MEP 1563 HARMONICS

DR AHMAD SAFAWI MOKHTAR

INTRODUCTION

Harmonicshavealwaysbeenpresentinpower systems.Duetothewidespreaduseofpower electronicsystemsresultinginanincreaseintheir magnitude,theyhavebecomeakeyissuein installations. Harmonicdisturbancescomegenerallyfrom equipmentwithanonlinearvoltage/current characteristic.

INTRODUCTION

Nowadaysalargepartofindustrial,commercial anddomesticloadsisnonlinear,makingthe distortionlevelonthelowvoltage(butnotonly) supplynetworkaseriousconcern. Linearloadsarecomparativelyraretoday:theonly exampleswhichcanbeconsideredascommonare undimmedfilamentbulbsandunregulatedheaters. Nonlinearloadsrepresentalargepercentageof thetotalloads.

INTRODUCTION

Undertheseconditions,totalharmonicdistortion (THD)maybecomeveryhighandtherefore dangerousforthesystem. Harmonicdistortioncanbeconsideredasasortof pollutionoftheelectricsystemwhichcancause problemsifthesumoftheharmoniccurrents exceedscertainlimits.Knowledgeof electromagneticdisturbancesassociatedwiththis phenomenonisstilldeveloping;forthisreason harmonicsarecurrentlyanissueofgreatinterest.

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA

Aharmonicisdefinedasacomponentwitha frequencythatisanintegermultiple(thesocalled orderofharmonich)ofthefundamentalfrequency (Figure1). Theharmonicnumberindicatestheharmonic frequency:thefirstharmonicisthefundamental frequency(50or60Hz),thesecondharmonicis thecomponentwithfrequencytwotimesthe fundamental(100or120Hz),andsoon.

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA

Figure1:Asinusoidalwaveformwithfundamentalfrequency50Hz anditsharmonics:(a)second(100Hz);(b)third(150Hz);(c)fourth (200Hz);(d)fifth(250Hz)

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA CompositionofDistortedWaveform

Adistortedwaveform(i.e.differentfromthe sinusoidal)ofachosen,arbitraryshapecanbe obtainedbysuperpositionofsinusoidalwaveforms ofvariousfrequenciesandamplitudes. Forexample,therectangularwaveforminFigure2is theresultofthesummationofanindefinitenumber ofharmonicswhoseamplitudesaredecreasingin inverseproportiontotheirorder(h),andtheir frequenciesf(n)=(2k+1)50Hz,k=012areodd multiplesofthefundamentalharmonicf(1)=50Hz.

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA CompositionofDistortedWaveform

Figure2:Rectangularwaveformasthesuperpositionofthe fundamentalandoddharmonics

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA 9 CompositionofDistortedWaveform Neglectingharmonicsofsmallamplitudeand takingintoaccountafinitenumberofcomponents softensthesharptopofthewaveformandreduces thesteepnessofitsedges. Thewaveformshapedependsnotonlyonthe frequenciesandamplitudesofharmonic componentsbutalsoontheirmutualphaseshift. Figure3illustratestheinfluenceofharmonic amplitudeandphaseontheresultantwaveform shape.

10

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA CompositionofDistortedWaveform

Figure3:Waveformsdifferingintheamplitudeandphaseofa distortingharmonic:(a)1100%,515%, 15 =0;(b)1100%,530 %, 15 =0;(c)1100%,515%, 15 =180

11

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA CompositionofDistortedWaveform

ThewaveformsinFigure3(a)and(b)contain,apart fromthefundamentalcomponentwhosepuvalue is1,alsocontainsthefifthharmonicwhosevalueis 0.15(Figure3a)and0.30(Figure3b). ThewaveforminFigure3(c),apartfromthe fundamentalcomponent,alsocontainsthefifth harmonicwithamplitude0.15shiftedinphaseby 180withrespecttoit.

12

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA DecompositionofDistortedWaveform

Aseachdistortedwaveformcanbecomposedfrom harmoniccomponents,soalsocananyperiodic waveformbedecomposedintoharmonic components(Figure4). Thisanalysistechniqueallowsonetoconsider separatelyeachcomponentofthedistorted waveformand,employingstandardmethodsfor circuitanalysis,obtainafinalresultbeingthesum ofpartialresults.

