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Communication
Communication may be defined as the transfer of information from sender to receiver, with the information being understood by the receiver. The communication function is the means to unify an organized activity, through transfer of information from one individual to another, or from one system to another. Introduction Communication aside from an act is also a process. The process of communication includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, knowledge by using symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs or illustrations, and even gestures and appearances. The act of communication is referred to as transmission. It is the process of transmission that is generally termed as communication. Communication regulates and shapes all human behavior. Therefore, it is important to have a clear understanding of the concepts of communication what is communication. Why is it important to us? How does it work? What are the elements in the process of communication? What are the different types of communication that we are engaged in? These questions come to our mind when we study this subject. Meaning of Communication The English word communication is derived from the Latin noun communis and the Latin verb communicare that means to make common. Communication is a much-hyped word in the contemporary world. It encompasses a multitude of experiences, actions and events, as well as a whole variety of happenings and meanings, and technologies too. Meetings, conferences, or even a procession thus can be a communication event. Newspapers, radio, video, and television are all communication tools. The media and journalists, newsreaders; advertisers, public relation persons, and even camera crew are communication professionals. "Communications is the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop." This broad definition, found in a book written by a sociologist, takes in about everything. In contrast, some people limit their definitions of communication rather narrowly, saying, "Communication is the process whereby one person tells another something through the written or spoken word." This definition, from a book written by a journalist, seems reasonable for those in that field. Some definitions fall in between these two extremes. Carl Hovland, a well-known psychologist of a few years ago, said communication is "the process by which an individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behavior of the other individuals (communicates)." This definition describes what many extension workers hope to achieve. You'll be trying to change behavior. Some object to this definition. Their objections center on the phrase "modify the behavior." They say there are numerous occasions when they communicate, in their family and social 1|Page
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lives for example, with no intention of attempting to modify behavior. However, we most likely do modify others' behavior even though that may not be our intention. We could find many other definitions of communication. However, "meanings are in people and not words" and it is not likely that we could get a group of any size to agree exactly on one meaning. Besides, an exact definition of the word is not necessary. My goal is to illustrate that it is difficult for many to formulate their own definition and that there is a wide range in meanings.
Communication is a concern to many people. Therefore, a lot of thought, work, and discussion have gone into different communication situations. Today, such people as psychologists, educators, medical doctors, sociologists, engineers and journalists represent only a few of the professional groups whose members have developed ways of looking at and talking about the communication process in their specialized fields. Several theorists have discussed the communication process in ways that have important implications for those involved in informal education programs such as extension work. Each of the "models" that we review has a point of vital interest. Communication models come in a variety of forms, ranging from catchy summations to diagrams to mathematical formulas. One model of the communication process reviewed is 2|Page
Communication in its simplest sense involve two or more persons who come together to share, to dialogue and to commune, or just to be together for a festival or family gathering. Dreaming, talking with someone, arguing in a discussion, speaking in public, reading a newspaper, watching TV etc. are all different kinds of communication that we are engaged in every day. Communication is thus not so much an act or even a process but rather social and cultural togetherness. Communication can be with oneself, god, and nature and with the people in our environment. Interaction, interchange, transaction, dialogue, sharing, communion, and commonness are ideas that crop up in any attempt to define the term communication. According to Denis McQuail, communication is a process, which increases, commonality-but also requires elements of commonality for it to occur at all. A common language, for instance, does not necessarily bring people together. There are other factors too at play such as a shared culture and a common interest, which bring about a sense of commonality and more significantly, a sense of community. Denis McQuail sees human communication in linear terms as the sending of meaningful messages from one person to another. These messages could be oral or written, visual or olfactory. He also takes such things as laws, customs, practices, ways of dressing, gestures, buildings, gardens, military parades, and flags to be communication. Thus, communication can be defined as the interchange of thoughts or ideas. Again communication is viewed as a transmission of information, consisting of discriminative stimuli, from a source to recipient. In everyday life, the communication is a system through which the messages are sent, and feedback received. It is therefore, the process of transferring particular information or message from an information source to desired, definite or a particular destination. One of the main elements of communication messages is perception. The effectiveness of communication is limited by the receivers range of perception. In addition, people perceive only what they expect and understand. Lastly, communication makes a demand on the recipient, in terms of his emotional preference or rejection. Thus, communication is not to be confused with information. While information is logical, formal, and impersonal, communication is perception. Communication is more than mere transferring or transmission of ideas or thoughts. It is not a static act as some of the earlier definitions suggest but it is a dynamic process of action and interaction towards a desired goal, as suggested by later definitions. Communication is, therefore, a process of sharing or exchange of ideas, information, knowledge, attitude, or feeling among two or more persons through certain signs and symbols. What do we find in the above definition? It says that two or more persons are involved in the act, the one who gives information (sender) and the one who receives it (receiver). What is being shared? An idea or information, or an attitude (message) is being shared. And through what means? The information is shared or exchanged through certain signs or symbols; it could be language, oral or written. While sharing and exchanging ideas or information with others, we are actually interaction with people and establishing a kind of relationship that helps us to achieve the task set before us. Some other functional definitions of communication are: The transfer or conveying of meaning (Oxford Dictionary)
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One mind affecting another (Claude Shannon) Transmission of stimuli (Colin Cherry) One system influences another (Charles E. Osgood) The mechanism through which human relations exist and develop (Wilbur Schramm) Communication is the process of transmitting feelings, attitudes, facts, beliefs and ideas between living beings. (Birvenu) Communication is the exchange of meanings between individuals through a common system of symbols. (I.A.Richards) Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding. (Louis Allen)
Importance of Communication Communication is important both for an individual and also for the society. A persons need for communication is as strong and as basic as the need to eat, sleep, and love. Communication is the requirement of social existence and a resource in order to engage in the sharing of experiences, through symbol mediated interaction. Isolation is in fact the severest punishment for human being. Grown-ups, children, and old people all need to communicate. Society punishes criminals by locking them up in solitary cells, thus starving them of the basic need, and indeed the fundamental right to communicate. Communication thus involves active interaction with our environments -physical, biological and social. Deprived of this interaction we would not be aware of whether we are safe or in danger, whether hated or loved, or satisfied or hungry. However, most of us take this interaction and this relationship for granted, unless we experience some deprivation of it. When that happens we adapt ourselves to the environment so that we do not lose touch, in both the literal and figurative senses. For, to lose touch is to suffer isolation. The basic human need for communication can perhaps be traced to the process of mankinds evolution from lower species. Animals, for instance, have to be in sensory communication with their physical and biological surroundings to find food, protect themselves and reproduce their species. A loss of sensation-the inability to hear a predator for instance can mean loss of life. Thus, it is said that the biology of human beings and other living organisms is such that they have to depend upon each other. This dependence give rise to a situation where it is the biological necessity for the human beings to live in groups. Society is therefore, the outcome of the evolution of the human race and man is a social animal not by option but by compulsion.
