitler. World War I and II helped in the discoveries of many new technologies.

INFORMATION-AGE The society of information had its beginning in USA in 1956 followed by globalization of the information revolution in 1957. The Russian launched Sputnik and introduced the era of global satellite communication which transformed our world into a global village. In Europe and North America, thousands of jobs were reduced in factories in last 50 years. Job was created in information sector. In an industrial society, the strategic resource was capital but in the information society information is wealth. The new source of power is not money, but information. Computer technology is to the information age what mechanization was to the industrial revolution. However, a country like Nepal is in various stages of agricultural, industrial and information society simultaneously.

IN FUTURE CONFLICTING ISSUES These days, population and environment has become the twin problem. Prior to information age, only water pollution, sanitation and drinking water were main environmental issues. By 1980, air pollution, biodiversity, global warming, ozone layer depletion, soil erosion, deforestation etc. also added. In future, biotechnology will certainly come into market especially in health and agricultural sector and human life will again enter different phase. Even in this information age, millions are absolute poor in developing countries with no sanitation, health facilities and are illiterate. This is a growing challenge for scientists, technocrats, politicians and bureaucrats all over the world. There is a big question whether biotechnology can help these poor people or not. The crisis of fresh water resources and the depletion of fossil fuel reserves will bring real conflict between have and have not. To resolve these issues human beings have struggled continuously in political, social, economical and technological fronts in the 21st century.