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IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 3, No. 4, October 1988

A NEW GENERAL ESTIMATION CURVE FOR PREDICTING THE IMXILSE IMPEDANCE OF CONCENTRATED EARTH ELECTRODES E E Oettlh National Electrical Engineering Research Institute Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Pretoria, South Africa.

Abstract

A new general estimation curve which predicts the impulse impedance 'of concentrated earth electrodes is proposed. This is a further development of the experimental curve published by Korsuntcev [ l ] in 1958. The use of this curve does not require any knowledge of the critical soil ionization constant, Eo. The characteristic dimension of an electrode has been redefined to give a good resolution between twodimensional and three-dimensional electrode geometries. The curve predicts the impedance approximately 6 u s after the onset of the impulse, which is representative of the impedance of electrodes at the time of the peak lightning current of first strokes.
INTRODUCTION

which attempt to predict the impedance of electrodes in soil when ionization and discharge processes are involved. Equations describing the impulse impedance of spherical [5] and rod electrodes [6], as well as that of buried counterpoises [8] have been developed and further refinements such as the so-called "ionization" and "de-ionization" time constants have been introduced [ 6 ] In 1958, Korsuntcev [l] applied the theory of similitude to the calculation of surge characteristics of concentrated earth electrodes. This meant that the impulse impedance could be described in terms of two dimensionless arguments, n 1 and n 2 , defined as:

nl

"s
P

and One of the critical parameters in the lightning performance of transmission lines is the impulse impeIt has been suggested dance of the tower footings. that the decrease in the impedance, which results from soil ionization processes under high-voltage conditions, be taken into account in order to optimize the design of tower earthings [ 2 ] and to obtain more accurate results when the lightning performance of Unfortunately, this is one of lines is analysed [3]. the most difficult parameters to predict with any degree of confidence. Models that have been suggested often require some knowledge of the critical soil ionization level, Eo, a parameter about which very little is known [2,4,5,6]. This is then incorporated into an iterative mathematical process describing the ionization zone around the electrodes. Estimation curves have been suggested [3,7], but these apply specifically to rod electrodes of known low-voltage, power frequency resistance, a parameter which cannot be known prior to installation. In this paper a new general estimation curve, based on the ideas first published by Korsuntcev [l], is proposed. General background The first researchers to attempt to model the dynamic impedance of an electrode were Bellaschi, Armington and Snowden in 1942 141. They described the impedance of an electrode in terms of a uniform ionization zone which was said to surround the electrode whenever the critical breakdown strength, Eq, of the soil was exceeded. This principle has since then formed the basis of almost all the subsequent models where:
a
S

"1

fn2 (.)

is the impulse impedance ( a ) is the characteristic dimension of the electrode (m) is the soil resistivity (0.m) p I is the impulse current (A) Eo is the critical soil ionization strength (V/m) f is the function describing the relationship between n1 and n (to be determined experimentallyf.

A brief discussion of the similitude criteria and the physical interpretation of v l and nz can be found in the next section. Korsuntcev published a collection of data points with an experimentally determined curve, f n ) in 1958 (z, [I]. This curve had great potential for engineering application, but a number of uncertainties had to be clarified before it could be used with confidence. Some of these uncertainties were: (a) (b) (c) Determining the value of Eo., Defining the impulse impedance, a. Defining the characteristic dimension, S.

The problems and possible solutions regarding these uncertainties will be addressed in this paper. APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF SIMILITUDE TO CALCULATE THE IMPULSE IMPEDANCE OF CONCENTRATED EARTH ELECTRODES When deducing the similitude criterion, Korsuntsev [l] based his physical model on the concept of a uniform spark zone, the boundaries of which are determined by the critical breakdown strength, Eo, of the soil. Within this zone, the resistance was assumed to be zero. Thus, at the ionization zone boundaries: E = Eo
=

87 SM 567-1 A paper recommended and approved by the IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEE/PES 1987 Summer Meeting, San Francisco, 17, 1987. Manuscript submitted California, July 12 February 2, 1987; made available for printing April 21, 1987.

pj

where E = electric field strength in the soil P = resistivity j = current density

0885-8977/88/1000-202OS01 . O 1988 IEEE OO

~

202 1

s t r e a m e r s could b e accounted f o r by t h e parameter Eo. T h i s means t h a t e v e n i f t h e model of i n d i v i d u a l s t r e a m e r s i s accepted, then t h e p h y s i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s would r e s u l t i n t h e same s i m i l i t u d e c r i t e r i a whlch wrwJ[i lead t o t h e same d e f i n i t i o n s of n and n2.
I I

i1
1

LIONIZAlION
LUNE

Fig. l a

The development of a uniform i o n i z a t i o n zone.