13

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA DecompositionofDistortedWaveform

Figure4:Decompositionofthedistortedwaveformintoharmonic components:thefundamental(1)andthefifthandseventh

14

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

TheFrenchmathematicianJeanBaptisteJoseph Fourier(17681830),whoisconsideredtheauthor ofthistechnique,demonstratedthatanyperiodic waveformcanbedeconstructedintoasinusoidat thefundamentalfrequencywithanumberof sinusoidsatharmonicfrequencies. Dependingonthekindofwaveform,these coefficientsmayormaynotexist.

15

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

Ad.c.componentmaycompletethesepurely sinusoidalterms.Thisconceptcanbeexplainedby thefollowingequation:

(1)

16

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

f(t)isaperiodicfunctionoffrequencyfo,angular frequencyo =2fo andperiodT=1/fo =2/o representsthefundamental component representsthehth harmonicof amplitudeCh,frequencyhfo and phaseh

17

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

TheFourierseriescoefficientsaregivenby

(2) A0 isthed.c.component;

18

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

Example1 Expressthewaveformintimefunction

19

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

ComputingtheFourierseriescoefficientsgives

20

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

Thewaveformstimefunctionisexpressedas

21

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

22

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

Figure5showsthecurrentwaveformofan examplenonlinearloadanditsharmonic spectrum.Itispossibletoobservethatcurrentat fundamentalfrequency(F)isonlyapercentageof totalcurrent.

23

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA RepresentationofHarmonics

Figure5Thecurrentwaveformofacompactfluorescentlamp(CFL) anditsspectrum

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 24 SYSTEMS Symmetry Oddsymmetryischaracterised byf(t)= f(t)and resultsinnocosinetermsinthewaveformFourier seriesexpansion Evensymmetryischaracterised byf(t)=f(t)and resultsinthewaveformFourierseriesexpansion havingnosineterms,thatisonlycosineterms

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 25 SYSTEMS Symmetry Waveformswithhalfwavesymmetry,f(t T/2)= f(t),havezerodccomponentsandresultinthe cancellationofevenorder(2,4,6,...)harmonics. Thisfeatureleadsustoignoreevenharmonicsin powersystemssincetheyconsistofbilateral componentsthatproducevoltagesandcurrents whicharehalfwavesymmetric

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 26 SYSTEMS Symmetry

Example2 Synthesise thewaveformofFigurebelow,whichistypicalof thephasecurrentofa6pulseconverterwithaY Y transformer.

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 27 SYSTEMS Symmetry

Applyingtherulesofsymmetry,onewouldautomaticallysay thattheFourierseriesexpansionofthiswaveformexhibits: nocosinetermssincethewaveformisodd, f(t)= f(t),thusAh =O. zerodccomponentandnoevenharmonicssince thewaveformishalfwavesymmetric, f(t T/2)= f(t).

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 28 SYSTEMS Symmetry

ComputingtheFourierseriescoefficientsgives

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 29 SYSTEMS Symmetry

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 30 SYSTEMS Symmetry

Now,thewaveformstimefunctioncanbeexpressedas

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 31 SYSTEMS Phasesequence Harmonicsinathreephasesystem,similartothe fundamentalcomponent,canbeconsideredby applyingthenotionofsymmetricalcomponents. Inabalancedthreephasesystemforthe fundamentalcomponentandwhereeachharmonic exists,thereisasimplerelationbetweenthe harmonicorderandthecorrespondingphase sequence(Table1).

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 32 SYSTEMS Phasesequence

Table1Relationsbetweensymmetricalcomponentsandharmonic orders

CHARACTERISTICSOFHARMONICSINPOWER 33 SYSTEMS Phasesequence Figure6showsthethirdharmonicwaveformas relatedtophasevoltagesorcurrents. Itcanbeseenthatingivenphasesthese componentsarecophasal.Similarly,itcanbe demonstratedthatthefifthorderharmonicsin givenphasesareshiftedwithrespecttoeachother by120,andtheirsequenceis:L1L3L2.