PRIMARY FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATION Essentially, the primary function of communication is to inform, educate, entertain and persuade people. The following are the basic functions of communication: Education and Instruction- This function of education starts early in life, at home and
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in school and continues throughout life. Communication provides knowledge, expertise, and skills for smooth functioning by people in the society. It creates awareness and gives opportunity to people to actively participate in public life. Information- quality of our life will be poor without information. The more informed we are the more powerful we become. Communication provides information about our surroundings. Information regarding wars, danger, crisis, famine, etc. are important for the safety and well being of our life. Entertainment- To break the routine life and divert our attention from the stressful life we lead today, entertainment is an essential part of everybodys life. Communication provide endless entertainment to people through films, television, radio, drama, music, literature, comedy, games, etc. Discussion- debates and discussions clarify different viewpoints on issues of interest to the people. Through communication, we find out reasons for varying viewpoints and impart new ideas to others. Persuasion- it helps in reaching for a decision on public policy so that it is helpful to govern the people. Though it is possible, that one can resort to persuasion for a bad motive. Thus, the receiver must be careful about the source of persuasion. Cultural promotion- communication provides an opportunity for the promotion and preservation of culture and traditions. It makes the people fulfill their creative urges. Integration-it is through communication that a large number of people across countries come to know about each others traditions and appreciate each others ways of life. It develops integration and tolerance towards each other.
Features and scope of communication Communication of message takes place through spoken or written words, pictures and in many other forms. In oral communication, the transmitter is the voice box of the speaker. The receiver of the message may be the human ear, which converts sound waves into a comprehensible form, which can be recognized by the human brain; a television receiver decodes the electromagnetic waves into recognizable visual representation. In the same manner, the reader, who can recognize and understand that particular language, can understand the printed message. The process of communication involves a procedure consisting of only a few steps. The information source decides to communicate and encodes a message, transmits it through a channel to the receiver, which is then decoded and acted upon. There are noises or distortions in between the whole process. The main functions of communication are information, education, entertainment, enlightenment and persuasion. Therefore, the communication process should be designed as such so as to gain the attention of the receiver, use the signals, symbols, or codes that are easily understood by the receiver and it must arouse needs in the receiver and suggest some ways out to satisfy these needs. Only then it can create the desired response. However, communication should not be confused with mass communication, while communication is the activity of sharing, giving, imparting, receiving information, mass 5|Page
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communication is a process in which professional communicators use communication media to disseminate messages widely, rapidly, simultaneously and continuously to arouse intended meanings in large and diverse audience s in an attempt to influence them in a variety of ways. Communication is a required skill at every level of organizational functioning. The effectiveness, with which a person will be able to perform in almost any organization, whether social, governmental, or commercial, will depend in large measure upon the ability to communicate effectively. Communication through Arbitrary Symbols The civilization is reflected in three priceless possessions of mankind, the first is the human ability to think, the other is his innate capacity to communicate, and the third is his species specific competence to acquire and use the arbitrary symbols system of language. The gifts of civilization and all the branches of human knowledge have their origin from this ability to think in abstract and to communicate these thoughts through symbols of the language. Above all the other media of communication, language is the most significant because the human knowledge and relationships are gathered, stored and imparted through it. The process of communication permits us to use and reuse the experiences and knowledge from the past into the present and make it ready for use in future with the help of the symbols of communication, which stand for some abstract idea. Human Interactions through communication Communication is the means by which people relate to one another. The society in general or an organization of any type cannot exist without the relations that are built and strengthened by communication. Throughout our lives, we are involved in communication situations. When we talk and work with our colleagues, friends, subordinates, superiors, experts, teachers, students, family members and with the people in all walks of life, when we read and /or write the books, pamphlets, periodicals, special journals, reports, letters, memos, newspaper, etc. when we listen to or deliverspeeches, when we listen to the radio or watch the TV and films, when we buy or sell the products or services, when we manage our business and when we are involved in any other activity, we are invariably involved in communication situation. Communication Technology and Media Human Behavior is dominated by communication in all aspects of life to such an extent that we can aptly call him as a communicating creature. He has applied advanced science and technology of the tremendous development of communication system. With the help of dramatic inventions like printing press, telephone, telegraph, radar, telephoto, radio, television and many other deceive; we have made our modern communication instantaneous and effective. The advanced technology of mass and telecommunication has attracted the attention of the experts and specialists in many fields. The artists, poets, writers, artisans, architects, etc. are exposed to different subjects of interest by this technology and it helps them to conceive new creative thoughts and ideas. The technology, skills of using media and some concepts of communication are useful to psychologists in order to investigate certain problems of human behavior and therapy. The political as well as social traditions, myths, customs, styles of living, morals, etc. are passed from one generation to another or they are changed or destroyed with the help of communication media. The success of any commercial man depends upon his reception and 6|Page
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transmission of information regarding the market, production, government laws, banking, innovations in modern technology, etc. computers play a vital role in receiving, storing, translating, analyzing and imparting the information for the mathematicians, chemists, physicists, engineers, etc. Types of communication One important aspect of communication is that it does not take place in isolation. Communication occurs when at least two elements of a system are present. We often think of communication as an interaction between two people. However, we participate in several communication contexts or levels of communication. The major forms of communication are: Intrapersonal communication Interpersonal communication Group communication Mass communication Non-verbal communication
The number of persons involved in the process of communication distinguishes these levels. These different forms of communication also differ in the degree of proximity or closeness among the participants in the communication process -both at physical and emotional levels. Another differentiating feature is the nature of the feedback, which could be immediate of delayed.
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Agriculture and mining businesses are concerned with the production of raw material, such as plants or minerals. Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profit through investment and management of capital. Information businesses generate profits primarily from the resale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and packaged software companies. Manufacturers produce products, from raw materials or component parts, which they then sell at a profit. Companies that make physical goods, such as cars or pipes, are considered manufacturers. Real estate businesses generate profit from the selling, renting, and development of properties comprising land, residential homes, and other kinds of buildings. Retailers and distributors act as middle-men in getting goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumer, generating a profit as a result of providing sales or distribution services. Most consumer-oriented stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers. Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically generate a profit by charging for labor or other services provided to government, other businesses, or consumers. Organizations ranging from house decorators to consulting firms, restaurants, and even entertainers are types of service businesses. Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals from location to location, generating a profit on the transportation costs. Utilities produce public services such as electricity or sewage treatment, usually under a government charter. There are many other divisions and subdivisions of businesses. The authoritative list of business types for North America is generally considered to be the North American Industry Classification System, or NAICS. The equivalent European Union list is the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE).Mill,
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The efficient and effective operation of a business, and study of this subject, is called management. The major branches of management are financial management, marketing management, human resource management, strategic management, production management, operations management, service management and information technology management. Owners engage in business administration either directly or indirectly through the employment of managers. Owner managers, or hired managers administer to three component resources that constitute the business' value or worth: financial resources, capital or tangible resources, and human resources. These resources are administered to in at least five functional areas: legal contracting, manufacturing or service production, marketing, accounting, financing, and human resourcing.[citation needed] Reforming state enterprises In recent decades, assets and enterprises that were run by various states have been modeled after business enterprises. In 2003, the People's Republic of China reformed 80% of its stateowned enterprises and modeled them on a company-type management system. Many state institutions and enterprises in China and Russia have been transformed into joint-stock companies, with part of their shares being listed on public stock markets. Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients. It promotes business effectiveness and efficiency while striving for innovation, flexibility, and integration with technology. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can therefore be described as a "process optimization process." It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. Organization and government regulation Most legal jurisdictions specify the forms of ownership that a business can take, creating a body of commercial law for each type. The major factors affecting how a business is organized are usually: The size and scope of the business firm and its structure, management, and ownership, broadly analyzed in the theory of the firm. Generally a smaller business is more flexible, while larger businesses, or those with wider ownership or more formal structures, will usually tend to be organized as corporations or (less often) partnerships. In addition, a business that wishes to raise money on a stock market or to be owned by a wide range of people will often be required to adopt a specific legal form to do so.