F i g u r e l a i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s i d e a of a u n i f o r m s p a r k zone. A t small c u r r e n t s t h e boundaries r e t a i n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e s e p a r a t e components of t h e e a r t h e l e c t r o d e , b u t a t l a r g e r c u r r e n t s i t embraces t h e e a r t h e l e c t r o d e a s a whole, t h u s masking i t s o r i g i n a l outline. This means t h a t , a s t h e c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s , t h e e x a c t e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n becomes l e s s import a n t and only t h e o v e r a l l dimensions of t h e i o n i z a t i o n zone a r e of m a j o r s i g n i f i c a n c e . Korsuntcev t h u s introduced t h e i d e a of a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension, S, which i s an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e o v e r a l l dimension of an e l e c t r o d e without t a k i n g t h e d e t a i l e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n t o account. This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension was def i n e d a s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c e n t r e of t h e e l e c t r o d e , a t t h e ground s u r f a c e , t o i t s most remote p o i n t . The c u r r e n t d e n s i t y a r o u n d t h e e l e c t r o d e would then be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o I / S 2 , w h i l e t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d a d j a c e n t t o t h e e l e c t r o d e could be r e p r e s e n t e d by p I / S 2 . Soil ionization w a s believed t o commence when t h i s v a l u e exceeded t h e c r i t i c a l s o i l ionization strength. The whole s i t u a t i o n w a s f u r t h e r s i m p l i f i e d by i g n o r i n g any p o s s i b l e t i m e - d e p e n d e n t effects, f o r instance the ionization t i m e required f o r t h e formation of t h e i o n i z a t i o n zone. The impulse impedance of an e l e c t r o d e could t h e n be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of t h e f i v e v a r i a b l e s : a , S , I, Eo and P . These a r e a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d and t h e s i m i l i tude theory could, t h e r e f o r e , b e a p p l i e d t o reduce t h e v a r i a b l e s t o o n l y two dimensionless q u a n t i t i e s n 1 and r2. The s i m i l i t u d e c r i t e r i o n used by Korsuntcev w a s t h a t i f two e l e c t r o d e s , a and b , a r e i n i d e n t i c a l s o i l c o n d i t i o n s (Eoa = Eob and p a = p b , and i f t h e i r charact e r i s t i c dimensions have a r a t i o of n , such t h a t Sa/Sb = n, then t h e r a t i o between t h e i r impedances ( a a / a b ) , w i l l be e q u a l t o l / n o n l y when t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d a d j a c e n t t o t h e e l e c t r o d e s a r e equal. This l e d t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of n1 and n 2 given by:
n l
=

Fig. l b

The development of d i s c r e t e streamers.

a AND S

UNCERTAINTIES REGARDING THE PARAMETERS E,,, The c r i t i c a l s o i l i o n i z a t i o n s t r e n g t h , Eo.

I n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s i m i l i t u d e theory, where t h e e x a c t geometric c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s n o t taken i n t o account, Eo would b e a p r o p e r t y o f t h e s o i l type A v a l u e f o r Eo must be e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e only. can be c a l c u l a t e d . n 2 can only be determined once Eo i s known. Some r e s e a r c h e r s have determined Eo e x p e r i mentally [l], w h i l s t o t h e r s have t r e a t e d i t a s a v a r i a b l e which i s a d j u s t e d u n t i l t h e impulse impedance, d e s c r i b e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n terms of a uniform i o n i z a t i o n zone s u r r o u n d i n g t h e e l e c t r o d e , b e s t f i t s t h e experimental r e s u l t s [4,5,6]. Some of t h e v a l u e s f o r Eo which h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t h e p a s t a r e l i s t e d i n Table 1. T a b l e 1: V a l u e s of E, p o i n t s of F i g u r e 1. used i n generating t h e d a t a

I-----Reference Korsuntcev [ 1

(fi.m)

E ~ 9 m )

Comments

470 180 100 1,2 1,0 0,8 Korsuntcev recommended t h e s e v a l u e s "on t h e basis of t e s t s done" [ 6 ] , b u t hc does n o t g i v e any f u r t h e r references or description regarding these t e s t s .

~ S / P

r 2

= IP/(S2

Eo)

290

0,83

ill can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a "normalized" impedance o r a s t h e impedance p e r u n i t r e s i s t i v i t y f o r a u n i t l e n g t h of e l e c t r o d e . n 1 i s , t h e r e f o r e , a dimensionless quantity. n 2 d e s c r i b e s t h e r a t i o between t h e t h e o r e t i c a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t e n s i t y a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e l e c t r o d e , (P I / S 2 ) and t h e c r i t i c a l s o i l i o n i z a t i o n c o n s t a n t , Eo. n 2 i s a l s o a dimensionless parameter. The normalized impedance, T ~ ,can be expected t o decrease as the e l e c t r i c f i e l d adjacent t o the electrode (and hence n2) i n c r e a s e s . The behaviour of d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s a r e taken i n t o account by Eo. A s o i l with a low v a l u e of Eo would r e s u l t i n a h i g h e r v a l u e of n 2 , which would then l e a d t o lower v a l u e s of n l . Although, when t h e s i m i l i t u d e t h e o r y was f i r s t a p p l i e d t o e l e c t r o d e s , i t was based on t h e assumption of a uniform i o n i z a t i o n zone, i t could j u s t a s w e l l h o l d t r u e e v e n where o n l y one o r two d i s c r e t e d i s charge a r c s o r streamers a r e developed. A t low c u r r e n t s , t h e o r i g i n a l e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n would s t i l l be important, b u t a t high c u r r e n t d e n s i t y , the a c t u a l e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a g a i n becomes l e s s important. This s i t u a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure lb. The l e n g t h , v e l o c i t y and impedance o f t h e

The v a l u e of Eo was chose1 s o that the theoretically predicted results best f i t t e d t h e experimental results.

100 100 85 75 300

0,03 0,27 0,127 0,22 0,425

The v a l u e of Eo was chosen s o t h a t t h e theoretically predicted results best f i t t e d the experimental r e s u l t s .

50 60 150 300

.l-,3 0,05 0,2 0,05

The v a l u e of Eo was chosen so t h a t t h e theoretically predicted results best f i t t e d the experimental r e s u l t s .