34 A

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPHENOMENA HarmonicsandSymmetricalComponents

Figure6:Athreephasebalancedvoltagesorcurrentssystemwith thethirdharmonic

35

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION RMSVoltageandCurrent

TheexpressionsfortheRMSvoltageandcurrent are (3) and (4) Here,itisassumedthatVh andIh arealsogivenin RMS

36

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

ThemostwidelyusedindicesistheTotalharmonic distortion (THD).TheTHDv alsoknownasthe voltagedistortionfactor(VDF)isdefinedas (5) or (6)

37

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

whereVh istheharmonicvoltageatharmonic frequencyhinRMS,V1 istheratedfundamental voltageinRMS,andhistheharmonicorder(h=1 correspondstothefundamental). Similarly,thetotalharmonicdistortionTHDI,also knownasthecurrentdistortionfactor(CDF)is definedas

38

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion (7)

or (8) whereIh istheharmoniccurrentatharmonic frequencyhinRMSandI1 istheratedfundamental currentinRMS

39

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

TheRMSvoltageandcurrentcannowbe expressedintermsofTHDas (9) and (10)

40

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

Example3 CalculatetheRMSvalueandTHDforthewaveformof Example1 BasicdefinitionforRMS

41

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

42

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

ThefundamentalcomponenthasanRMSvalueof

Totalharmonicdistortionis

43

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

Example4 CalculatetheRMSvalueandTHDforthewaveformof Example2

44

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalHarmonicDistortion

ThefundamentalcomponenthasanRMSvalueof

Totalharmonicdistortionis

45

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalDemandDistortion

Harmonicdistortionismostmeaningfulwhen monitoredatthepointofcommoncoupling(PCC) usuallythecustomersmeteringpoint overa periodthatcanreflectmaximumcustomer demand,typically15to30minutesassuggestedin StandardIEEE519. Weaksourceswithalargedemandcurrentrelative totheirratedcurrentwilltendtoshowgreater waveformdistortion.

46

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TotalDemandDistortion

Conversely,stiffsourcescharacterizedfor operatingatlowdemandcurrentswillshow decreasedwaveformdistortion.Thetotaldemand distortionisbasedonthedemandcurrent,IL,over themonitoringperiod: (11)

47

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION Active(Real)andReactivePower

Everyharmonicprovidesacontributiontothe averagepowerthatcanbepositiveornegative. However,theresultantharmonicpowerisvery smallrelativetothefundamentalfrequencyactive power. (12) (13)

48

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION ApparentPower (14)

or (15) or (16) or (17) whereS1 istheapparentpoweratthefundamental frequency

49

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION PowerFactor

Powerfactor(18) (displacementpowerfactor) Notingthatwhenharmonicsarepresent,apparent powerSisnotonlycomprisedofactivepowerP andreactivepowerQ,distortionpower(volt amperes)Disdefinedtoaccountforthedifference Distortionpower(19)

50

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION PowerFactor

Truepowerfactor(20) or(21)

51

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION PowerFactor

TPFcanbeexpressedas (22) or(23) where(24) or DPF=distortionpowerfactor (25)

52

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION PowerFactor

Oneshouldnotbemisledbyanameplatepower factorofunity;unitypowerfactorbeingattainable onlywithpuresinusoids. Whatisactuallyprovidedisthedisplacement powerfactor.WithreferencetoEquation(22),the actualpowerfactor,whenharmonicsareinvolved, is (25a)

53

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION CurrentandVoltageCrestFactors (26)

(27) Neglectingphaseangles,thetotalpeakcurrentor voltagewouldbe (28) or (29)

54

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION CurrentandVoltageCrestFactors

Thecorrespondingpuincreaseintotalpeak currentorvoltageisthen (30) or (31) NotethatIpeak/IRMS =isonlytrueforthecaseof apuresinusoidandthesameappliesforvoltage

55

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TelephoneInterferenceandTheI.TProduct

Harmonicgeneratetelephoneinterferencethrough inductivecoupling.TheI.Tproduct,usedto measuretelephoneinterferenceisdefinedas (32) whereTh isthetelephoneinterferenceweighting factoratthehthharmonic.(Itincludestheaudio effectaswellasinductiveeffects)

56

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TelephoneInterferenceandTheI.TProduct

TIFisadimensionlessvalueusedtodescribethe interferenceofapowertransmissionlineona telephoneline.Thetelephoneinterferencefactor (TIF)isdefinedas (33) Table2givesthetelephoneinterferenceweighting factorsforvariousharmonicsbasedonTable12.2 ofIEEEStd5191992