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The sector and country. Private profit-making businesses are different from government-owned bodies. In some countries, certain businesses are legally obliged to be organized in certain ways. Limited Liability Companies (LLC), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are usually not so protected. Tax advantages. Different structures are treated differently in tax law, and may have advantages for this reason. Disclosure and compliance requirements. Different business structures may be required to make less or more information public (or report it to relevant authorities), and may be bound to comply with different rules and regulations. Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability). Most legal jurisdictions allow people to organize such an entity by filing certain charter documents with the relevant Secretary of State or equivalent and complying with certain other ongoing obligations. The relationships and legal rights of shareholders, limited partners, or members are governed partly by the charter documents and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the entity is organized. Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate "person". This means that unless there is misconduct, the owner's own possessions are strongly protected in law if the business does not succeed. Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a general partnership. The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. No paperwork or filing is necessary to create a partnership, and without an agreement, the relationships and legal rights of the partners will be entirely governed by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor, whether that person owns it directly or through a formally organized entity. A few relevant factors to consider in deciding how to operate a business include: General partners in a partnership (other than a limited liability partnership), plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity, are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business. Generally, corporations are required to pay tax just like "real" people. In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include 11 | P a g e
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dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed. In most countries, there are laws which treat small corporations differently than large ones. They may be exempt from certain legal filing requirements or labor laws, have simplified procedures in specialized areas, and have simplified, advantageous, or slightly different tax treatment. To "go public" (sometimes called IPO) -- which basically means to allow a part of the business to be owned by a wider range of investors or the public in generalyou must organize a separate entity, which is usually required to comply with a tighter set of laws and procedures. Most public entities are corporations that have sold shares, but increasingly there are also public LLCs that sell units (sometimes also called shares), and other more exotic entities as well (for example, REITs in the USA, Unit Trusts in the UK). However, you cannot take a general partnership "public." Commercial law Most commercial transactions are governed by a very detailed and well-established body of rules that have evolved over a very long period of time, it being the case that governing trade and commerce was a strong driving force in the creation of law and courts in Western civilization. As for other laws that regulate or impact businesses, in many countries it is all but impossible to chronicle them all in a single reference source. There are laws governing treatment of labor and generally relations with employees, safety and protection issues (Health and Safety), antidiscrimination laws (age, gender, disabilities, race, and in some jurisdictions, sexual orientation), minimum wage laws, union laws, workers compensation laws, and annual vacation or working hours time. In some specialized businesses, there may also be licenses required, either due to special laws that govern entry into certain trades, occupations or professions, which may require special education, or by local governments. Professions that require special licenses range from law and medicine to flying airplanes to selling liquor to radio broadcasting to selling investment securities to selling used cars to roofing. Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business without regard to the type of business involved. Some businesses are subject to ongoing special regulation. These industries include, for example, public utilities, investment securities, banking, insurance, broadcasting, aviation, and health care providers. Environmental regulations are also very complex and can impact many kinds of businesses in unexpected ways. Capital When businesses need to raise money (called 'capital'), more laws come into play. A highly complex set of laws and regulations govern the offer and sale of investment securities (the means of raising money) in most Western countries. These regulations can require disclosure of a lot of specific financial and other information about the business and give buyers certain 12 | P a g e
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remedies. Because "securities" is a very broad term, most investment transactions will be potentially subject to these laws, unless a special exemption is available. Capital may be raised through private means, by public offer (IPO) on a stock exchange, or in many other ways. Major stock exchanges include the Shanghai Stock Exchange, Singapore Exchange, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq (USA), the London Stock Exchange (UK), the Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), Bombay Stock Exchange(India) and so on. Most countries with capital markets have at least one. Businesses that have gone "public" are subject to extremely detailed and complicated regulation about their internal governance (such as how executive officers' compensation is determined) and when and how information is disclosed to the public and their shareholders. In the United States, these regulations are primarily implemented and enforced by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Other Western nations have comparable regulatory bodies. The regulations are implemented and enforced by the China Securities Regulation Commission (CSRC), in China. In Singapore, the regulation authority is Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), and in Hong Kong, it is Securities and Futures Commission (SFC). As noted at the beginning, it is impossible to enumerate all of the types of laws and regulations that impact on business today. In fact, these laws have become so numerous and complex, that no business lawyer can learn them all, forcing increasing specialization among corporate attorneys. It is not unheard of for teams of 5 to 10 attorneys to be required to handle certain kinds of corporate transactions, due to the sprawling nature of modern regulation. Commercial law spans general corporate law, employment and labor law, health-care law, securities law, M&A law (who specialize in acquisitions), tax law, ERISA law (ERISA in the United States governs employee benefit plans), food and drug regulatory law, intellectual property law (specializing in copyrights, patents, trademarks and such), telecommunications law, and more. Intellectual property Businesses often have important "intellectual property" that needs protection from competitors for the company to stay profitable. This could require patents, copyrights, trademarks or preservation of trade secrets. Most businesses have names, logos and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking. Patents and copyrights in the United States are largely governed by federal law, while trade secrets and trademarking are mostly a matter of state law. Because of the nature of intellectual property, a business needs protection in every jurisdiction in which they are concerned about competitors. Many countries are signatories to international treaties concerning intellectual property, and thus companies registered in these countries are subject to national laws bound by these treaties. In order to protect trade secrets, companies may require employees to sign non-compete clauses which will impose limitations on an employees interactions with stakeholders, and competitors Labor Laws In businesses, most especially those that have something to do with products and services, knowing laws on labor and employment is vital to ones business because a minor violation 13 | P a g e
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could lead you to big trouble. Most employers, especially those who do not have legal counsel, violate these laws usually not because they intend to, but because of sheer ignorance. Unfortunately, ignorance of the law does not excuse them from complying with it. Companies have closed shop after their employees slapped them with labor suits which ended up with these companies paying huge amounts of money representing unpaid wages or benefits and damages. To avoid being in the same situation, the following are relevant laws which you should always bear in mind as you go about your business and deal with your employees:
1. Regular employment
Article 280 of the Labor Code of the Philippines (LCP) describes different types of employment namely: regular, casual, project or seasonal. These distinctions are important because some rights and benefits attach only to regular employees, especially the right to security of tenure. The most common type of employment now is the fixed term employment or contractual. Most companies prefer this to save labor costs because if they hire regular employees, they cannot terminate their employment expediently without valid and legal cause and the payment of separation pay and other benefits. So if you do not intend to consider the person hired as a regular employee, you must inform him on the day he starts to work that is, whether he is a casual, seasonal, project or a fixed term employee. If not, then he will be considered regular even if the employment contract says otherwise. Also in some instances, even if it is expressly stipulated to be a non-regular type, if the nature of the work is usually necessary and desirable to your business, then he will still be considered regular. 2. Probationary employment