In a n a t t e m p t t o c l a r i f y t h e r e g a r d i n g E , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of and t h e bre%kdown s t r e n g t h of a l a r g e t y p e s were i n v e s t i g a t e d [ 9 ] . For t h e uncertainties s o i l ionization v a r i e t y of s o i l purpose of t h e

2022
700

p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n , i t is s u f f i c i e n t t o s a y t h a t t h e breakdown s t r e n g t h of s o i l , even i n uniform e l e c t r i c f i e l d s , i s a d i f f i c u l t parameter t o measure. It i s n o t o n l y g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s o i l d e n s i t y , inhomog e n e i t i e s and a i r gaps, b u t i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h long s t a t i s t i c a l d e l a y times. The r e s u l t s of t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t on a number of d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s , f o r t h e p u r p o s e of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s t r e n g t h which could l e a d t o breakdown approximately 5 p s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse, can be s e e n i n F i g u r e 2. D e f i n i t i o n of t h e impulse impedance, a. The impedance of an e l e c t r o d e does n o t necess a r i l y r e a c h a minimum when t h e c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e c u r v e s are a t t h e i r maximum, b u t o f t e n c o n t i n u e s t o d e c r e a s e f o r 10 30 ps a f t e r t h e c u r r e n t h a s reached i t s peak. This is a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i o n i z a t i o n time r e q u i r e d f o r t h e formation of corona and s t r e a m e r s i n t h e surrounding s o i l [ 9 ] . T y p i c a l examples can be s e e n i n F i g u r e s A 1 t o AS of t h e Appendix. Previous r e s e a r c h e r s have d e f i n e d a as:

600 580

*
C
Y

488

300

U
200 100

500

1000

1500

2000

CURRENT I R I

Fig. 3

a = V / I v e r s u s I and a = V / I ( a t t = 6 P S I . Data & ! ns a r e f r o g tests performed on a 1,48 m rod e l e c t r o d e i n sand w i t h a r e s i s t i v i t y of 2 0009.m [reproduced from 121.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension of an e l e c t r o d e Korsuntcev [ I ] defined the characteristic dimension, S , as t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c e n t r e of t h e e l e c t r o d e on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground t o t h e most d i s t a n t p o i n t o f t h e e l e c t r o d e . An a l t e r n a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n , h , could demand t h e mean s q u a r e r o o t of t h e l a r g e s t h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e , h l , t h e h o r i z o n t a l dimension which l i e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l a r g e s t h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e , h2, and t h e depth of t h e electrode: (h = / h v . According t o t h e f i r s t d e f i n i t i o n , t h e charact e r i s t i c dimension of t h e three-dimensional t y p e of e l e c t r o d e s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4 (Group A) would have e x a c t l y t h e same v a l u e as t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g twod i m e n s i o n a l t y p e e l e c t r o d e s a l s o shown i n F i g u r e 4 (Group B). The new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension, however, c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s between t h e two groups of e l e c t r o d e s . RECONSTRUCTING THE DATA POINTS USED FOR DETERMINING A GENERAL ESTIMATION CURVE Work r e c e n t l y c o m p l e t e d a t t h e C S I R [ 9 , 1 2 ] , h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e impulse impedance of e l e c t r o d e s i s governed by complex streamer and corona p r o c e s s e s which cannot be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e uniform i o n i z a t i o n zone model. Therefore, i n t h e present p r a c t i c a l engineering a p p l i c a t i o n , i t i s suggested t h a t Eo b e t r e a t e d a s a n empirical calibration factor, not necessarily related t o breakdown s t r e n g t h of t h e d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s .

a =

or where

a =
V Ip V p :

V /I VTip$bp
=

( B e l l a s c h i 14,101 and Korsuntcev 111) (Liew and Darveniza [ 6 ] ) peak v o l t a g e peak c u r r e n t v o l t a g e a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t .

= =

Rise times f o r t h e l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t s of f i r s t On s t r o k e s a r e t y p i c a l l y between 4 us and 8 vs [ l l ] . t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , t h e l i g h t n i n g performance, espec i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e back-flashover mechanism, i s l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e impedance of t h e t o w e r f o o t i n g a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t . It i s t h e r e f o r e t h e impulse impedance between approximately 4 p s and 8 ps a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse which i s of t h e greatest engineering i n t e r e s t . Unfortunately, p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s on i m p u l s e g e n e r a t o r s o f t e n r e n d e r i t impossible t o produce t e s t c u r r e n t s w i t h such f a s t r i s e t i m e s , and r e s e a r c h e r s o f t e n h a v e t o b e c o n t e n t w i t h much slower impulses. A s a r e s u l t of t h e f i n i t e i o n i z a t i o n time r e q u i r e d for the formation of s t r e a m e r s and corona, t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a = V. / I may, t h e r e f o r e , n o t always b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o t P t h $ impedance w i t h i n t h e f i r s t few m i c r o s e c o n d s of t h e l i g h t n i n g impulse. Using t h e r e s u l t s of tests done a t t h e CSIR [ 1 2 ] , a, d e f i n e d f i r s t l y as Vip/Ip and t h e n as V / I ( a t t = 6 p s ) , has been p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of I and I ( a t 6 LIS) r e s p e c t i v e l y (Figure 3). This c f e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t a i s n o t only a f u n c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t , b u t a l s o depends v e r y much on t h e t i m e a t which i t is c a l c u l a t e d .
20

a a
15
~

3
Y

X ,

.
U

IO.

q
+
x k

1
SOIL TYPE SAND RED CLAY BLACK CLAY MIXTURE SYMBOL USED

8
X

- - - - - - ,- - s -
0

Fig. 2

Experimental r e s u l t s of t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d s t r e n g t h which l e d t o breakdown approximately 5 p s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse, p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e s o i l t y p e s t e s t e d .