57

MEASURESOFHARMONICDISTORTION TelephoneInterferenceandTheI.TProduct

Table2

58 Example5:

Basedontheoutputofaharmonicanalyser,ithasbeen determinedthatanonlinearloadhasatotalRMScurrent of75A.Italsohas38,21,4.6,and3.5forthethird,fifth, seventhandninthharmoniccurrentsrespectively.The instrumentusedhasbeenprogrammedtopresentthe resultingdatainampsratherthaninpercentages.Based onthegiveninformation,determinethefollowing: (a)Thefundamentalcurrentinamps (b)Theamountsofthethird,fifth,seventhandninth harmoniccurrentsinpercentages. (c)TheamountoftheTHD

59

Solution

(a)

(b)Hence

60

(c)Since

Thus

61

or or

62 Example6:

A4.16kVthreephasefeederissupplyingapurelyresistive loadof5400kVA.Ithasbeendeterminedthatthereare 175Vofzerosequencethirdharmonicand75Vof negativesequencefifthharmonic.Determinethe following: (a)Thetotalvoltagedistortion (b)IstheTHDbelowtheIEEEStd5191992forthe4.16kV distributionsystem? Solution (a)

63

(b)FromTable11.1ofIEEEStd5191992,THDV limitfor4.16 kVis5%.SincetheTHDcalculatedis4.58%,itislessthan thelimitof5%recommendedfor4.16kVdistribution system.

64 Example7:

AccordingtoANSI368Std.,telephoneinterferencefrom 4.16kVdistributionsystemisunlikelytooccurwhenthe I.Tindexisbelow10000.Considertheloadgivenin example6andassumethatTIFweightingforthe fundamental,thethirdandfifthharmonicsare0.5,30,and 225,respectively.Determinethefollowing: (a)TheI1,I3,andI5 currentinamps (b)TheI.T1,I.T2,andI.T5 indices (c)ThetotalI.Tindex (d) IsthetotalI.TindexlessthanANSI368Stdlimit (e)ThetotalTIFindex

65 Solution

(a) Andtheresistanceis

Theharmoniccurrentsare

66

(b)TheI.Tindicesare

(c)

(d)Since3202.02< 10,000limit,itiswellbelowtheANSIStd limit.

67

(e)ThetotalTIFindexforthiscaseis

68

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureResistance

Real(oractive)powerdissipatedinaresistoris givenby

whereRh istheresistanceatthehthharmonic. Iftheresistanceisassumedtobeconstant,thatis, ignoringtheskineffect,then

69

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureResistance (34)

Alternatively,expressedintermsofcurrent,

70

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureResistance (35)

Notethattheseequationscanbereexpressedin puas (36)

71

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureResistance

wherePisthetotalpowerlossintheresistance,P1 isthepowerlossintheresistanceatthe fundamentalfrequency, Vh(pu)=Vh/V1,andIh(pu)=Ih/I1. Forapurelyresistiveelement,itcanbeobserved fromEquation(36)that THDV =THDI

72

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureInductance (37)

Powerinapureinductancecanbeexpressedas where V1 = j2f1LI1 ,Vh = j2hf1LIh and f1 isthefundamentalfrequency Thus (38)

73

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureInductance

sothat (39)

or (40)

74

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureInductance

where QL isthetotalreactivepowerabsorbedbythe inductor QL1 isthereactivepowerabsorbedbytheinductor atthefundamentalfrequency QL(pu) isthetotalpu reactivepowerabsorbedbythe inductor,QL(pu) =QL / QL1

75

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureInductance

Vh(pu)isthehth harmonicinductorvoltageinpu of ratedinductorvoltage,Vh(pu) =Vh /V1 Ih(pu) isthehth harmonicinductorcurrentinpu of ratedinductorcurrent,Ih(pu) =Ih/I1 h istheharmonicorder,h=1correspondstothe fundamental.

76

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureCapacitance

Powerinapurecapacitancecanbeexpressedas (41) Thenegativesignindicatesthatthereactivepower isdeliveredtotheload and

77

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureCapacitance (42)

Thus, hence (43)

or (44)

78

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureCapacitance

where QC isthetotalreactivepowerabsorbedbythe capacitor QC1 isthereactivepowerdeliveredbythecapacitor atthefundamentalfrequency QC(pu) isthetotalpu reactivepowerdeliveredbythe capacitor,QC(pu) =QC / QC1

79

POWERINPASSIVEELEMENTS PowerinaPureCapacitance

Vh(pu)isthehth harmoniccapacitorvoltageinpu of ratedcapacitorvoltage,Vh(pu) =Vh /V1 Ih(pu) isthehth harmoniccapacitorcurrentinpu of ratedcapacitorcurrent,Ih(pu) =Ih/I1 h istheharmonicorder,h=1correspondstothe fundamental.