The period should not exceed six (6) months from the date the employee started working, unless it is covered by an apprenticeship agreement stipulating a longer period. (Article 281) A probationary employee may be dismissed for a just cause or when he fails to qualify as a regular employee in accordance with reasonable standards made known to him at the time he is hired. If he is not informed of these reasonable criteria, he will be considered a regular employee. So, employers should watch out for this requirement. Also, a probationary employee may become regular if he is allowed to work after the probationary period. 3. Minimum employable age
The minimum employable age in the Philippines is fifteen years, with the exception of some instances when a child below 15 may be hired after complying with certain conditions. (See RA 7610, Sec 12, as amended by RA 7658 and RA 9231; see also DOLE Department Order No. 65-04). 4. Prohibition against stipulation of marriage
You cannot require as a condition of employment or continuation of employment that a woman employee shall not get married. It is also unlawful to stipulate expressly or tacitly that upon getting married, a woman employee shall be deemed separated, or to actually dismiss, discharge, discriminate or otherwise prejudice a woman employee merely by reason of her marriage. (Article 136, LCP) 5. Anti-sexual Harassment law
An employer commits sexual harassment when a sexual favor is made as a condition for hiring and for continued employment or reemployment. (Section 3, RA 7877) 6. Minimum wage and other benefits
You must comply with the minimum wage rates prescribed by your respective Regional Tripartite Wages and Productivity Boards authorized by the state to fix the minimum wage. Note that there are civil and criminal violations for non-compliance with these wage orders. The employer must also pay the employees the compensation and other benefits to which they are entitled under the Labor Code such as overtime pay, night shift pay, holiday pay, etc. as well as those provided under special laws such as 13th month pay. 7. Form, payee, time and place of payment of wages
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Form. You should, as a rule, pay in cash. Payment by promissory notes, vouchers, coupons, tokens, tickets, or chits is prohibited. This is illegal even if both the employee and employer agreed. You may, however, pay by check or money order but you must comply with guidelines prescribed by the Department of Labor. (See Article 102, LCP; also Sec 2, Rule VIII, Book III, IRR) Time. Wages should be paid at least once every 2 weeks or twice a month at intervals not exceeding 16 days. The only exception is when there is force majeure or circumstances beyond the employers control, but he should pay immediately after such force majeure or circumstances have ceased. (See Article 103, LCP) Place. As a rule, the employer should pay at or near the place of work, except in cases of deteriorating peace and order situation and emergencies or calamities which makes payment in the workplace impossible. But the employer is required to provide transportation and the time for traveling should be considered as compensable hours worked. (See Article 104, LCP; also Sec 4a, Rule VIII, Book III, IRR) Payment may also be made through banks or through an ATM facility, but guidelines provided by the Department of Labor must be complied with (See Article 104, LCP; also Sec 4, Rule VIII, Book III and Labor Advisory on Payment of Salaries through ATM) 8. Other prohibited acts or practices
Gender discrimination It shall be unlawful for any employer to discriminate against any woman employee with respect to terms and conditions of employment solely on account of her sex. (Article 135, LCP) Compulsory Patronage You cannot compel employees to purchase your goods or services or to patronize any store or products of any other person. (Article 112, LCP). It is unlawful for the employer to interfere with the employees freedom to spend his wages. Similar acts are punished criminally under Article 288 of the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines. No wage deductions It is a common practice in the Philippines that creditors demand that the debtor-employees wage be paid directly to them. Some employers allow deductions from the wage or payment of the entire amount to these creditors not knowing that this is illegal. Under Article 105 of our Labor Code, payment should be made directly to the employee and under Article 113, no deductions from the wages are allowed. There are however exceptions to these provisions: 1. when the employee authorized his employer in writing to pay his wages to a member of his family; 2. payment to another person of any part of the employees wages is authorized by existing law such as that under the SSS law where remittance is a duty of the employer, 3. payment for insurance premiums of the employee 4 payment for union dues where the right to check-off has been recognized by the employer in accordance with a collective agreement or authorized in writing by the individual employees concerned; or 5. in case of death of the employee, payment may be made to his heirs 6. deductions for facilities These are goods or services provided by the employer to the employee for the benefit of the employee and his family. 7. deductions for loss or damages This is allowed if the practice is recognized in the industry (such as deductions for car washing expenses for taxis) or necessary or desirable to the business. But the employer must prove clearly that it is indeed the employee who is responsible for the loss or damage. 9. Unfair Labor Practices
These are acts which violate the constitutional right workers to organize and are considered inimical to the legitimate interests of both the worker and the employer, especially their right to bargain collectively and deal with each other peacefully. Unfair labor practices may be committed by employers (Art 248, LCP) and by labor organizations or unions (Art 249, LCP).
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10. Employees right to self-organization and the right to strike These rights are expressly provided by the 1987 Constitution and the Labor Code. Employers should not interfere with or deny their employees their right to form organizations for their mutual aid or protection and to form unions for the purpose of negotiating the terms and conditions of employment with their employer. Employees also have the right to strike but this may only be exercised after complying with guidelines provided by the DOLE. Otherwise, the strike may be considered illegal and may be a cause for terminating their employment. 11. Valid termination of employment If you want to dismiss an employee from his job, it should be for a cause provided by law and you must comply with procedural requirements. Just causes which are voluntary acts of the employee are enumerated in Article 282 (LCP) while authorized causes, which are attributed to the employer, are provided by Article 283 and 284. For a valid dismissal, substantive (Art. 282, 283, 284) and procedural requirements (Article 277b; also Department Order No. 9, June 21, 1997) must be complied with. Just causes a. Serious misconduct or willful disobedience by the employee of the lawful orders of his employer or representative in connection with his work; b. Gross and habitual neglect by the employee of his duties; c. Fraud or willful breach by the employee of the trust reposed in him by his employer or duly authorized representative; d. Commission of a crime or offense by the employee against the person of his employer or any immediate member of his family or his duly authorized representatives; and e. Analogous or similar causes Procedure for termination due to just causes: (Twin Notice Rule) (1) Serve the first written notice on the employees containing the specific ground/s for termination and a directive that they are given the opportunity to submit their written explanation within a reasonable period. (2) After serving the first notice, the employers should schedule and conduct a hearing or conferencewherein the employees will be given the opportunity to: (a) explain and clarify their defenses to the charge against them; (b) present evidence in support of their defenses; and (c)rebut the evidence presented against them by the management. During the hearing or conference, the employees are given the chance to defend themselves personally, with the assistance of a representative or counsel of their choice. Moreover, this conference or hearing could be used by the parties as an opportunity to come to an amicable settlement. Note however, that in a recent case decide by the Supreme Court, a hearing or conference is not mandatory. It is enough that the employee is given an opportunity to be heard, which could be through submission of position papers or other evidence. (3)After determining that termination of employment is justified, the employers shall serve the employees awritten notice of termination indicating that: (a) all circumstances involving the charge against the employees have been considered; and (b) grounds have been established to justify the severance of their employment Authorized causes 1. Installation of labor saving device
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Procedure for termination due to authorized causes: (1) Serve a written notice upon the worker at least one month or 30 days before the intended date of the termination. This is to inform the employee of the impending loss of his employment so he could at the earliest opportunity look for prospective jobs. (2) Serve a written notice on the DOLE at least one month or 30 days before the intended date of the termination. This is in order for the DOLE to: a. Determine the validity of the dismissal; and b. To intervene for a possible conciliation or mediation (3) To give separation pay such as when termination is due to redundancy, but not when the employer is suffering from severe financial losses. If you do not comply with procedures, even you have a valid cause for terminating the employment; you may still be required to pay damages: Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000) if the cause was attributed to you as employer or thirty thousand pesos (P30,000) if the cause was attributed to the employee.