2023

Ca t e g o r - q A
S and

Category
h
(m)

P l a n view

Syde view

P l a n view

Side view

Sinyle b u r i e d s t r i p

F o u r strips buried t o form a crossarm

' , /'

S- 1 . 41

S- 1 . 4 1

s- \/2
h-\jh12+ h22* h 3 2

h-2. 2~

h- 3

-6

T w o rods

F o u r rods

s-

1 . 73

h- 3

Fig. 4

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimensions, S and h, i l l u s t r a t e d f o r t h e two-dimensional type of e l e c t r o d e (Category A) and t h e corresponding two-dimensional e l e c t r o d e s (Category B). The a l t e r n a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i m e n s i o n , h, was t h e n u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e a s e t of r e s u l t s which we s h a l l now l a b e l Pl and P2. These r e s u l t s have been p l o t t e d i n Figure 6 on a l o g a r i t h m i c scale. The s t r a i g h t l i n e f i t t e d t o F i g u r e 6 i s d e s c r i b e d by: (log PI)
=

A new s e t of d a t a p o i n t s obtained from impulse measurements performed by Berger [ 131, B e l l a s c h i [ l o ] , V a i n e r and F l o r u [ 1 4 ] , Liew and D a r v e n i z a [ 6 ] and O e t t l e [ 1 2 ] h a s now been c a l c u l a t e d . With a few exceptions (which are d i s c u s s e d i n Appendix I), a was d e f i n e d a s t h e impedance V/I, measured 6 u s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e pulse. Although t h i s choice i s somewhat a r b i t r a r y , i t i s b e l i e v e d t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e impulse impedance of an e l e c t r o d e a t t h e time of t h e l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t peak. Eo was a r b i t r a r i l y chosen t o b e 1 MV/m f o r a l l e l e c t r o d e s a n d s o i l c o n d i t i o n s ; a t t e m p t s a t improving on t h i s choice w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r on i n t h i s s e c t i o n . The c o n d i t i o n s under which t h e tests were performed, a s w e l l a s t h e e l e c t r o d e conf i g u r a t i o n s , s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and p o s s i b l e l i m i t a t i o n s f o r a l l t h e d a t a p o i n t s used i n t h i s s e c t i o n , a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e Appendix. I n i t i a l l y , t h e o r i g i n a l d e f i n i t i o n of S w a s used t o c a l c u l a t e n 1 and n2. I n F i g u r e 5, t h i s s e t o f r e s u l t s has been p l o t t e d on a l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e . A s t r a i g h t l i n e , f i t t e d t o F i g u r e 5 i s d e s c r i b e d by: ( l o g i l l ) = -0,29 (log
71

-0,3

(log P2)

-0,62

2)

-0,66.

The r e s i d u a l sum of s q u a r e s i s now 0,259. A slightly b e t t e r s t r a i g h t - l i n e f i t i s t h u s obtained when t h e new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension is used. This g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e , t o g e t h e r w i t h a "conserv a t i v e " e s t i m a t i o n curve i s shown i n Figure 6. The c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e l i e s 35% a b o v e t h e g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e , s o t h a t 95% of t h e d a t a p o i n t s have v a l u e s of P 1 lower than t h e p r e d i c t e d values. In o r d e r t o determine whether t h e r e s u l t s could b e improved by u s i n g a c r i t i c a l s o i l i o n i z a t i o n c o n s t a n t which i s i n some way r e l a t e d t o t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e s o i l , t h e c o r r e c t e d c r i t i c a l s o i l i o n i z a t i o n c o n s t a n t , EA, had t o be derived:

The r e s i d u a l sum of s q u a r e s i s then 0,312.

2024
1

.2

0. 02

0.01

Results o i n i p J s r t e s t s i l l u s t r a t e d

S 1s a e f l n e d a s t h e d i s t a n c e lrom the j n ternis of n and n 2, g e o m e t r i c a l c e n t r e of t h e e l e c t r o d e , on ground l e v e l , t o t h e most d i s t a n t p o i n t .

BERGER

BELLRSCHI L I E U RND DRRVENIZR VRINER RND

FLORU OETTLE

,001

,c

1
2
,005

I ,l O

I ,02

I
-05

I
$1

2
P, = h2E,

I
*5

1
I

I
2

I
5

I
IO

1 20

IP

Fig. 6

R e s u l t s of impulse t e s t s i l l u s t r a t e d i n terms of PI and P2. The new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension, h ( a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e t e x t ) , was used t o c a l c u l a t e v a l u e s of P1.

If

P1 = " 3 and
P

P2 =

P I
h2 Eo

t h e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t , Pi, which c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e v a l u e of PI on t h e e s t i m a t i o n curve on F i g u r e 5 can be w r i t t e n as:

Pz
=

h2 EA

(EA i s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d c r i t i c a l s o i l ionization strength).

(= P;/Pz) against p for a l l the data p o i n t s would p r o v i d e an i n d i c a t i o n of w h e t h e r a n y improvement could be achieved by u s i n g a r e s i s t i v i t y dependent v a l u e f o r Eo. Such a p l o t can be seen i n Figure 7. It w a s concluded t h a t any f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s a t r e f i n i n g t h e model by u s i n g d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s f o r Eo i n s o i l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t r e s i s t i v i t i e s would n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve t h e r e s u l t s . A similar procedure was followed t o g e n e r a t e p l o t s of Ed a g a i n s t h , and E b a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t a t 6 ps. Again t h e s c a t t e r i n t h e

