Nanotechnology is the science and technology `of creating nanoparticles', `of materials and properties at 1 to 100 nm sizes', `of

building circuits and devices from single atoms and molecules', `of manufacturing machines at 1 to 100 nm sizes', `of molecular manufacturing', `of self-organizing molecular assemblies', and so on. Nanomaterials are generally classi_ed into two broad classes: (i) Fullerenes and (ii) Nanoparticles.

Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon. Carbon forms a hexagonal planar lattice structure with sp2 hybrid molecular bonds between any two carbon atoms. This structure is a single-atom thick sheet and is known as graphene. o Nanoparticles are nanocrystals of metals, semiconductors and other chemical species. They show a striking novelty and variety of physical, chemical, electrical and other properties. Nanomaterials may be synthesized in various forms such as thin films, nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanorods, nanobelts or nanoribbons, nanocomposites and so on. Many of the methods and processes designed and perfected to prepare these materials are specific to these forms. Traditionally, methods for materials preparation are classifieded into two broad approaches: (i) the top-down approach, and (ii) the bottom-up approach. o A top-down approach is one in which macro-crystalline forms, or, macro-structures are progressively broken down to a nano-crystalline form, or, nano-structures that is, nano sizes are achieved by reducing macro-sizes by some means. o a bottom-up approach is one in which nano-sized forms are built up atom by atom, molecule by molecule, cluster by cluster, or, monomer by monomer depending on the context. o Lithography is a printing method that uses chemical processes to create an image. It is the process responsible for very large scale integration electronic components and in the form of electron beam lithography, it is used to fabricate nano-sized electronic devices. Photolithography uses light to transfer a geometrical pattern from a photomask to a light sensitive chemical (photoresist) on the substrate. Depending on the pattern on the photo-mask, a structure can be generated on the substrate, which is further used to develop a silicon based photonic and electronic device. Light is replaced by electron beam in e-beam lithography. Here an electron beam is used to write patterns on the surface as it is scanned by the beam. The main advantage gained by use of electron beam as a pattern-writing tool is that electrons have much smaller de Broglie wavelength. With smaller wavelengths it is possible to build much smaller sized patterns on the resist coat on the Si substrate. o Sputtering is a physical vapour deposition process in which atoms in a solid target are dislodged into the gas phase by bombardment of the target by energetic ions .The technique is commonly used for thin film deposition. In sputtering a glow discharge of nonreactive ions, like Ar+ shown by open circles in the figure, is created by a potential difference inside a vacuum chamber. The ions bombard the target and dislodge atoms from the surface.

The freed atoms, shown by solid circles in the figure, then move downward and deposit on the surface of the substrate.

Sputtering is the most versatile of techniques used for the deposition of device quality thin films. As compared to other deposition techniques sputtering produces films with high purity and provides easier control over composition. Also it provides films with good adhesive strength, homogeneity and uniformity

CHARACTERISATION AND MEASUREMENT Characterisation is a procedure to make measurements to identify the material based on its known properties and / or to determine its unknown properties. o The characterisation methods can be classified into two families: (i) Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM), and (ii) Electron Microscopy (EM). o Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) Principle: Image surface by measurement of electron current due to quantum tunneling between tip and surface Probe: Sharp conducting tip - ideally terminating in a single atom - made of tungsten, platinum-iridium.Picture shows a tungsten tip. Modes of Operation: Tip is moved to scan the surface. Two scan modes: (a) Constant height and (b) Constant current. Tunneling current, tip-sample voltage, tip displacements parallel and perpendicular to surface on monitored. Images give info on topology, local density of states. Resolution: Lateral 0.1 nm, Depth 0.01 nm Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)