The key to avoiding violations of labor and employment laws is by being a good employer that is, giving your employees at least the minimum benefits and standard working conditions provided by law, allowing them to reasonably exercise their rights as workers, especially the right to self-organize and always exercising good faith and fairness in dealing with them. As employer, you must not only think of the profit you can earn from your business, but also the human factor in every employment relationship.
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JOINING BUSINESSES
The legacy of the 18th century industrial revolution is the occurrence of societies which tend to promote industries and businesses. The rise of the inventions on both physical and ideological inventions, paved the way for activities that are geared towards profit, which are used for everyday sustenance of workers. It is not surprising that most governments have promoted this goal through their form of governance coupled with its capitalistic tendencies. As a fresh graduate, you will be confronted with a decision between starting a business and joining one. The lack of capital for most will make the latter the logical choice. The young professionals quest however, will be faced with numerous challenge, even in the process of joining business organization. The young professional or worker will start his/her battles with the simple making of an application letter and resume.
APPLICATION LETTER
Basically, this is a letter directed to the would-be-employer, or Human Resource Officer, expressing your interest on the position that you are applying for. It does not intend to put details that are present in your resume, however, it can summarize your qualification to introduce yourself. The employer will only browse it to see if the elements of writing a letter are present. (Example below using Block style)
JD 200 Central Pico Central Pico Road 2601 La Trinidad, Benguet 15 March 2010 The Human Resource Officer Human Resource Office Prime Hotel, Session Road 2600, Baguio City Philippines Sir/Maam; Please consider me a very interested applicant for a Teaching position (High School/ Part-time College Instructor) in your respected institution. I am Mr. Gatan Cawilan, 23 years old and an AB English graduate of Saint Louis University, Baguio City. I have recently passed the Licensure Examinations for Secondary Teachers (major in English), while working as a contractual assistant to the communications office of the University of the Cordilleras. Aside from earning various trainings that will enhance my professional growth, it is also with assurance to inform you that I possess a positive attitude towards these opportunities. Upon your notice and requirement, I shall produce and enclose pertinent documents relative to my application such as copies of certificates for your easy reference. Should I be notified, I am always available for an interview in your most convenient time. I look forward to a favorable consideration to my application for employment. Thank you very much and may God bless you. Truly yours, Gatan Cawilan Applicant
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RESUME
How to write a compelling Resume Over a majority of the resumes sent out ONLY get 20 seconds from potential employers. What can you do to make yours stand out? Someone once said that if you want to get what you want you must help people get what they want. When you start looking for a new job the only thing that you care about is to work for a better company, for a bigger salary and at a higher level of hierarchy. In other words all we care about is our own needs and personal success. Dont get me wrong, there is absolutely nothing wrong with this. As the CEO of our life we are responsible for advancing our careers and getting the success that we deserve. However there is one obstacle between you and the dream position that youre aiming at and that obstacle is the recruiter who receives, selects and interviews candidates. Lets change the perspective a little bit and rather than perceiving the recruiter as our enemy lets help him be successful and maybe in return hell give us a hand to become successful as well. So ask yourself, as a candidate, how could you possibly help the recruiter be successful? The answer is quite simple if we try to put ourselves in their place. Recruiters are individuals whose job is to find qualified candidates. They want to find them as easy and as rapidly as possible. They also want to prove to their bosses that they get the job done efficiently and bring positive results. Their success is measured by the rapidity with which they manage to bring in valuable new hires that will contribute to the companys growth. Therefore if you want to give them a helping hand you have to show them that you can be such a valuable candidate. And the first step is to write a compelling resume. Recruiters are very busy people so help them read your resume as quickly as possible. Your resume shouldnt be more than two pages. Format it so that relevant information is easy to find. Recruiters are looking for a certain candidate profile. You dont need to be a human resources specialist to realize that if you are applying for a sales position the recruiter will look for your sales results and if its a PR position theyll be looking at the events youve organized. Try to presume what kind of candidate profile they may be looking for. Clues to such a profile are included in the hiring ad so show them the profile theyre looking for by outlining your previous experience. Most of the time, recruiters are not looking for your previous job descriptions, they are looking for real people, people who brought results so quit putting your previous job descriptions in your resume. Instead try giving details about the projects you were involved, the results you got, the initiatives you took. Recruiters want candidates with a personality and you can pass on some of your personality to your resume. Include a professional objective on your resume showing that you are passionate about your field, expressing your desire to develop yourself professionally and to contribute to the companys growth. Recruiters are not interested in personal stuff. Contrary to popular belief personal info do not bring any additional value to your resume. At least not until you convince the recruiter that you fit the candidate profile that theyre looking for. 19 | P a g e
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Recruiters are looking for experienced candidates so 75% of your resume must give details about your experience. Your resume must convey credibility and expertise. Recruiters want to feel that you have the skills and experience to cope up with the challenges of your new job.