A p l o t of Eb/Eo

2025

d a t a p o i n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t no r e l a t i o n s h i p between Eo and e i t h e r h o r I can be expected, a r e s u l t which i s i n accordance with the t h e o r e t i c a l considerations. a s outlined previously, CM ET O MNS The impulse impedance of e l e c t r o d e s i s governed by complex corona and streamer p r o c e s s e s [ 9 ] which a r e not y e t f u l l y understood. It i s known, however, t h a t t h e f i n i t e impedance and v e l o c i t y o f t h e s t r e a m e r s themselves do p l a y an important r o l e i n t h e o v e r a l l impedance of t h e e l e c t r o d e [ 9 , 1 2 1 , a n d t h a t t h e s e parameters a r e dependent on t h e c u r r e n t a s w e l l a s on t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o i l type. I n view of t h e s e consider a t i o n s , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d on v e r y s m a l l ( " r e d u c e d s c a l e " ) e l e c t r o d e s have n o t b e e n included i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a p o i n t s . More e x p e r i m e n t a l work o n p r a c t i c a l e a r t h e l e c t r o d e s which have c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimensions between 2 m and 8 m, p r e f e r a b l y i n s t a l l e d i n h i g h - r e s i t i v i t y s o i l s , would no d o u b t be v a l u a b l e i n e x t e n d i n g t h e e x i s t i n g c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a p o i n t s . Only when more p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e w i l l i t be p o s s i b l e t o

The e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e s can be a p p l i e d t o any e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n by means of i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension h a s been r e d e f i n e d a s h = ,hh:

+ hg + d2 '

( s e e Figure 4 ) .

T h i s new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension c l e a r l y d i s c r i m i n a t e s between "two-dimensional'' and "three-dimensional" e l e c t r o d e arrangements. The r e s i d u a l sum of s q u a r e s around t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e f i t t e d t o t h e d a t a p o i n t s i s s m a l l e r when t h i s new d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension i s used.
Eo can be approximated by 1 MV/m f o r a l l s o i l , e l e c t r o d e and c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . Owing t o t h e complexity of t h e d i s c h a r g e p r o c e s s e s i n s o i l , t h e use of experimental r e s u l t s of breakdown t e s t s , even i f t h e s e a r e a v a i l a b l e , i s n o t recommended.

The new s e t of d a t a p o i n t s i s based on a d e f i n i t i o n of t h e impulse impedance a s : a = V / I (at 6 P s ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s was a somewhat a r b i t r a r y c h o i c e , i t does, a s f a r a s lightning current impulses a r e concerned, g i v e a more r e a l i s t i c (and a l s o more c o n s e r v a t i v e ) impulse v a l u e than t h e previous definitions. The e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e c a n b e u s e d i n t h e design stage providing r e s i s t i v i t y measurements a r e a v a i l a b l e . The e l e c t r o d e ' s low v o l t a g e power f r e q u e n c y r e s i s t a n c e does n o t need t o be known. (2) I n t h e d e s i g n of new t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , consider a t i o n should be given t o power frequency f a u l t current conditions, a s well a s t o the desired impulse impedance of t h e tower e a r t h i n g . It i s , t h e r e f o r e , suggested t h a t , i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e tower e a r t h i n g d e s i g n , the "conservative" e s t i m a t i o n curve (Figure 6) be used i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e e a r t h p o t e n t i a l s i n t h e absence of s o i l i o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s [17]. In t h e l i g h t n i n g performance a n a l y s i s of e x i s t i n g l i n e s , more r e a l i s t i c and a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s could be o b t a i n e d i f t h e g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n curve of Figure 6 were used i n s t e a d of t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t i o n curve. REFERENCES 1. Korsuntcev, A.V. "Application of t h e t h e o r y of s i m i l i t u d e t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of c o n c e n t r a t e d earth electrodes". E l e k t r i c h e s t v o , No. 5, May 1958. D D 31-35. . EPRI "Transmission Line Grounding", EPRI EL-2699, V o l . 1, P r o j e c t 1494-1, October 1982. Prepared by S a f e E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s L t d . , M o n t r e a l , Quebec, Canada. Anderson, J.G. "Lightning performance of t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s " (Chapter 12 of Transmission Line Reference Book - 345 k and above, Second V E d i t i o n , E P R I , Palo A l t o ) , 1982. B e l l a s c h i , P.L, Armington, R.E. and Snowden, A.E. "ImDulse and s i x t v c v c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d r i v e n grounds 11". T r . Am. I n s t . Elec. Eng., 1942, Vol. 61. Petropoulos, G.M. "The h i g h v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e s " . J IEE 1948, V o l . 95, P a r t 11, pp 59-70. L i e w , A.C., Darveniza, M. "Dynamic model of impulse c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c o n c e n t r a t e d e a r t h s " .
. . <

%L
d
'1

3.00

The t h e o r e t i c a l t y c o r r e i t c d ; o i l L L I I ir~oii s t r e n g t h , Eo, p l o t t e d a g a i n s t the L e s i b t L v i t ,

L j

f o r a l l t h e d a t a p o i n t s appearing on Figure 6. e s t a b l i s h more d e f i n i t e confidence l i m i t s around t h e g e n e r a l e s t i m a t i o n curve. I t would be p o s s i b l e t o g e n e r a t e a s e r i e s o f e s t i m a t i o n c u r v e s which c a n be u s e d t o p r e d i c t t h e impulse impedance, n o t only a t 6 lis, but a l s o a t , f o r i n s t a n c e 4 P S , 10 P S o r 16 lis a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse. I n o r d e r t o determine t h e e s t i m a t i o n curve a t , f o r i n s t a n c e , 4 lis, one would need t o r e c a l c u l a t e each of t h e d a t a p o i n t s , P1 and P2, with a determined 4 PS a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse. It should be n o t e d , however, t h a t h i g h n o i s e l e v e l s o r unwanted o s c i l l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f i r s t few m i c r o s e c o n d s a r e o f t e n unavoidable when impulse t e s t s a r e performed on p r a c t i c a l e a r t h e l e c t r o d e s and i t may n o t always b e p o s s i b l e t o determine a a c c u r a t e l y at times l e s s than 6 p s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (1)
A new set of d a t a p o i n t s f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e i m p u l s e impedance of c o n c e n t r a t e d e a r t h e l e c t r o d e s has been c o n s t r u c t e d . This approach has t h e following very important advantages compared t o previous methods:

:+.