SOURCESOFHARMONICS
80

Harmonicsareproducedbynonlinearloadsor devicesthatdrawnosinusoidalcurrents. Anexampleofanonlinearloadisadiode,which permitsonlyonehalfoftheotherwisesinusoidal currenttoflow. Anotherexampleisasaturatedtransformer,whose magnetizingcurrentisnosinusoidal. But,byfarthemostcommonproblemcausing nonlinearloadsarelargerectifiersandASDs.

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 81 ClassicalNonlinearLoads Someharmonicsourcesarenotrelatedtopower electronicsandhavebeeninexistenceformany years.Examplesare Transformers Onesourceofharmonicsusingtransformerswith ironcoresisthenonlinearB/Hcurveassociated withthesedevices. FigureshowsarepresentativeB/Hcurvefor electricalsteelthatmaybeusedinatransformer core.

82

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

ArepresentativenonlinearB/Hcurve

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 83 ClassicalNonlinearLoads Notethatthecorematerialsaturatesatamagnetic fluxdensityB~2Teslaorso. TheslopeoftheB/Hcurveatanypointisthe magneticpermeabilityofthecorematerial,or

Fromthisequation,notethatasthecorematerial saturates,themagneticpermeabilitydecreases.

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 84 ClassicalNonlinearLoads Foreconomicreasons,powertransformersare oftenoperatedatarelativelyhighmagneticflux density,abovetheB/Hcurveknee. Theresultingmagnetizingcurrentisslightlypeaked andrichinharmonics.Thethirdharmonic componentdominates.

85

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

Aninductorthatdrawsnonlinearcurrent.(a)Thecircuit.TheinductorhasN turns;ameanpathlength,lc;corepermeability,c;andacorecrosssectional area,Ac.(b)Thewaveformsofinductorvoltage, v(t),andtheinductorcurrent,i(t).

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 86 ClassicalNonlinearLoads Fortunately,magnetizingcurrentisonlyafew percentoffullloadcurrent.Themagnetizing currentfora25kVA,12.5kV/240Vtransformeris showninFigure7.(SpectruminTable3) Thefundamentalcurrentcomponentlagsthe fundamentalvoltagecomponentby66. Eventhoughthe1.54Ampsmagnetizingcurrentis highlydistorted(76.1%),itisrelativelysmall comparedtotheratedfullloadcurrentof140 Amps

87

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

Figure7:MagnetizingCurrentforSinglePhase25kVA.12.5kV/240V Transformer.THD=76.1%

88

Table3:Spectral dataforFigure7

89

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

Machines Aswithtransformers,machinesoperatewithpeak fluxdensitiesbeyondthesaturationknee. Unlessblockedbyadeltatransformation,athree phasesynchronousgeneratorwillproducea30% thirdharmoniccurrent. Thereisconsiderablevariationamongsinglephase motorsintheamountofcurrentharmonicsthey inject.

90

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

MostofthemhaveTHDI inthe10%range, dominatedbythe3rd harmonic. Thecurrentwaveformsforarefrigeratorand residentialairconditionerareshowninFigures8 and9,respectively.Thecorrespondingspectraare givenintheTable4and5.

91

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

Figure8:120VRefrigeratorCurrent. THDI =6.3%.

92

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

Figure9:240VResidentialAirConditionerCurrent. THDI =10.5%.

93

Table4:Spectral dataforFigure8

94

Table5:Spectral dataforFigure9

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 95 ClassicalNonlinearLoads FluorescentLamps(withMagneticBallasts) Fluorescentlampsextinguishandigniteeachhalf cycle,buttheflickerishardlyperceptibleat50or 60Hz. Ignitionoccurssometimeafterthezerocrossingof voltage.Onceignited,fluorescentlampsexhibit negativeresistivecharacteristics. Theircurrentwaveformsareslightlyskewed, peaked,andhaveacharacteristicsecondpeak.

96

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

Thedominantharmonicsisthe3rd,ontheorderof 15% 20%offundamental. AtypicalwaveformisshowninFigure10andthe spectrumisgiveninTable6

97

SOURCESOFHARMONICS ClassicalNonlinearLoads

Figure10:277VFluorescentLampCurrent(withMagneticBallast). THDI =18.5%.