THE INTERVIEW
Job search techniques change, the labour market changes and job descriptions change but what more or less stays the same is the job interview. It's your chance to sell yourself. The first 30 seconds of a job interview are the most important - so if you want to be a cut above the rest you need to be on the ball. Prior to Interview -Research Company Background -Nature of the Business What it actually does -Products and services offered -General information, e.g. Number of employees, plans for future development, names of competitors etc. Prepare for the Journey -Research company address and get directions/ map if necessary -Understand timetables for trains/ buses, and know locations of stops/ stations in relation to company Check transportation availability -Aim to arrive approximately 10 minutes early -If possible, do a dummy run in the days before the interview. Try to ensure variables, such as time of day are similar to your interview time Prepare for the Interview -Find out who will be interviewing you name and position -Ensure full understanding of Job Spec/ role applied for -Think about the questions they could ask you How will you respond? -What questions will you ask? Presentation and Dress Code -Wear smart, business dress (unless otherwise directed) Shoes should be clean -Keep make-up and jewellery simple and understated -Do not overdo aftershave or perfume -Ensure you are prepared with a CV and any other information as requested During the Interview Offer a handshake to interviewer(s) upon arrival and greet them with a smile Maintain appropriate eye contact and consider body language Take time to think before responding to questions
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Use examples to illustrate answers Stay confident and enthusiastic Agree what the next steps will be, such as who will contact you to let you know if you have been successful and by when Remember the interview is not over until you have left the premises, leave a positive lasting impression shake hands with interviewer(s) on your exit. Leave putting on coat, et cetera until you are outside interview room
10 Top Tips 1. First impressions count Greet your interviewer with a smile and firm handshake. Give eye contact. Try to make small talk during the walk from the reception area to the interview room. According to a HR Manager, "You have to sell yourself before you can sell anything else and the first 30 seconds are when the interviewer subconsciously makes decisions about whether they like you or not and whether you will fit into the team." 2. Be prepared Re-read your CV and the job advertisement just before the interview. Do your research thoroughly: Look at the company web site or obtain literature. You may be asked about the salary you are after so make sure you research that as well. 3. Don't waffle Answer questions properly - even if you need a few moments' silence to collect your thoughts. It's better to say you need a minute to think about your answer rather than speak instantly and regret it afterwards. 4. Why should they hire you? Most job adverts will list qualities they're looking for - a team worker, a good communicator - so it's up to you to think of examples of how you can demonstrate these skills. Be ready to talk about your knowledge, experience, abilities and skills. Have at least three strong points about yourself that you can relate to the company and job on offer. 5. Be positive Your interviewer will be thinking about what it would be like to work with you, so the last thing they'll want to hear is you talking about your boss or current colleagues behind their back. Interviewers like to see someone who enjoys a challenge and is enthusiastic. 6. Remember your body language It is not what you say, but how you say it. During the interview, do not fold your arms and lean back or look to the floor! Sit upright and try to maintain good eye contact. Use your hands and lean forward when making a point. Many people cannot think and control their body language at the same time, which is why you need to prepare. 21 | P a g e
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7. Expect the unexpected Your interviewer may try to catch you off guard: A survey by Office Angels has revealed that 90 per cent of employers ask 'killer' questions in interviews. It is impossible to plan for every difficult question, such as "How would your colleagues describe you?" but try to appear relaxed and in control. Ask the interviewer to repeat the question if necessary but do not evade it. Hopefully you will not befall the fate of those job candidates at B&Q who were asked to dance to "Blame it on the Boogie"! 8. Develop rapport Show energy, a sense of humour and smile. Jean Smith, a social anthropologist says: "It's infectious, being positive and enthusiastic." Ask your interviewer questions about themselves and any issues the business is facing. 9. Clarify anything you are unsure of If you are not certain what are meant by a particular question, ask for clarification. At the end, ask the interviewer if there is anything else he or she needs to know about. Do not be afraid to ask when you are likely to hear if you have been successful or not. 10. Remember your manners It is better to choose than to be chosen. Tell the interviewer why you are interested in the company and job opportunity. Ask them for a business card and follow it up by sending a "thank-you" e-mail or letter, saying how much you enjoyed meeting them and how interested you are. Take the opportunity to detail the key advantages you bring.
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Planning
Organizing
Leading
Controlling
Communication
As can be seen from the above diagram, the purposes of Internal communication in an organization are as follows: establish and disseminate goals of the organization. To develop plans for achievement of these goals. To organize human and other resources effectively and efficiently. To select, develop, and appraise members of the organization. To control all activities.
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External communication helps the managers to become aware of: - the needs of customers. - the availability of suppliers. - the claims of stockholders. - the regulations of governments. - the concerns of the communities.
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The message should be sincere, tactful, appreciative, and should not contain any hurting expressions. The attitude should be friendly and helping. For example, the statement Your letter is not at all clear; I cant understand it should be written as If I understand your letter correctly,..... Correctness The correctness of message means not only that there should not be any grammatical, punctuation, and spelling errors, but also that the facts and figures presented should be accurate, and the level of language used should be right such as formal or informal.
APPLICABILITY IN AN ORGANIZATION
Applicability of Written Communication in an organization can be downward, upward or crosswise. Each communication flow has its own significance, and is described below. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION Downward communication flows from persons at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy. Downward communication is useful in leading the employees. Examples of downward communication are inter-office notes, memoranda, policy statements issued, etc. UPWARD COMMUNICATION Upward communication flows from persons at lower levels to persons at higher levels in the organizational hierarchy. This kind of flow of communication is very important in controlling the management process. The management needs to know specifically about production performance, marketing information, financial data, and lower-level employees grievances, if any. This information are provided in the form of inter-office notes, different types of statements and reports. CROSSWISE COMMUNICATION Crosswise flow of communication can be of two types, i.e. horizontal flow, and diagonal flow. Horizontal communication is between people at same or similar organizational levels, while 25 | P a g e
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diagonal communication is between people at different organizational levels but having no direct reporting relationship.
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included in support of the companys past performance, or in support of the companys products or services. Outlining and organizing the message Before finally writing the message, it is often useful to outline it on the paper, then reorganize it in the proper sequence. If a message contains well-chosen ideas and facts to support them, but the ideas are not presented in the proper sequence, it will create a confused and careless impression of the sender.
The composition is based on the following parts: Opening - Begin with the request or main idea. Body - provide necessary detail. Close - cordially and state the specific action desired. 2. Good news Plan is used for: decision about adjustment of claims extending credit announcements unsolicited favourable message
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The composition is based on the following parts: Buffer - a neutral, non-controversial statement closely related to bad news. Explanation - reasons supporting the negative decision. Decision - a clear, diplomatic statement of the negative decision. Close - a helpful, friendly and positive close. 2. Persuasive-request plan is used for: For favours For sales promotion For selling new product
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LE T T E R HE ADING
Our Ref: ABM/CM/98 Your Ref: Mr. Aftab Khan 267 St. 31 F-6/1 Islamabad Dear Mr. Aftab TERMINATION OF
Salut at ion E M P L O YSubject MENT Heading I regret having to tell you that your employment as a receptionist with the ABM Data Systems (Private) Limited formally ceased at 3.00pm on Saturday October 3, 1998. I am sending you any outstanding salary due to you. Body of D e s p i t e h a v i n g b e e n g i v e n n u m e r o u s v e r b a l let t r n i n g s a n d t w o w r i t t e n w a er warnings, you have continued to arrive late for your duties and you have a poor record of attendance at work. CONTRACT OF You may be pleased to know salary in lieu of notice. that we are allowing you two weeks
sincerely
P a u n w a Ident it y, n r Kha
Enclosures
Islamabad : 14-Y, Joha r Roa d Ma r k z F- 8, I sla m a ba d. 252343-5 Fa x: 859952 a P h: He ad of fic e :197/5, Gr ound Floor, P a k istan Re d Cr esc ent Building, Dr . Da udpota Road, Ka ra c hi. P h: 5660256- 60, Fa x 5681361 B r anc h off ic e : Ghani Cha m be rs, Link Mc Le od Road, Lahore . P h: 7560867, 7592771
Letter Styles
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Is lama ba d : 14 -Y , Jo h ar Road M az F -8 , I slamabadP h: 2 5 23 43 -5 Fax: 85 99 52 ark . Hea d o ff ice :1 97 /5 , G ro un d F lo or, Pakis tan Red Cr escen t Bu ild in g, Dr . D au dp ota Ro ad , K arach i. P h: 56 60 25 6- 60 , F ax 5 68 13 61 Bran ch o ffice : G h an i Ch amb ers , Link McLeo d Road, Lah o re. Ph : 7 56 08 67 , 7 59 27 71
Is lama ba d : 14 -Y , Jo h ar Road M az F -8 , I slamabad . P h: 25 23 4 3-5 F ax : 85 9 95 2 ark Hea d o ff ice :1 97 /5 , G ro un d F lo or, Pakis tan Red Cr escen t Bu ild in g, Dr . D au dp ota Road ,K ar ach i. P h: 56 60 2 56 -6 0, Fax 5 68 13 61 Bran ch o ffice : G h an i Ch amb ers , Link McLeo d Road, Lah o re. Ph : 7 56 08 67 , 7 59 27 71
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Islamabad : 14-Y, Joha r Road Ma rkaz F-8, Isla maba d. Ph: 252343-5 Fax: 859952 Head offi ce :197/5, Ground Floor, Pakista n Re d Cresce nt Bui lding, Dr. Da udpota Roa d, Ka ra chi. Ph: 5660256-60, Fax 5681361 Branc h offic e : Gha ni Cha mbe rs, Link Mc Leod Roa d, Lahore. Ph: 7560867, 7592771
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Memorandums are in contrast to the letters which are used for routine in day-to-day exchange of information within the organization and also for downward communication. This medium is basically intended to communicate to employees, the rules, regulations, and policies of the company.