4.00

R.OO
p

12.00

16.00

20.00

24.00

2e.00

32.00

(0.m.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

2026

7.

Proc. IEE, Vol. 121, No. 2, Feb. 1974, pp 123-135. Darveniza, M. et a1 "Modelling for lightning performance calculations", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-98, pp
1900-1908, 1978.

8.

9.

10.

11.
12.

13.

14.

Velazques, R and Mukhedkar, 0 . "Analytical modelling of grounding electrodes transient behaviour". IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-103, No. 6, June 1984. Oettlh, E.E. "The characteristics of electrical breakdown and discharge processes in soil". NEERI Internal Report, Library No. I ELEK 263, October 1986, (submitted for publication to the SAIEE) Bellaschi, P.L. "Impulse and 60-cycle characteristics of driven grounds". Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1941, 60, p 123. Anderson, R.B. and Eriksson, A J. . "Lightning parameters for engineering applications". Electra, No. 69, pp 65-101. Oettlh, E E .. "Results of impulse tests done on practical electrodes at the National Electrical Engineering Research Institute's Outdoor High Voltage Laboratory". NEERI Internal Report, Library No. I ELEK 267, November 1986 (submitted for publication to the SAIEE). Berger, K. "Das Verhalten von Erdungen unter hohen Stossstromen". Bull. Assoc. Suisse Elek., 1946, 37, p 197. Vainer, A.L., and Floru, V.N. "Experimental study and method of calculation of the impulse c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d e e p e a r t h i n g s 'I, Elektrichestvo, No. 5, pp 18-22, 1971.

IReference

Table A (continued)
P

- -: Q.m
I
(kA 1
CL

(Q )

(m)

p1

- --

527 527 47c 64C 1 04a 1 06C 1 425

1 438
953 1 421 1 857 1 760 2.420 2 704 2 404 532 1 760

1 35c
527

1 35c 1 40C 1 40C

1 54a 1 54c 1 9oa 1 9oa

252 30 6 260 20 2 204 147 124 140 3 65 112

0,2 0,2 0,4 0,8 1,2 2,2 3 4 0,2 4

0,096 0,117 0,22 0,252 0,235 0,305 0,26 0,4 0,138 0,332 1,065 1,24 0,92 1,04 0,78 0,95

18,94 12,51 4,17 1,86 1,27 0,53 0,43 092 7sO 0,141

3 806 1 800
4 2 4 1 200 028 107 813

83 97 79 89 82 100

18 18 18 18 8,Ol 8,Ol

0,016~ 0,0071 0,002 0,0091 0,024 0,OlOl

760 800 1 162 1 162 1 350

1 183 1 566 1 520 2 000

755 1 350

253 230 184 170 2 70

,1
,154 ,346 ,346 ,62 1,375 1,375 1,375 1,375 1,375 1,375

0,363 0,33 0,215 0,196 0,323

0,755 0,941 D.975 1,28 D, 39

APPENDIX A brief sumnmary of the origin and experimental conditions of all the data points shown in Figure 9. General A complete list of all the references and the variables used for calculating the data points, P1 and P2 can be found in Table A . The different groups appearing in Table A are also discussed in more detail in the next sections. Only results of measurements indicating a decrease in the impedance of more than 20% under impulse conditions were considered. Table A: List of references and variables used for calculating the data points, P1 and P2.
1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 115
250 400 700 1 100 254 675 633 533 408 316 0,095 0,253 0,237 0,2 0,153 0,118 9s6 0,82 1,77 2,84

5,OO
7,82

--

Rod electrode:

Reference

1
P

Ring electrode:

I.
(kA)

(Q.d

- -Liew and Darveniza [6] Fig. 3 [6] Fig. 4 It Fig. 6 Fig. 7 I' Fig. ' 8 Fig. 9
I

2 036 2 036 240 24 0 240 1 892 1 892 160 160

123 650 190 57 1 2 416 67 1,688 76 3,228 59 216 484 372 374 2,784 40,5 4,160 36,6

,48 ,48 ,48 ,48 ,48 ,6 ,6 ,6 ,6

0,472 0,415 0,413 0,47 0,364 0,41 0,314 0,405 0,366

3,114f 3,1761 3,264 3,184 3,354 3,16 3,276 3,174 3,26

11

ig. 8 ig. 9 ig. 11 ig 12

II
11

IV It

300 300 57 57 57 320 200 125

1 475
916 6 416 3 930 5 440 1 063 2 279 3 700

92 120 19 23 23 89 67 39

0,75 0,75 0,75 0,75 0,375 0,75 0,75 0,75

I

0,23 0,3 0,25 0,31 0,148 0,21 0,25 0,234

1

0,786 0,049 0,65 0,4 2.2 0,60 0,81 0,62

50 50 87,2 157 310 63

2 650 3 310 6 610 5 000 3 700 6 380

5,76 5,76 431

0
6,4 927

,623 ,623 ,06 ,16 ,44 ,75

0,196 0,32 0,5 0,413 0,286 0,615

L,63 3,426 0,061: 3,168: I, 192t 1,014

- -125

,38 ,38
0,457 0,58 1,115t

Group 5: Bellaschi [ l o ]
5 250
4 125 1 900 , - -05

),042

2027

Reference

P I (Q.m) (kA)

a
(Q)

h P (m)