98

Table6:Spectral dataforFigure10

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 99 ClassicalNonlinearLoads ArcFurnaces Thesearenotstrictlyperiodicand,therefore, cannotbeanalyzedaccuratelybyusingFourier seriesandharmonics. Actually,thesearetransientloadsforwhichflicker isagreaterproblemthanharmonics.

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 100 PowerElectronicLoads Examplesofpowerelectronicloadsare LineCommutatedConverters. ThesearetheworkhorsecircuitsofAC/DC convertersabove500HP.Thecircuitisshownin Figure11. Thesearesometimesdescribedassixpulse convertersbecausetheyproducesixripplepeaks onVdcperACcycle.

101

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

ia withdeltawyeorwyedeltatransformeria withdeltadeltaorwyewyetransformer THDI =30.0%inbothcases

Figure11:ThreePhase,SixPulseLineCommutatedConverter

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 102 PowerElectronicLoads Inmostapplications,powerflowstotheDCload. However,iftheDCcircuithasasourceofpower, suchasabattery,powercanflowfromDCtoACin theinvertermode. TheDCchokesmoothsIdc,andsinceIdchaslow ripple,theconverterisoftendescribedasa currentsource.

103

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

Twoormoresixpulseconverterscanbeoperated inparallelthroughphaseshiftingtransformersto reducetheharmoniccontentofthenetsupplyside current.Thisprincipleisknownasphase cancellation. Atwelvepulseconverterhastwosixpulse convertersconnectedinparallelontheACsideand inseriesontheDCside(Figure12).

104

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

Figure12:Reductionoftheconverterinputcurrentharmonics: schematicdiagramofa12pulseconverter

105

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

Oneloadsidetransformerwindingisdeltaandthe otheriswye. Asaresult,halfoftheharmoniccurrentscancel (notably,the5thand7th),producinganACcurrent waveformthatismuchmoresinusoidalthanthat ofeachindividualconverteralone.Higherpulse orders(i.e.,eighteenpulse,twentyfourpulse,etc.) canalsobeachieved.

106

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

TheACcurrentharmonicmultiplesproducedbya Ppulseconverterare h=PN 1,N=1,2,3,..., P=anintegermultipleof6.

107

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

VoltageSourceConverters Forapplicationsbelow500HP,voltagesource convertersemployingpulsewidthmodulatorswith turnon/turnoffswitchesonthemotorsideare oftenthechoiceforASDs. Sincebothpowerandvoltagecontrolis accomplishedontheloadside,theSCRsinFigure 11canbereplacedwithsimplediodes.

108

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

ThecircuitisshowninFigure13. Thediodebridgeandcapacitorprovidearelatively stiffVdcsourceforthePWMdrive,hencetheterm voltagesource. Sincevoltagesourceconvertersdonotemploy phasecontrol,theirdisplacementpowerfactors areapproximately1.0.

109

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

ia withhighpower. THDI =32.6%.ia withlowpower. THDI =67.4%. (deltawyeorwyedelta)(deltawyeorwyedelta)

Figure13:ThreePhase,SixPulseVoltageSourceConverter

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 110 PowerElectronicLoads Unfortunately,currentdistortiononthepower systemsideishigherforvoltagesourceconverters thanforlinecommutatedconverters,andthe currentwaveshapevariesconsiderablywithload level. TypicalwaveformsareshowninFigure13.Even thoughlowerloadlevelshavehigher THDI ,the harmonicamperesdonotvarygreatlywithload levelbecausefundamentalcurrentisproportional toloadlevel.

111

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

Thehighercurrentdistortioncreatedbythese drivesisoneofthemainreasonsthatvoltage sourceinvertersaregenerallynotusedabove 500HP. SwitchedModePowerSupplies Thesepowersuppliesarethe"frontend"of singlephase120VloadssuchasPCsandhome entertainmentequipment.

SOURCESOFHARMONICS 112 PowerElectronicLoads Typically,theyhaveafullwavedioderectifier connectedbetweentheACsupplysystemanda capacitor,andthecapacitorservesasalowripple batteryfortheDCload. Unfortunately,lowripplemeansthattheAC systemchargesthecapacitorforonlyafractionof eachhalfcycle,yieldinganACwaveformthatis highlypeaked,asshowninFigure14.

113

SOURCESOFHARMONICS PowerElectronicLoads

ACCurrentforAboveCircuit.THDI =134%.

Figure14:SinglePhaseSwitchedModePowerSupplyand CurrentWaveforms