SPECIMEN OF A MEMORANDUM
Subject: _______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ______________
Message
Signature
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Inter-office notes are used to convey short instructional messages, and advice from managers to subordinates. Inter-office notes are also used to accompany informational brochures of new products.
Reports Different types of reports are prepared on suggestions or recommendations on personnel, activity execution time and plans for overcoming the difficulties. A business report is an impartial, objective, planned presentation of facts to one or more persons for a specific, significant business purpose. The facts pertain to events, conditions, qualities, progress, results, products, problems, or suggested solutions. The reports help the receivers understand a complex business situation, carry out operational or technical assignments, plan procedures, solve problems, and make policy decisions regarding strategic planning. A business report usually presents more detail than is covered by a typical business letter or memorandum. To be impartial and objective, a report must present accurate, reliable information logically, without emotional appeals. According to this pattern, the report for financial deterioration in an organization would be as follows.
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Page 1 ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL POSITION OF CITY TEXTILE AND SPINNING MILLS LTD.
Prepared for Mr. David Henderson Chief Executive City Textile and Spinning Mills Ltd.
P a ge 2 July 5, 1996
Mr . David H ender son Chie f Exe c utive City Te xtile a nd Spinning M ills Ltd. She ikhupura Roa d, La hor e . De a r M r. He nde rson: He re is the re port y ou re que ste d Ma y 10, 1996, on the f inanc ia l position of City Te xtile a nd Spinning M ills, a nd on possible f urthe r ste ps to be take n. The ge ne ra l and de pa r tm e nt m ana ge r s will be a ble to see the position of the c om pany on a f ir m wide ba sis. Cour se s of ac tion ha ve a lso be e n propose d which would dir ec t the c om pa ny to m ea sur e s to be ta ke n to im pr ove f ina nc ial situa tion. The assistanc e of the m a nage rial sta ff ha s be e n invalua ble in pre par ing this r eport. The ir c oope ra tion is gr e atly a ppr e cia te d. Should y ou have a ny que stions conc er ning this r eport, I will be ha ppy to disc uss the m with y ou. Sinc er e ly , ( Am e er a She ikh) Sta ff Assistant
July 5, 1996
Letter o f Transmittal. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ii I. In tro d uction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .1 A . A utho rizatio n and p ur po se . . ............. . . . . . . . . . .1 B. Th e Pro b lem at Centr al . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 C. So u rces o f D ata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .2 D . S co pe an d Limitatio ns. . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .2 E. Plan of Pr esentatio n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .3 S ituatio n Bef or e F inancial Deter ior atio n.. . . . . . . .. . . .4 A . A ss ets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 B. Liab ilities and Capital . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .5 C. Receivables and Payables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .7 D . In co me. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 E. Exp en ditur es. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0 Curr en t S itu atio n. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 A . A ss ets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 B. Liab ilities and Capital. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .13 C. Receivables and Payable. . . . ....... . . . . . . . . .... . . . .15 D . In co me. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 6 E. Ex p end itu res. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 P rop o sals fo r I mp ro vements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Lon g- ter m Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 B. Sh o rt-term I nv estments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 C. Imp rov emen t in Receiv ables ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 D . Con clu sio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Con clu sio ns an d Recommen dation s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 4 . . . .... . . .20
II .
II I.
IV .
V.
A pp en dix A . Balance S heets. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6 B. P ro fit an d Los s S tatemen ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 7 S ou rces Con su lted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 8
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The difference between short and long reports depends in the subject matter, the purpose, the format and writing style, and the readers' needs (expectations of the audiences for formal reports). In a formal report, the audience expects a methodical presentation of the subject that includes summaries of important points as well as appendices on tangential and secondary points. Note that the readers for a formal report are often two or more distinct audiences. These distinct audiences for example could include professionals specializing in the report's subject matter, professionals not specializing in the report's subject matter, and managers overseeing the report's subject matter.
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Formal Structure Include a cover page that is resembles a book cover. The abstract briefly summarizes the problem, the process of research and final conclusions in one page or less. Your title page will cover the title of the report, the person who compiled the report, the publisher and submittal date. Summarize your initial thesis or the purpose of the study, and include all the details that are necessary for your audience to completely understand the question. Include a table of contents and a list of tables and figures. The body of your report will include an introduction, overview of the research and final conclusions and recommendations. End your report with acknowledgements, a list of references where you located your research and any appendices. Formal reports include; 1. Analytical reports convey information accompanied by the writer's analysis or interpretation of it. Progress reports, for example, are usually analytical, reporting not only what has taken place but the writer's analysis of it. 2. Informational reports convey information (results, facts, data) alone, with no commentary. Both formal and informal reports may be solely informational; minutes of meetings, for example, convey only the events and conversations of a meeting--nothing more. 3. Recommendations convey information; the writer's analysis; and the writer's ideas about appropriate actions that might be taken. Policy directives, in which one or more people announce policy by which the members of a group or organization will abide, are an example of this type of business report.
___________________________________________________________________________
What is a report? A report is a systematic, well organized document which defines and analyses a subject or problem, and which may include:
(a) the record of a sequence of events (b) interpretation of the significance of these events or facts (c) evaluation of the facts or results of research presented (d) discussion of the outcomes of a decision or course of action (e) conclusions (f) recommendations Reports must always be: (a) accurate (b) concise (c) clear (d) well structured
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Various courses require students, researchers, and even workers to write reports (as opposed to essays), notably business and scientific or technical subjects. There are, however, different interpretations of what a report should look like, so it is important that one checks with course tutors and course documentation as to the report format and content expected. In addition, there is at times some blurring between what essays, reports and assignments are. Essentials of a Good Report
Meet the needs of the readers and answer the questions in their minds. At the right level for the readers- some readers have an in-depth knowledge of the subject; others may be decision-makers without specialized technical knowledge. Have a clear, logical structure- with clear signposting to show where the ideas are leading. Not to make assumptions about the readers understanding. All writers need to apply the so what test and need to explain why something is a good idea. Give a good first impression. Presentation is very important.
(a) what the main purpose of the report is, (b) The objective for writing it: is it to inform; to argue; to persuade; to evaluate? (c) Consider the reader and what you understand the reader want to see in the report and what will they do with it?