P2

Group 6: Vainer and Floru [14] 80 1 2 100 9,4 3,7

(a)

Group 1: R e s u l t s of t e s t s done by Berger [13] on d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s i n a l a r g e , hemispherical c o n t a i n e r . Berger t e s t e d a v a r i e t y of s o i l t y p e s u s i n g two hemispherical e l e c t r o d e s . The o u t e r e l e c t r o d e had a diameter of 2,5 m and t h e i n n e r e l e c t r o d e , which was placed i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e l a r g e o u t e r e l e c t r o d e , had a diameter of 0,5 o r 0,25 m. I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of P1 and P2 , t h e o u t e r e l e c t r o d e w a s n o t considered and t h e system was t r e a t e d a s a s i n g l e e l e c t r o d e i n homogeneous s o i l of g i v e n r e s i s t i v i t y . Although t h i s i s n o t , s t r i c t l y speaking, c o r r e c t t h e dimensions of t h e o u t e r e l e c t r o d e were b e l i e v e d t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h f o r t h i s approximation t o be a c c e p t a b l e . Under v e r y high v o l t a g e c o n d i t i o n s , however, when corona and streamer d i s c h a r g e s around t h e i n n e r e l e c t r o d e can extend f a r toward t h e o u t e r e l e c t r o d e , t h i s assumption cannot be expected t o hold. Impulse measurement where t h e imped a n c e had d e c r e a s e d by more t h a n 60% a t 6 p s were t h e r e f o r e n o t included i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a points. As f a r a s possible, a = V / I w a s calculated a t 6 p s a f t e r t h e o n s e t of t h e impulse. This w a s done u s i n g t h e curves of v o l t a g e a g a i n s t c u r r e n t d e n s i t y , t o g e t h e r with t h e corresponding r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s time curves f o r t h e same sample ( s e e , f o r example, F i g u r e s A l ( a ) and ( b ) ) . I n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t i m e curves were n o t given. In t h o s e c a s e s t h e impedance a t 6 p s could only be e s t i m a t e d from t h e v o l t a g e v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y c u r v e s when t h e t i m e was g i v e n numerically a d j a c e n t t o t h e curve. I n t h e example shown i n F i g u r e A2, t h e impedance a t t = 6 p s could only be estimated f o r curve I. Group 2: R e s u l t s of t e s t s done by B e r g e r [ 1 3 ] on v a r i o u s e l e c t r o d e s i n t h e n a t u r a l s o i l a t t h e highvoltage laboratory. The f o l l o w i n g e l e c t r o d e s were tested: (1) (2) (3) F l a t copper and i r o n p l a t e , 500 x 960 x 1 , 5 mm 18 m long b u r i e d copper and i r o n w i r e , 6 mm diameter 250 mm diameter hemispherical e l e c t r o d e . 35 mm diameter copper and i r o n r o d s , up t o 5 m long.
30

CURRENT DENSITY

25 20

15

IO

IO

15

20

25

30

35

40

TIME

Fig. A 1

Example of t h e v o l t a g e v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y ( A l ( a ) ) and t h e r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t i m e c u r v e s (Al(b)) used f o r determining t h e parameters needed i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of P I and P2.

RO

140 120

100

(4)

40
20

The p l a t e , .wire and rod e l e c t r o d e s were b u r i e d a t d i f f e r e n t depths of up t o 4 m. Berger s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e s o i l was measured and found t o b e approximately 1 000 R.m. This v a l u e does n o t always correspond w e l l t o t h e r e s i s t i v i t y t h a t can be deduced t h e o r e t i c a l l y from t h e low v o l t a g e , 50 Hz r e s i s t a n c e values a s given f o r the various electrodes. This could p o s s i b l y be due t o inhomogeneities i n t h e s o i l o r t o s e a s o n a l changes n o t mentioned i n Berger's publication. The average r e s i s t i v i t y around each e l e c t r o d e was t h e r e f o r e c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y u s i n g i t s given low v o l t a g e power f r e q u e n c y r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e and t h e s e r e s i s t i v i t y v a l u e s w e r e then used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of and P 2 . The r e s i s t i v i t i e s a s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e I i f f e r e n t e l e c t r o d e s a r e l i s t e d i n Table B.

0
CURRENT DENSITY

Fig. A2

Voltage v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y curves. Only Curve 1, where t h e t i m e i s i n d i c a t e d numeric a l l y , was used t o c a l c u l a t e a s e t of d a t a p o i n t s (P1 and P2. (Redrawn from Berger [ 1 3 ] )

Unfortunately, t h e r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t i m e c u r v e s were o n l y given i n a few i n s t a n c e s . I n those cases

where t h e c u r r e n t p e a k a p p e a r e d t o occur at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 vs w i t h t h e impedance r e m a i n i n g v i r t u a l l y c o n s t a n t t h e r e a f t e r , a w a s t a k e n a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t . An example where t h i s approximation was thought t o be v a l i d can be seen i n F i g u r e A3. In t h e example shown i n F i g u r e A4. t h e impedance a t t = 6 p s could be e s t i m a t e d r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y f o r curve 1. Measurements r e p r e s e n t e d by c u r v e s 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 were n o t considered w h i l s t curve 7 was approximated by t h e impedance a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t . Table B: Average s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t e l e c t r o d e s t e s t e d by Berger [ I 3 1

I
0

0,5

10 ,

Electrode d e s c r i p t i o n

1,5 2,O CURRENT DENSITY

2,5

3,OAlcm'

S i n g l e rod e l e c t r o d e s of l e n g t h , d

1 1 1 1

527 470 640 040 060 425 350

Fig. A4

Voltage v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y c u r v e s f o r t e s t s done on rod e l e c t r o d e s of d i f f e r e n t depths. The impedance,a , f o r curve 1 was t a k e n a t t = 6 PS. Curves l ' , 2 , 3 and 4 were n o t used b u t , curve 7 , , w a s e s t i m a t e d by V / I a t t h e time of peak c u r r e n t .