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2. Planning and research: Principally, the prerequisite is to first decide the basic framework or structure. Let the main topic or question as a central focus, jot down initial thoughts and start to group these together. You may find the Mind Mapping technique useful:. Start to divide key ideas from subsidiary information, and continually ask yourself if everything is relevant; if it isnt, then delete it. Secondly, plan the research process. Identify what you need to find out, maybe in the form of questions that need to be answered, and then approach your reading from this starting point. If you have specific information to look for, it will make your reading easier and less time consuming. Information quality is paramount. Try not to gather too much information. Again, keeping your topic or question in mind, reject anything which is not 100% relevant. When youre making notes, always try to summarize the main points as concisely as possible. Remember to make a comprehensive record of any sources consulted in order to be able to correctly reference these. Make a record of the research methods you used. Steps 1 and 2 can also be divided into Four, which are:
3. Report structure Follow accepted elements of reports.Below is a typical report sub-heading that business report will comprise of. A brief explanation of each potion is described in turn. Title page : Acknowledgements : Contents page : Terms of reference : Procedure : Materials and methods : Summary : Introduction : Main body : Results : Conclusion : Recommendations : Appendices : References : Bibliography : Glossary Unlike essays, reports are written in sections with headings and sub-headings, which are usually numbered. Below are the possible components of a report, in the order in which they would appear. Check within your department which of these you should include. Title page: This should normally include the title, your name and the name of the tutor to whom it is being submitted, date of submission, your course/department, and if applicable,
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the name of the person and/or organization who has commissioned the report. Avoid fancy fonts and effects and dont include any clipart Summary This is a very brief outline of the report to give the potential reader a general idea of what its about. A statement of: (a) overall aims and specific objectives (unless included in terms of reference) (b) method/procedure used (unless included in separate section) (c) Key findings (d) Main conclusions and recommendations Introduction This should show that you have fully understood the task/brief and that you are going to cover everything required. Indicate the basic structure of the report. You should include just a little background/context and indicate the reasons for writing the report. You may include your terms of reference and procedure/research methods if not covered elsewhere. Your introduction will often give an indication of the conclusion to the report Main body/findings This is the substance of the report. The structure will vary according to the nature of the material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used to clearly indicate the different sections (unlike an essay). A "situation>problem>solution>evaluation" approach may be appropriate. It is not sufficient to simply describe a situation. Charts, diagrams and tables can be used to reinforce arguments, although sometimes it may be better to include these as an appendix (particularly if they are long or complicated). Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section. Results This section records your observations (in the past tense) and would normally include statistics, tables or graphs. Conclusion The conclusion should draw out the implications of the findings, with deductions based on the facts described in your main body. Dont include any new material here. Recommendations These should follow on logically from your conclusion and be specific, measurable and achievable. They should propose how the situation/problem could be improved by suggesting action to be taken. Recommendations can be numbered if you wish. Appendices An appendix (plural=appendices) is detailed documentation of points you outline in your findings, for example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets etc. It is supplementary information which you consider to be too long or complicated or not quite relevant enough to include in your main body, but which still should be of interest to your reader. Each appendix should be referred to in your text. You should not include something as an appendix if it is not discussed in the main body. References This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made reference within your text. By far the most common method in use at Birmingham City University is the Harvard method. Bibliography This is either a separate list of sources which you have used during your research, but have not actually made reference to in your writing, or this list together with your list of references.
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4. Check in your department what you are expected to use. And finally overall, does the report fulfil its purpose? Does it do what youre being asked to do and what you say youre going to do in your introduction? Are you pleased with it? If you cant confidently answer yes to these questions, then you may need to do some major editing and rewriting.
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Technical writing rarely, if ever, is done in a manner that personalizes it. There are never references to the first person. The structure of the text is always done in a detached or third party reference point. The text is geared to teach information; therefore, the tone is that of a teacher instructing a student in the subject. This at times may appear as simply a list of steps to take to achieve the desired goal or may be a short or lengthy explanation of a concept or abstract idea. Most technical writers are not experts in the field about which they write about. They must gather the information from others that are experts. They may also obtain information about their topic from technical documents, reports, references and manuals. Upon synthesizing all the information gained, the writer must gauge their audience and the background that the reader has in the field being written about. Higher levels of education or experience will allow the document to be written referring to concepts, abbreviations, acronyms and terms commonly used in those that work in that field. For audiences that are determined to be novices or not familiar in the field, the writer must do much more explanation and education about the basics. He must assume that the audience has no knowledge in the topic about which he is writing. Depending on the type of document, these considerations may be more or less important. An example is a step-by-step guide for performing a specific task with a piece of software. As long as a person can follow written instructions, the document doesnt require much technical description to accomplish the job, but for the more knowledgeable the descriptions can include shortcut keys that can aid in the speed of the task. For audiences that are experts in their own rights in fields that are closely related to the topic, the degree of technical terms, acronyms and abbreviations is much broader. Many of the terms and techniques can be stated instead of explaining them. More than 95% of the readers will understand what is described and discussed. Due to this familiarity of your audience, it makes the job of the writer much simpler. WHICH SKILL SETS ARE IMPORTANT FOR A TECHNICAL WRITER? Like any profession, becoming a technical writer requires a mastery of a certain set of skills. This skill set used to involve primarily writing and illustration skills, as large manuals for print publication were the standard in the profession. The worlds of communications and technology have evolved dramatically in the latter part of the 20th century and the early part of this century. How has that evolution affected the skill set required for a technical writer? Writing skills For a technical writer, writing skills can never be overlooked. The technical writer still needs to write in a clear and concise manner and to be able to convey information appropriately for a variety of audiences. Technical skills The technical skill set of a technical writer depends greatly on the subject matter, product or service that requires documentation. Hardware and software documentation differ in the skills that the technical writer needs to bring to the table. Additionally, pharmaceuticals and other manufacturing industries have specific requirements that translate into knowledge the technical writer must have. A technical writer asked to document a developers guide may need to have a pretty good handle on specific programming languages, while a technical writer tasked with documenting a weapons defense system might need a high 41 | P a g e
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degree of engineering comprehension as well as a solid knowledge of government documentation standards. Tools skills Needless to say, a technical writer needs to know his or her way around computer systems, since they are used to produce documentation in a variety of formats. Specific tool knowledge, such as Adobe FrameMaker, MS Word, MadCap Flare, RoboHelp, and even PageMaker and Quark really depends on the tools the organization has come to rely on in order to produce its technical documentation. However, technical writers are accustomed to learning its really what they do, and most are capable of learning a new tool quickly and efficiently. Interviewing and listening skills Technical writers need to know how to ask questions. They also need to know who is the best person to approach and they need to have a feel for the varying personalities and preferences of the people the subject matter experts, or SMEs in order to know how best to approach them. Once the technical writer has found the appropriate SME to approach, strong listening skills will be required to capture the information necessary and to know which follow-up questions need to be answered. Design skills An appreciation for the visual can be an important part of the skill set of a technical writer. Even the earliest technical documents didnt consist of just the written word. To a growing extent the technical writer needs an appreciation for graphics and formatting as well as illustration skills. Depending on the needs of the organization, these skills may only need to be rudimentary or they may need to be very advanced. Usability and testing skills A technical writer may also be asked to take an active role in usability and testing. Even if not asked to take a role, the technical writer knows that validation of the documentation is important the confirmation that the product works the way it is documented to work. In some organizations, the technical writer is an important part of the User Experience team. These skills are just a small part of what a technical writer brings to the table. The skill sets of a technical writer vary widely, depending on the technical writers experience and educational background.
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