6 mm 0 w i r e b u r i e d h o r i z o n t a l l y a t a depth, d
F l a t p l a t e b u r i e d a t a depth, d

1 400 1 540 1 900

760 800 1 162 1 350

Group 3 : R e s u l t s o f t e s t s done o n r i n g a n d r o d e l e c t r o d e s i n t h e outdoor high-voltage l a b o r a t o r y a t t h e CSIR [ 1 2 ] I m p u l s e t e s t s on a 1 , 4 8 m d e e p a n d a 0 , 9 8 m diameter r i n g e l e c t r o d e (buried 0 , 8 m deep) a r e described i n d e t a i l i n reference 1 2 . The n a t u r a l s o i l i n t h e outdoor l a b o r a t o r y i s a l o w - r e s i s t i v i t y c l a y , b u t t h e e l e c t r o d e s were i n s t a l l e d i n a l a r g e , 3 , 5 m diameter and 3 , 5 m deep h o l e which was f i l l e d w i t h a sandy t o p s o i l . The e x i s t e n c e of t h e l o w - r e s i s t i v i t y c l a y was n o t t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of P1 and P , b u t measurements where t h e impedance had d e c r e a s e d s y more t h a n 60% a t 6 s were n o t t a k e n i n t o account. R e s u l t s of t e s t s d e s c r i b e d by L i e w a n d Group 4 : Darveniza on one and f o u r r o d s d r i v e n t o d e p t h s of up to 3 m [61.

A example of c u r r e n t and r e s i s t a n c e waveshapes n a s p r e s e n t e d by Liew and D a r v e n i z a can be s e e n i n Figure A5. The impulse impedance w a s deduced from t h e experimental c u r v e s a t 6 ~r s.

0.02

0,06

0,lO

OJ4

0,18

CURRENTDENSITY ( A l C m 2 )

Fig. A3

A example of v o l t a g e v e r s u s c u r r e n t d e n s i t y n curves where t h e impedance was approximated by V / I a t t h e t i m e of peak c u r r e n t and n o t a t t = 6 PS. P l a t e e l e c t r o d e s u r f a c e area = 9 6 0 0 cm2. (Redrawn from Berger [ 1 3 ] . )

lo TIME, ps l5

20

25

Fig. A5

R e s i s t a n c e , v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t c u r v e s f o r a 0 , 6 1 m deep rod e l e c t r o d e i n s o i l w i t h a res i s t i v i t y of 5 0 a.m. (Redrawn from Liew and Darveniza [ 6 ] . )

2029
Group 5: R e s u l t s of t e s t s done by B e l l a s c h i rods i n p a r a l l e l combination [ l o ] . on two

In 1941, B e l l a s c h i p r e s e n t e d t h e r e s u l t s of imped a n c e t e s t s on f o u r rod e l e c t r o d e s i n s t a l l e d i n a n outdoor high-voltage l a b o r a t o r y . The impulse impedance of two of t h e rods where no r e d u c t i o n due t o t h e proximity of f e n c e s , o t h e r e l e c t r o d e s o r inhomogeneities i n t h e s o i l was suspected, have been used t o c a l c u l a t e P1 and P2 The rods were 2,286 m deep and spaced 0,66 m apart. The r e s i s t i v i t y c a l c u l a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y from t h e measured low-voltage r e s i s t a n c e of t h e r o d s was found t o be 125 .m. Current and r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s can be found i n Table V of r e f e r e n c e 10.

s u r f a c e ( s i m i l a r t o a rod) h a s been used t o c a l c u l a t e P1 and P2. The diameter of t h e tube i s n o t given, but i t i s known t h a t t h e 3 , 6 m l o n t u b e was i n s t a l l e d a f t e r "borehole" d r i l l i n g . T i e d i a m e t e r was t h u s The impulse impedance a t 6 s i s e s t i m a t e d a t 0 , l m. deduced from t h e volt-ampere c h a r a c t e r i s t i c where t h e time i s given numerically a d j a c e n t t o t h e curve (Figure 2 of Reference 14).

Group 6: R e s u l t s of impulse t e s t s conducted by Vainer and Floru [ 1 4 ] . V a i n e r a n d F l o r u d e s c r i b e d t e s t s on v a r i o u s l e n g t h s of tube e l e c t r o d e s b u r i e d a t d i f f e r e n t depths. Only t h e r e s u l t s of a tube i n s t a l l e d v e r t i c a l l y a t t h e

E l s i e E O e t t l b was born i n South A f r i c a on February 16, 1959. She r e c e i v e d t h e B.Sc.(Hons.) degree in P h y s i c s from t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S t e l l e n b o s c h , South A f r i c a , i n 1980, and t h e B.Sc. degree i n E l e c t r i c a l Engineering from t h e U n i v e r s i t y of t h e Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South A f r i c a , i n 1983. In 1984, s h e worked w i t h G H Marais and P a r t n e r s , a c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r i n g company. She j o i n e d t h e N a t i o n a l E l e c t r i c a l Engineering Research I n s t i t u t e of t h e South African Council f o r S c i e n t i f i c and I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h i n 1985, where s h e i s P r o j e c t L e a d e r of a research p r o j e c t concerned with the e a r t h i n g of transmission lines.